Machine Shop Math

SUBCOURSE
OD1640
MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION
EDITION
7
USARMYREPAIRSHOPTECHNICIANWARRANTOFFICER
ADVANCEDCORRESPONDENCECOURSE
MOS/SKILLLEVEL:441A
MACHINESHOPCALCULATION
SUBCOURSENO.OD1640
USArmyCorrespondence
CourseProgram
11CreditHours
GENERAL
The purpose of this subcourse is to introduce various mathematical
calculations involved in the machine shop operations of a maintenance
companyorganizationinthefield.
The scopeofthesubcourseservestointroducethemethodsandprocedures
for solving problems involving addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
divisionoffractionsanddecimals,andconversionoffractionstodecimals
and decimals to fractions; conversion of linear measurements from the
Englishtothemetricsystemandviceversa;andforsolvingproblemsusing
ratio,proportion,andtrigonometry.
Elevencredithoursareawardedforsuccessfulcompletionofthissubcourse.
Lesson1:
ADDITION,SUBTRACTION,MULTIPLICATION,ANDDIVISIONOFFRACTIONS
AND DECIMALS; AND CONVERSION OF FRACTIONS TO DECIMALS AND
DECIMALSTOFRACTIONS
TASK1: Describetheprocessesforadding,subtracting,multiplying,and
dividingfractions.
TASK2: Describe theprocessesforconvertingfractionstodecimalsand
decimals to fractions; and for adding, subtracting, multiplying, and
dividingdecimals.
MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640
Lesson2:
CONVERSIONOFLINEARMEASUREMENTSFROMTHEENGLISHTOTHEMETRIC
SYSTEM AND FROM THE METRIC TO THE ENGLISH SYSTEM; AND SOLVING
PROBLEMSUSINGRATIO,PROPORTION,ANDTRIGONOMETRY
TASK1: Describe the processes for converting linear measurements from

the English to the metric system and from the metric to the English
system.
TASK2: Describe the processes for solving problems using ratio and
proportion.
TASK3: Describetheprocessesforsolvingproblemsusingtrigonometry.
ii
TABLEOFCONTENTS
Section
Page
TITLE.................................................................
TABLEOFCONTENTS.....................................................
iii
Lesson1:
ADDITION,SUBTRACTION,
MULTIPLICATION,ANDDIVISIONOF
FRACTIONSANDDECIMALS;AND
CONVERSIONOFFRACTIONSTO
DECIMALSANDDECIMALSTOFRACTIONS..........................
Task1: Describetheprocessesfor
adding,subtracting,multiplying,and
dividingfractions..................................................
convertingfractionstodecimalsand
decimalstofractions;andforadding,
subtracting,multiplying,anddividing
decimals ............................................................
22
PracticalExercise1...............................................
31
AnswerstoPracticalExercise1.....................................
33
Lesson2:
CONVERSIONOFLINEARMEASUREMENTS
FROMTHEENGLISHTOTHEMETRIC
SYSTEMANDFROMTHEMETRICTOTHE
ENGLISHSYSTEM;ANDSOLVING
PROBLEMSUSINGRATIO,PROPORTION,
ANDTRIGONOMETRY............................................
34
convertinglinearmeasurementsfromthe
Englishtothemetricsystemandfromthe
metrictotheEnglishsystem........................................
34
iii
solvingproblemsusingratioand
proportion..........................................................
41
solvingproblemsusingtrigonometry................................
49
PracticalExercise2...............................................
94
AnswerstoPracticalExercise2....................................
99
REFERENCES............................................................
101
*** IMPORTANT NOTICE ***
THE PASSING SCORE FOR ALL ACCP MATERIAL IS NOW 70%.

PLEASE DISREGARD ALL REFERENCES TO THE 75% REQUIREMENT.
iv
Whenusedinthispublicationhe,him,his,andmenrepresentboth
themasculineandfemininegenders,unlessotherwisestated.
STUDENTNOTES
vi
MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 1
LESSON1
ADDITION,SUBTRACTION,MULTIPLICATION,ANDDIVISION
OFFRACTIONSANDDECIMALS;ANDCONVERSIONOF
FRACTIONSTODECIMALSANDDECIMALSTOFRACTIONS
TASK1.
Describetheprocessesforadding,subtracting,multiplying,and
dividingfractions.
CONDITIONS
Within a selfstudy environment and given the subcourse text, without
assistance.
STANDARDS
Withintwohours
REFERENCES
Nosupplementaryreferencesareneededforthistask.
1.
Introduction
The service section of a ground equipment maintenance support company

organization contains a machine shop for support of the companys repair
shop elements and supported units. Thissupportconsistsofrefurbishing
repair parts, and designing and fabricating jigs, fixtures, and special
tools, through the use of a lathe, shaper, and/or milling machine. Such
machinesprovidemachineshoppersonnelwiththecapabilityforfabricating
component parts with the correct dimensions and with tolerances down to
thousands of an inch clearance between moving parts, allowing their
efficientoperation.
Determiningthesedimensionsandclosetolerances,requirestheperformance
ofcertainmathematicalcalculationsinvolvingaknowledgeofhowtosolve
fractions. Subsequent paragraphs, therefore, describe the processes
involved in adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing fractions.
Beforedelvingintofractions,areviewofthe
whole number system will be provided, including addition, subtraction,

multiplication,anddivision.
2.
ReviewofWholeNumbers
a.
Definition.Wholenumbersaremadeupofthedigits0through9.The
number 2,222, for example, has four digits. Each digit has a different
valuebecauseofitspositioninthenumber.Figure1providesthenamesof
thefirsttenplacesinthewholenumbersystem.
FIGURE1.PLACEVALUEOFWHOLENUMBERS.
Readingfromlefttoright,thefirst2inthenumber2,222hasavalueof2
thousandsor2,000. Thesecond2hasavalueof2hundredsor200. The
third2hasavalueof2tensor20,andthefourth2hasavalueof2ones
or2.Thecommamakeslargenumberseasiertoread.Thenumber2,222would
bereadastwothousand,twohundred,andtwentytwo.
b.
Addition. A requirement for addition is indicated by the symbol +.
Theanswertoadditionproblemsiscalledthesumortotal.Tofindthesum
or total of two numbers, each one having one or more digits, place each
digit in its corresponding value position under the other. Put the ones
undertheones,andtensunderthetens,andsoon. Followtheprocedure
showninExample1onthefollowingpage.
EXAMPLE1.Add128to475.
Step1.
Addthedigitsintheonesposition.
5+8=13.Write3undertheones
position.Carryoverthe1tothe
tenscolumn.
Step2.
Addthedigitsinthetensposition.
1+7+2=10.Writethe0underthe
tensposition.The1iscarried
overtothehundredsposition.
Step3.
Addthedigitsinthehundreds
position.1+4+1=6.
Step4.
Checkbyaddingfromthebottomupfollowingtheprocedurestated
insteps1through3.
c.
Subtraction.Arequirementforsubtractionisindicatedbythe
symbol.Theanswertosubtractionproblemsiscalledthedifference.To
findthedifferencebetweentwonumbers,writethenumbersincolumnsunder
eachother,asinaddition,andproceedasshowninExample2.
EXAMPLE2.Subtract25from78.
Step1.
Subtractthedigitsintheones
position.85=3.
Step2.
Subtractthedigitsinthetens
position.72=5.
Step3.
Checkbyaddingtheanswertothebottomnumber.53+25=78.
d.
Multiplication. Arequirementformultiplicationisindicatedbythe
symbolx.Theanswertomultiplicationproblemsiscalledtheproduct.To
find the product write the numbers in columns under each other, as in
addition,andproceedasshowninExample3.
EXAMPLE3.Multiply25by3.
Step1.
Multiplythedigitsintheones
position.3x5=15.Writethe
5undertheonespositionandcarry
the1tothetensposition.
Step2.
Multiplythedigit2inthetens
columnbythedigit3andaddthe
digit1carriedovertothetens
column.2x3=6+1=7.
Step3.
Checkbydividingtheproduct75
by3asexplainedinthesucceeding
paragraph.
e.
Division. A requirement for division is indicated by the symbol .
The answer to division problems is called the quotient. To find the
quotient,proceedasshowninExample4.
EXAMPLE4.Divide75by3.
Step1.
Dividethedigit7bythe
divisor3.7+3=2.Writethe
2abovethe7inthetensposition.
Step2.
Multiplythedivisor3bythe
digit2.3x2=6.Writethe6
underthe7.
Step3.
Subtractthedigit6fromthe
digit7.76=1.Theremainder
is1.Theremaindermustbeless
thanthedivisor3.
Step4.
Sincetheremainderislessthan
thedivisor3,bringdownthenext
digit,5.
Step5.
Dividethenumber15by3.
153=5.Writethe5above
the5inonesposition.
Step6.
Multiplythedivisor3bythe
digit5.3x5=15.Writethe
number15.
Step7.
Subtractthenumber15from15.
1515=0,indicatingthatthe
calculationiscomplete.
Step8.
Checkbymultiplyingthequotient
bythedivisor.25x3=75.
3.
CommonFractions
a.
General.Afractionisanypartofanobjectornumber.Forexample,
figure2onthefollowingpageshowsablockofwoodasoneunit.Whenit
iscutinhalf,eachpiecebecomesafractionoftheoriginalunit,1of2
equalparts,or1/2oftheoriginalunit.Cuteachofthesehalvesinhalf
againandeachpieceisnow1of4equalparts,or1/4oftheoriginalunit.
b.
Definitions.
(1) Fraction. Afractionisanindicateddivision. Itexpressesoneor

moreoftheequalpiecesorpartsintowhichsomethinghasbeendivided.
FIGURE2.FRACTIONALPARTSOFAUNIT.
(2) TermsofaFraction.Thenumeratorandthedenominatorarecalledthe
termsofthefraction.Thetermsareindicatedbyadiagonalline(/).
(a) Numerator.Thenumberabovethediagonallineisthenumerator.It
indicatesthequantityofequalpartstobeconsidered.
(b) Denominator.Thenumberbelowthediagonallineisthedenominator.
Itindicatesthequantityofequalpartsintowhichthewholeunithasbeen
divided.
(3) Common Denominator. When two or more fractions have the same
denominator,suchas2/5and4/5,the5isknownasthecommondenominator.
(4) LeastCommonDenominator(LCD). TheLCDoftwoormorefractionsis
the least common multiple of the denominators of all the fractions under
consideration. Forexamplein5/7,1/7,3/7,the7istheLCD. Whenthe
denominators are not the same, as in 3/4, 2/5, and 7/10, the LCD is 20,
because20isthesmallestnumbercontaining4,5,and10awholenumberof
times.
(5) ProperFraction.Thisisafractionhavinganumeratorlessthanthe
denominator.Inotherwordsitisatruefractionofasinglewhole,such
as9/10or7/8or21/23.
(6) Improper Fraction. This is a fraction having a numerator that is

equaltoorgreaterthanitsdenominator.Itiseitherawholenumberora
wholenumberandafractionofanotherwholenumber. Forexample,4/4may
beexpressedas1,or3/2maybeexpressedas1+1/2.
(7) ValueofaFraction.Thisisthenumberthatthefractionrepresents.
Fromthediagramsinfigure3,itcanbereadilyseenthat1/2ina,2/4in
b,4/8inc,and6/12indareallequalinvalue,eventhoughthetermsof
each succeeding fraction are greater than the terms of all the previous
fractions. But if the fraction 6/12 was increased by the fraction 1/12,
then6/12plus1/12wouldequal7/12,andthevalueof7/12wouldbegreater
thanthevalueofallthepreviouslymentionedfractions.
FIGURE3.VALUEOFAFRACTION.
4.ComparisonofValues
If you see two fractions such as 1/4 and 1/6, which is larger? The
illustrationinfigure4onthefollowingpageshowsthat1/4isthelarger
fraction.
FIGURE4.1/4ISLARGERTHAN1/6.
a.
Rule 1. When two fractions have equal numerators and denominators
theyareofequalvalue.
EXAMPLE
3/4and3/4areequalfractions.
b.
Rule 2. When two fractions have equal denominators, the fraction
havingthelargernumeratoristhegreaterinvalue.
EXAMPLE
3/7 and 4/7. 4/7 is the larger fraction as it represents 4 of 7 equal
parts,whereas3/7representsonly3of7equalparts.
c.
Rule 3. When two fractions have the same numerator, the fraction
havingthelargerdenominatorisalwaysthesmaller.
EXAMPLE
3/4and3/8.3/8isasmallerfractionthan3/4.3/8isonly3of8equal
parts, whereas 3/4 is 3 of 4 equal parts, as shown in figure 5 on the
followingpage.
8
FIGURE5.FRACTIONALPARTSOFAGALLON.
5.
ReducingFractions
a.
Reducing to Lowest Terms. It is sometimes advisable to change a
fraction from one form to another without changing its value. This is
calledreducingthefractiontoitslowestterms.
9
(1) Rule1. Multiplyingordividingbothnumeratoranddenominatorofa

fractionbythesamenumberdoesnotchangethevalueofthefraction.
EXAMPLE
1/4X2/2=2/8X2/2=4/16. Then1/4,2/8,and4/16allrepresentthe
samefractionorvalue.
(2) Rule 2. Multiplying the numerator or dividing the denominator by a
numbermultipliesthefractionbythatnumber.
EXAMPLE
(3) Rule 3. Dividing the numerator or multiplying the denominator by a

numberdividesthefractionbythatnumber.
EXAMPLE
b.
ChangingtoaGivenDenominator.Changingawholeormixednumber,or
afraction,toafractionofagivendenominator:
(1) Rule1.Firstchange1toafractionofthegivendenominator.Then
multiplythenumeratorbythegivenwholenumber.
EXAMPLE
Reduce5to6ths.Since1=6/6,5=5x6/6=30/6.
(2) Rule2. Withregardtoamixednumber,changethewholenumbertoa
fraction.Thenaddto
10
thenumeratorofthisfraction,thenumeratorofthefractionalpartofthe
mixednumber.
EXAMPLE
Reduce7+3/5to5ths.
1=5/5,7=7x5/5=35/5
7+3/5=35/5+3/5=38/5
(3) Rule 3. To change a fraction to another fraction having a desired
denominator, divide the desired denominator by the existing denominator.
Thenmultiplybothnumeratoranddenominatoroftheexistingfractionbythe
resulting quotient. In case of a mixed number, first change it to a
fractionasdescribedintheprecedingrule,andthenproceedasdescribed.
EXAMPLE
Reduce3/4to28ths.
28+4=7,7x3=21,3/4=21/28
c.
Changing an Improper Fraction to a Whole or Mixed Number. Do the
divisionshowninthefollowingexample.Thequotientwillbethenumberof
units.Ifthereisnoremainder,itreducestoawholenumber.Ifthereis
aremainder,itreducestoamixednumberofwhichthequotientisthewhole
numberpartandtheremainderisthenumeratorofthefractionalpart.
EXAMPLE
Reduce32/4toawholenumber.
32/4=32+4=8
Reduce47/9toamixednumber.
47/9=47+9=5+2/9
11
d.
ReducingaFractiontoitsLowestTerms.
Rule 1. Divide both terms by a common factor or the greatest common

divisor.
EXAMPLE
Reduce75/105toitslowestterms. Sincedividingboththenumeratorand
the denominator by the same number does not change the value of the
fraction, bothtermsofthefractionmaybedividedby5. Thus75/105 =
15/21. Nowbothtermsof15/21maybedividedby3;15/21=5/7. Both5
and7areprimetoeachother(noothernumberexcept1canbedividedinto
bothofthenawholenumberoftimes),sothefractionisnowreducedtoits
lowestterms.
e.
ReducingSeveralFractionshavingaDesiredCommonDenominator.
Rule1.Multiplybothtermsofeachfractionbythequotientofthedesired
common denominatordividedbythedenominatorofthefraction. Thus,the
fraction 1/2 may be changed to 6ths by multiplying both its terms by a
numberwhichwillmakethedenominatora6th.Thisnumberis3.Therefore,
1/2becomes3/6.Dolikewisetochange1/3to6ths.
EXAMPLE
Reduce1/2and1/3tofractionswhichhave6foradenominator.1/2=?/6.
The first step is to divide 6 by 2. It goes 3 times. Therefore, you
multiplythenumeratorby3.Youthenget:
Reduce7/9,3/8,and5/6to72ds. Bothtermsof7/9aremultipliedby8,
since729=8.Bothtermsof3/8aremultipliedby9,since728=9.
Bothtermsof5/6aremultipliedby12,since726=12.Therefore,7/9=
56/72,3/8=27/72,and5/6=60/72.
12
f.
Finding the Least Common Denominator of a Group of Fractions Having
DifferentDenominators.
Rule1.Tofindtheleastcommondenominatorofagroupoffractionshaving
differentdenominators,dividethegivendenominatorsbyaprimenumber(a
number divisible only by itself and 1) which will divide two or more of
them. Similarly, divide the remaining numbers and their quotients.
Continuethisaslongaspossible.TheLCD(leastcommondenominator)will
betheproductofthedivisorsandthequotientsofnumbersleft.
EXAMPLE
FindtheLCDof4/5,5/6,7/9,and9/10.
Step1.
Dividethedenominators5and10bytheprimenumber5.Write1
underthe5and2underthe10.
Step2.
Bringdownthedenominators6and9asshown.
Step3.
Divide the denominators 6 and 9 by the prime number 3. Bring

downtheotherdigits(remainingnumbers),1and2.
Step4.
Divide the digits (remaining numbers, 2 and 2, by the prime

number 2. Bringdownthedigits(remainingnumbers),1 and3.
The remainingnumbers1willnotreduceanyfurtherasawhole
number,and3isdivisibleby3,butthereisnosecond
13
numberdivisibleby3.Nofurtherdivision,therefore,ispossible.
Step5.
Multiplythedivisors(5,3,and2)andremainingquotients(1,
1,3,and1).TheresultistheLCD.
LCD=5x3x2x1x1x3x1=90
Thenewfractionsare72/90,75/90,70/90,and81/90.
6.
Addition
a.
FindingtheSumofTwoorMoreFractions.
Rule 1. To add together two or more fractions, first reduce them to

fractions having an LCD (discussed in paragraph 5f). Then add the
numerators.Next,writethesumofthesenumeratorsovertheLCD.
EXAMPLE(seefigure6onthefollowingpage)
Add1/4+1/3.
Step1:12istheLCDof4and3
Step2:1/4=3/12and1/3=4/123/12+4/12=7/12
b.
FindingtheSumofMixedNumbers.
Rule1.FindtheLCDofthefractions.Addthewholenumbersfirst.Then
addthefractions. Addthesumofthefractionstothesumofthewhole
numbers.Ifthesumofthefractionsisanimproperfraction,reduceitto
amixednumber.
14
EXAMPLE
Add202/3+131/2+71/8.TheLCDis24.Addthewholenumbersfirst.
Thenaddthefractions.
4031/24=40+17/24or417/24.
FIGURE6.ILLUSTRATINGHOW1/4+1/3=7/12.
7.
Subtraction
a.
Finding the Difference. In subtracting fractions, the difference
betweentwofractionsisfoundbytakingoneawayfromtheother.
Rule1.Tosubtractonefractionfromanother,makesurethefractionshave
acommondenominator.Iftheirdenominatorsdiffer,reducethefractionsso
thattheyhaveanLCD.Thensubtractthenumerators.
15
EXAMPLE
Find the difference between 5/6 and 8/15. The LCD is 30. Change both
fractionsto30ths.
5/6=25/30
8/15=16/30
Subtract these fractions by subtracting their numerators, 25 16 = 9.
Placethe9overthedenominator30andtheresultis9/30=3/10.
b.
SubtractingMixedNumbers.
(1) Rule 1. To subtract mixed numbers, subtract the fractional and the
whole parts separately. Then add the remainder of the fractions to the
remainderofthewholenumberstogettheanswerinamixednumber.
EXAMPLE
From275/6take145/8.Writeitdownas275/6141/8. TheLCDof8
and6is24.Thesubtractionthenreads:
275/6
2720/24
141/8
1415/24
Subtract the numerators of the fractional part. Then subtract the whole
numbers.Addthesetworesults;thecorrectansweris135/24.
(2) Rule2. Tosubtractafractionormixednumberfromawholenumber,
suchas179/11,ortosubtractafractionfromamixednumberinwhich
thefractionoftheminuend(thenumberfromwhichanothernumberistobe
taken),islessthanthefractionofthesubtrahend(thenumbertobetaken
fromtheminuend),suchas125/877/8,borrowonefromthewholenumber
intheminuend. Addthistothefraction,makingitanimproperfraction.
Thensubtract.
16
EXAMPLE
From125/8take77/8.7/8cannotbesubtractedfrom5/8,soborrow8/8,
or1,fromthe12;addthis8/8tothe5/8,thus:
8.
Multiplication
a.
Finding the Product of a Fraction. In multiplying fractions, they
neednotbereducedtoanLCD,asinaddingandsubtractingfractions.When
thenumeratorofafractionismultiplied,thenumberoffractionalunitsis
multiplied. Theirsize(representedbythedenominator)remainsthesame.
Buttomultiplyorincreasethesizeofthefractionalunits(representedby
the denominator), the denominator must be divided, and the number of
fractional units (represented bythenumerator)remainsthesame. Before
multiplying, it is recommended thatcancelingofequalfactorsbecarried
out. (Cancellation istheprocessofstrikingoutequalfactorsfromthe
numeratoranddenominatorofafraction.Thisoperationdoesnotchangethe
valueofthefractionbutaidsinreducingittoitslowestterms.)
Rule 1. To multiply a fraction by an integer (a whole number), or an
integerbyafraction,multiplythenumeratorbytheinteger. Reducethe
producttoitslowestterms.Tomultiplyafractionbyafraction,multiply
thenumeratorstogether. Thisgivesthenumeratoroftheproduct. Next,
multiply the denominators together. This gives the denominator of the
product.Cancelwherepossible.
EXAMPLE
Multiply3/5by4.Thismeansfindafraction4timesasgreatas3/5.
17
Multiply5/8by2/5..
Timecanbesavedherebycancellation.
b.
Shop Work Problems. In shop work, problems are met frequently that
arecondensedtowrittenworklookingsomethinglikethis:252/5x61/3,
or47x164/5.
Rule1. Tomultiplytwonumbers,oneorbothofwhicharemixednumbers,
first reduce the mixed numbers to improper fractions by multiplying the
wholenumberbythedenominator,andaddingthenumerator,asshownbelow.
Thenmultiply,asinmultiplyingtwofractions.
EXAMPLE
Multiply22/7by51/4.
22/7=16/6
51/4=21/4
Changetoimproperfractionsandcancel.
c.
Mixed Numbers. When one number is a mixed number and the other a
wholenumber,workasfollows:
18
Multiply73/5x6.
9.
Division
a.
General.Divisionoffractionsisthereverseofmultiplication.For
instance, dividing the numerator of a fraction reduces the number of
fractionalunits,butthesizeofeachunitremainsthesame. Multiplying
thedenominatorreducesthesizeofthefractionalunits,butthenumberof
fractionalunitsremainthesame.Thisisthesameasinvertingthedivisor
andmultiplying.Thus,7/83/4and7/8x4/3givethesameanswer.The
fractionturnedupsidedowniscalledthereciprocal.
b.
DividingaFractionbyaWholeNumber.
Rule1.Changethewholenumbertoafractionwhichhasthenumber1asa
denominator.Invertthisfractionalform.Thenmultiply.
EXAMPLE
Divide7/11by3.Since3=3/1,thereciprocalof3isthen1/3.7/113
=7/11x1/3=7/33.
c.
DividingaWholeNumberbyaFraction.
Rule1.Invertthefractionandmultiply.
EXAMPLE
Divide13by3/7.Invert3/7to7/3,thenmultiply.133/7=13X7/3=
91/3=301/3.
d.
DividingaFractionbyaFraction.
Rule1.Invertthedivisor,thatisthesecondfraction,andmultiply.
19
EXAMPLE
Divide3/4by7/8.Invert7/8to8/7,thenmultiply.
e.
DividingaMixedNumberbyaFractionorbyAnotherMixedNumber.
Rule1. Reducethemixednumberstoimproperfractions. Theninvertthe

divisorandmultiply,cancelingwherepossible.
EXAMPLE
Divide21/2by17/8.
10.
ComplexFractions
Sometimes anecessityarisesforsolvingacomplexfraction;thatis,one
withafractioninthenumerator,orthedenominator,orboth,suchas:
Rule 1. In solving the complex fraction, first reduce it to a simple

fractionasshownbelow.Thedivisionbythesecondfractionisindicated.
Theninvertandmultiply.Cancelwhenable.
20
EXAMPLE
11.
Conclusion
This task served to describe the processes for adding, subtracting,

multiplying,anddividingfractions. Itbeganwithareviewofthewhole
numbersystemandtheaddition,subtraction,multiplication,anddivisionof
whole numbers. The next task will describe the processes for converting
fractions to decimals and decimals to fractions; and adding, subtracting,
multiplying,anddividingdecimals.
21
LESSON1
ADDITION,SUBTRACTION,MULTIPLICATION,ANDDIVISION
OFFRACTIONSANDDECIMALS;ANDCONVERSIONOF
FRACTIONSTODECIMALSANDDECIMALSTOFRACTIONS
TASK2.
Describe theprocessesforconvertingfractionstodecimalsand
decimalstofractions;andforadding,subtracting,multiplying,
anddividingdecimals.
CONDITIONS
assistance.
STANDARDS
Withintwohours
REFERENCES
1.
Introduction
Task1servedtodiscusshowtosolvefractionsinconnectionwithmachine
shop operations. In task 2, the processes for converting fractions to
decimals and decimals to fractions, and the addition, subtraction,
multiplication,anddivisionofdecimalswillbediscussed.
2.
General
Decimalfractionsaresimplycommonfractionswritteninadifferentform.
Thepurposeofdecimalfractionsistomakeworkwithfractionseasier.
Many tools used in measuring very small dimensions are ruled off in
decimals. Inshopwork,fractionsof8ths,16ths,32nds,and64thsofan
inchareusedinmakingordinarymeasurements.Forgreater
22
accuracy in measurement, as for piston, bearing, and valve clearances or

tolerances,andinmachiningsomeparts,decimalsinthe100thsand1,000ths
ofanincharecommonlyused.
Aswasdiscussedintask1,commonfractionsmaybereducedtohigherorto
lowerterms.Supposethatitbecomesdesirabletoreduceallfractionstoa
standard denominator of 10, 100, 1,000, or even 100,000. Then 1/4 would
become:
These common fractions are now decimal fractions. But, instead of

simplifying the work, they have complicated it with long, unhandy
denominators.Torelievethiscomplication,asymbolcalledadecimalpoint
is used. This decimal point serves to eliminate the denominators. The
problem fraction is then presented in its simplest form. For instance,
25/100 becomes .25. The decimal point has now taken the place of the
denominator,whichmakesiteasiertoworkwith.
3.
DefinitionofTerms
a.
DecimalPoint.Thepoint(.)iscalledthedecimalpoint.Itisused
to mark the beginning of the decimal fraction, or to separate it from a
wholenumber.
b.
PureDecimal.Adecimalfractioncontainingonlydecimalplaces,such
as.025,isapuredecimal.Theexamplereadstwentyfivethousandths.
c.
MixedDecimal. Thisisawholenumberandadecimalfraction. For
instance,1.256isamixeddecimal. Itreads1andtwohundredfiftysix
thousandths.
4.
ReadingDecimals
Beforeattemptingtoreaddecimals,placesshouldbelearned. Astudyof
figure7onthefollowingpageshouldhelp.Theplaceinwhichyouwritea
decimalpointisveryimportant.Eachinteger(awholenumber)infigure7
isanumber3.Yet,notwoofthese3shavelikevalues.Thefirst
23
number 3 to the left of the decimal point is a plain 3, meaning 3 whole

units.Thesecond3isthreetensorthirty.Inreadingfromtheleftofa
decimal point, each unit increasesinvaluebytentimestheunit to its
right.
FIGURE7.DECIMALPLACES.
Whathappenstotherightofthedecimalpoint?Figure7indicatesthatthe
firstthreetotherightofthedecimalpointisthreetenthsofone. The
secondthreetotherightofthedecimalpointisthreehundredthsofone.
Inreadingtotherightofadecimalpoint,eachunitdecreasesinvalueby
onetenthoftheunittoitsleft.Thus,333.isreadthreehundredthirty
three. If the decimal point is moved one place to the left, it becomes
33.3, orthirtythreeandthreetenths. Again,movethedecimalpointto
the left onespace. It is now3.33. Thisisreadasthreeandthirty
threehundredths.
5.
ReductionofaCommonFractiontoaDecimalFraction
Rule1. Addasmanyzerostothenumeratorofthecommonfractionasyou
wish to have places in the decimal fraction. Then divide the resulting
numberbythedenominator. Next,placethedecimalpointsoastomakeas
manydecimalplacesintheresultasyouhaveaddedzerostothenumerator.
24
EXAMPLES
NOTE
In the second example, notice the (+) placed at the
end of the decimal fraction. This means that the
decimalfractionmaybecarriedfurtherifneeded.A
commonfractioninitslowesttermscanreducetoan
exact decimal only when its denominator contains no
primefactorsotherthan2and5.Thus,3/64reduces
toanexactdecimal,for64ismadeupof2x2x2x
2x2x2.Ontheotherhand,7/12cannotbereduced
toanexactdecimalbecauseitsdenominatorcontainsa
factor3.
Table1,onthefollowingpage,showsthedecimalequivalentsofthemore
commonfractions.
6.
ReductionofaDecimalFractiontoaCommonFraction
Rule1.Toformthedenominator,replacethedecimalpointbya1followed
by as many zeros as there are decimal places in the original fraction.
Write in the figures to the right of the decimal point to form the
numerator.
EXAMPLE
Change.5toacommonfraction.Firstchangethedecimalpointto10,which
becomesthedenominator;thenwriteinthenumerator,5/10.Similarly,2.75
becomes275/100,whichwillreducedownto23/4.
25
TABLE1.DECIMALEQUIVALENTOFSOME
COMMONFRACTIONS.
7.
Addition
Rule 1. First write the numberssothatthedecimalpointsaredirectly

undereachother.Addasyoudowithwholenumbers.Besuretoplacethe
decimalpointinthesumdirectlyundertheotherdecimalpoints.
26
EXAMPLE
Addthefollowing:
36.036,7.004,0.00236,427,723.0026
Writethemdownasinordinaryaddition.Watchthedecimalpoints.
8.
Subtraction
Rule1.Firstwritethenumberssothatthedecimalpointsfallundereach
other. Subtract as in whole numbers. Write the decimal point of the
remainderdirectlyundertheotherdecimalpoints.
EXAMPLE
Subtract 46.8324 from 437.421. Write the number down as in ordinary
subtraction.Besuretoplacethedecimalpointsdirectlyundereachother.
9.
Multiplication
Rule1.Tomultiplydecimalfractions,multiplyasinwholenumbers.Then
countofffromrighttoleftasmanydecimalplacesintheproductasthere
wereinbothfactors,andplacethedecimalpointinfrontofthelastplace
countedoff.
27
EXAMPLE
Multiply7.32by0.032.
Count off the 5 places from right to left in the product. Between this
figureandthenextonetotheleft,placethedecimalpoint. Youshould
nowhaveasmanyfigurestotherightofthedecimalpointintheproductas
thetotalnumberyouhadinthetwofactors.
Whenawholenumberoradecimalfractionismultipliedby0.1,thedecimal
pointissimplymovedoneplacetotheleft. Ifmultiplyingby0.01,the
decimalpointismovedtwoplacestotheleft.Thedecimalpointismoved
three places left when multiplying by 0.001. If necessary, zeros may be
addedtotheleftofthemultiplicand(thenumbertobemultiplied).Thus,
32.4x0.0001providesaproductof0.00324.
However,whenadecimalfractionismultipliedby10,movethedecimalpoint
oneplacetotheright. Whenmultiplyingby100,1000,etc.,simplymove
the decimal point to the right as many places as there are zeros in the
multiplier.
10.
Division
Rule1. Setupthedividendanddivisorasindivisionofwholenumbers.
Movethedecimalpointinthedivisortotherightoftherighthandfigure.
Thenmovethedecimalpointinthedividendtotheright,thesamenumberof
placesthatthepointwasmovedinthedivisor(addzerostothedividendif
necessary).Placethedecimalpointinthequotientdirectlyabovethenew
positionofthedecimalpointinthedividend.Divideasinwholenumbers.
Whendividingby0.1,0.01,0.001,etc.,movethedecimalpointone,two,
three,etc.,placesinthedividendtotheright,addingzerosifneeded.
Therefore,whendividing
28
by 10,000 or 1,000 etc., move the decimal point one, two, three, etc.,
placesinthedividendtotheleft.
EXAMPLE
Todivide2.4by0.01,followtheruleaboveandmovethedecimalpointin
the dividend two places to theright. Addonezero,makingthequotient
240.
2.40.01=240
Todivide2.4by100,movethedecimalpointinthedividendtwoplacesto
theleft,addingonezero,makingthequotient.024.
2.4100=.024
11.
Accuracy
In many cases,itisnot practicalorpossibletocarryoutaproblem to

absolute accuracy. It may be practical to seek a result correct to a
certain numberofplacesofdecimalsonly. Ifso,writeaplusor minus
sign(asthecasemaybe)afterthelastfiguretotheright,suchas.667
or.666+.The(+)signisusedtoshowthattheresultis
29
actuallylargerthantheonegiven.Likewise,the()signisusedtoshow
thattheresultisactuallylessthantheonegiven.Inothercases,itmay
be advisabletoroundoffadecimaltoagivenvalueasdescribedin the
rulebelow.
Rule1. Inwritingtheresultofacalculationindecimalfractionstoa
certainnumberofplaces,writethelastplaceasonefigurelargerifthe
nextfiguretotherightisa5orlarger.Shouldthisfigurebelessthan
5,discarditfromthefigure.
EXAMPLE
Supposewhensolvingaproblemaresultsuchas52.56266666isobtained.To
write it correctly to three decimalplacesitiswrittenas52.563+. To
writethissamenumberintwodecimalplaces,itiswritten52.56+.
12.
Conclusion
Thistaskdescribedtheprocessesforconvertingfractionstodecimalsand
decimals to fractions; and adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing
decimals for the purpose of helping the machinist to achieve greater
accuracyofmeasurementsinvolvedinhiswork. Nowcompletethepractical
exercise which is designed to reinforce your learning of the material
presentedinthetwotasksofthislesson.
30
MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/PE 1
PRACTICALEXERCISE1
1.
Instructions
Readthescenarioandrespondtotherequirementsthatfollowthescenario.
2.
Scenario
You are theRepair Shop Technicianinchargeoftheservicesection of a

heavymaintenancecompanystationedinTexas.Theshopofficerhasnotified
youthatthemaneuverelementsofthedivisionwillparticipateinafield
exercisescheduledtotakeplacein60days. Themaintenancecompanyhas
beentaskedtostartmechanicallypreparingthemaneuverelementsequipment
forthisexercise.Asaresultofthistasking,themachineshopwillhave
to fabricate alarge number ofrepairpartsanddevicesnotfound in the
supplysystem,andstillsupportthenormaleverydaymissionrequirements.
The machine shop currently has its full authorization of two machinists.
Thenewrequirement,however,imposesanadditionalworkloadthatcannotbe
completed in the allotted amount of time without additional machinists.
There aretwoweldersinyourservicesectionthatareformermachinists.
Sincetheweldingshopiscurrentlynotoverloadedyoudecidetoestablisha
second workshift by using these two welders as machinists to assist in
completingtheadditionalworkload.However,youneedtoknowtheextentof
theirknowledgeofmachineshopcalculations.Youmayhavetoprovidethem
with refresher training. You have, therefore, developed a list of
mathematical problems that will assist you in determining the extent of
theirknowledgeofmachineshopcalculations.
3.
Requirement
Below is the list of mathematical problems you developed. Prepare the

answersheetbysolvingtheseproblems.
a.
Whichisthelargerfraction7/9or9/7?
b.
Reduce560/630toitslowestterms.
31
MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - 0D1640 - LESSON 1/PE 1
c. Changethefollowingtofractionshavingtheleastcommondenominator:
2/3,3/4,5/6,7/8.
d. Add143/4+301/2+4andwritethesuminthesimplestform.
e. Subtract 6 2/9 from 12 17/90 and write the result in the simplest
form.
f. Dotheoperationsindicatedandsimplify:73/44/5+217/20.
g. Multiply21x2/3.
h. Divide5/7by10.
i. Findthevalueof
j. Changethedecimal00.00125toacommonfraction,andreduceittoits
lowestterm.
k. Add:2.367+45.002+0.401+7.64.
l. Subtract:75.7575551/8.
m. Multiply:2.53x0.00635.
n. Divide:43.7694.76andshowtheresultstofourdecimalplaces.
32
LESSON1.PRACTICALEXERCISEANSWERS
1.
Requirement
a. 9/7
b. 8/9
c. 16/24,18/24,20/24,21/24
d. 491/4
e. 529/30
f. 94/5
g. 14
h. 1/14
i. 226/33
j. 1/800
k. 55.410
l. 20.6325
m. 0.0160655
n. 9.1952
33
LESSON2
CONVERSIONOFLINEAR
MEASUREMENTSFROMTHEENGLISHTOTHE
METRICSYSTEMANDFROMTHEMETRICTOTHE
ENGLISHSYSTEM;ANDSOLVINGPROBLEMSUSING
RATIO,PROPORTION,ANDTRIGONOMETRY
TASK1.
Describe the processes for converting linear measurements from

the English to the metric system and from the metric to the
Englishsystem.
CONDITIONS
assistance.
STANDARDS
Withintwohours
REFERENCES
1.
Introduction
Lesson 1 provided a review of the whole number system and discussed the
processes for solving machine shop work problems through addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division of fractions and decimals. It
also discussed the conversion of decimals to fractions and fractions to
decimals. To provide a complete coverage of machine shop calculations,
Lesson 2 will discuss the processes for converting linear measurements
between the English and metric systems, and for solving machine shop
problems involving the use of ratio, proportion, and trigonometry. This
taskwillfocusontheconversionoflinearmeasurementsfromtheEnglishto
themetricsystemandfromthemetrictotheEnglishsystem.
34
2.
LinearMeasure
a.
General. Linear measure is the measurement of line distance. In
machine shop calculations, it is important to know how to convert linear
measurements from the English to the metric system and viceversa.
Subsequentparagraphsprovideanexplanationofboththesesystemsandhow
toconvertfromonesystemtoanother.
b.
EnglishSystem. Thissystemconsists,basically,oftheinch,foot,
yard, and mile. The foot is the basic unit of measure. The inch is a
subdivisionofthefoot,whiletheyardandthemilearemultiplesofthe
foot.Table2belowdepictstheEnglishsystem.
TABLE2.ENGLISHSYSTEMLINEARMEASUREMENTS.
12inches(in)
3feet(ft)
5280feet(ft)
1760yards(yd)
=
=
=
=
1foot(ft)
1yard(yd)
1mile
1mile
c.
MetricSystem.Thissystemisbasedonthedecimalsystem,justlike
the United States dollar (10 centsequalsadime,and10dimesequal one
dollar).Themeteristhebasicunitofmeasurement,asdepictedinTable3
below.Asshowninthistable,unitsthataremultiplesorfractionalparts
ofthemeter,suchasthemillimeter,aredesignatedassuchbyprefixesto
thewordmeter.
TABLE3.METRICSYSTEMLINEARMEASUREMENTS.
10millimeters(mm)
10centimeters(cm)
10decimeters(dc)
1000meters(m)
=
=
=
=
1centimeter(cm)
1decimeter(dm)
1meter(m)
1kilometer(km)
35
3.
Conversion
a.
RequirementsforConversion.Toconvertfromonesystemtoanother,a
knowledge of equivalent values between these two systems is necessary.
Table 4 provides a list of equivalent values between the two systems for
linear measurements equal to or greater than one inch. Table 5 on the
following page provides the metric equivalents of linear measurements of
lessthananinch.
TABLE4.LINEARMEASUREMENTSEQUIVALENTVALUES.
1mil=0.001in
1millimeter=39.370mils
1millimeter=0.039370in
1millimeter=0.001in
1centimeter=0.3937in
1centimeter=0.0328ft
1centimeter=0.01m
1meter=39.37in
1inch(in)=1000mils
1inch=25.440mm
1inch=2.540cm
1inch=0.0833ftor1/12
1inch=0.02777ydor1/36
1inch=0.0254m,aprx.1/40
1foot(ft)(U.S.)=304.801mm
1foot=30.480cm
1foot=12in
1foot=0.333ydor1/3
1foot=0.3048m,aprx.3/10
1foot=0.000304km
1foot=0.000189mile
1yard(yd)(U.S.)=91.440cm
1yard=36in
1yard=3ft
1yard=0.914m
1yard=0.000914km
1yard=0.000568mile
1mile=5280ft
1mile=1760yd
1mile=1609.35m
1mile=1.609km
1mile=0.868nauticalmile
1kilometer=.62mile
36
TABLE5.DECIMALANDMETRICEQUIVALENTS
OFFRACTIONSOFANINCH.
b.
ConvertingFromtheEnglishSystemtotheMetricSystem.
(1) Rule1.Toconvertmilestokilometers,multiplyby1.61.
EXAMPLE
Reduce12milestokilometers.
12x1.61=19.32km
37
(2) Rule2.Toconvertyardstometers,multiplyby0.9144.
EXAMPLE
Reduce3yardstometers.
3x0.9144=2.7432m
(3) Rule3.Toconvertinchestocentimeters,multiplyby2.54.
EXAMPLE
Reduce16inchestocentimeters.
16x2.54=40.64cm
(4) Rule4.Toconvertinchestomillimeters,multiplyby25.4.
EXAMPLE
Reduce2feet8inchestomillimeters.
2ft=24in+8in=32in
32inx25.4=812.8mm
(5) Rule5.Toconvertinchestomillimetersmultiplyby25.4.
EXAMPLE
Reduce11inchestomillimeters.
11x25.4=279.4mm
c.
ConvertingfromtheMetricSystemtotheEnglishSystem.
(1) Rule1.Toconvertkilometerstomiles,multiplyby0.62.
38
EXAMPLE
Reduce60kilometerstomiles.
60x0.62=37.2miles
(2) Rule2.Toconvertmeterstoyardsmultiplyby1.0936.
EXAMPLE
Reduce3.5meterstoyards.
3.5x1.0936=3.8276yd
(3) Rule3.Toconvertmeterstoinchesmultiplyby39.37.
EXAMPLE
Reduce1.6meterstoinches.
1.6x39.37=62.99in
(4) Rule4.Toconvertcentimeterstoinchesmultiplyby0.3937.
EXAMPLE
Reduce76.2centimeterstoinches.
76.2x0.3937=30in
(5) Rule5.Toconvertmillimeterstoinchesmultiplyby0.03937.
EXAMPLE
Reduce88.9millimeterstoinches.
88.9x0.03937=3.5in
39
d.
Metric equivalents of less than an inch are expressed in terms of
millimeters. To convert linear measurements of less than an inch to
millimetersandmillimeterlinearmeasurementstofractionsofaninchuse
Table 5 on page 37 for the morecommonfractions. Otherwise,follow the
procedurestatedaboveandinparagraph5(Reductionofacommonfractionto
adecimalfraction),beginningonpage24,andparagraph6(Reductionofa
decimalfractiontoacommonfraction),beginningonpage25.
40
MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - 0D1640 - LESSON 2/TASK 2
LESSON2
CONVERSIONOFLINEAR
TASK2.
Describe the processes for solving problems using ratio and

proportion.
CONDITIONS
assistance.
STANDARDS
Withintwohours
REFERENCES
1.
Introduction
Amajorpartofmachineshopworkinvolvesthefabricationofsuchpartsas
aspool,gear,orpulleyformachineryandvehiclepowertrains.Thesetype
parts must be machined to a predetermined size that will enable their
turningatagivennumberofrevolutionsperminute(rpm).Themachiningof
these parts requires knowledge of the mathematical processes involved in
determining the size to which these items must be machined. This task,
therefore,isdesignedtoprovidetheprocessesfordeterminingthesizeof
these parts through the use of mathematical problems involving ratio and
proportion.Subsequentparagraphsprovideanexplanationofthemethodsfor
solvingratioandproportionproblems.
41
2.
RatioandProportion
a.
General. Ratioandproportionaremethodsforreducingtheconfusion
andminimizingthepossibilitiesoferrorinworkingarithmeticproblems.A
working knowledge of these methods makes it easier to solve many shop
problems. Thelanguageofratioandproportionismostlyasignlanguage.
Lettersandsymbolsarecommonlyusedinplaceoflongnumbersandrepresent
unknownquantitiesandvalues.
b.
Ratio.
(1) Ratioistherelationwhichonequantitybearstoanotherquantityof
the same kind. It is used extensively in shop work. Shop drawings or
blueprintsaregenerallydrawntoscale.Scalemeansonefigureisusedto
representanother.Usuallyasmallfigurerepresentsalargerfigure.For
example,onablueprint1inchmightrepresent1foot.
(2) Thetwonumbersusedintheratioarecalledthetermsoftheratio.
Thefirstnumberofaratioiscalledtheantecedent;thesecondnumberis
calledtheconsequent.Theconsequentisthedivisor.Thecolon(:)isthe
signofratioandmeansisto.Thus,3:5reads3isto5.Itisin
effect a dividing sign without the dividing () line. Such other
expressionsasinthesameratio,inthesameproportion,orprorata
allhavethesamemeaning.
(3) Theratioofonenumbertoanotherisreallythequotientofthefirst
numberdividedbythesecondnumber.
EXAMPLE
Determinetheratiooftheexpression8:2.
8:2=4
Divide8by2.Thus,theratioorvalueof8to2
is4.
(4) Thevalueofaratioisnotchangedbyeithermultiplyingordividing
bothtermsbythesamenumber.
42
EXAMPLE
Multiplytheexpression3:2by2.
3:2=6:4
Multiplying both terms by 2 renders the

expression6:4.Checkbydividing3by2which
rendersaratioof1.5.Inthesecondexpression
dividing 6 by 4 also renders a ratio of 1.5.
Thus,3:2isequalinvalueto6:4.
Dividetheexpression8:4by4.
8:4=2:1
c.
Dividingbothtermsby4renderstheexpression
2 : 1. Check by dividing 8 by 4 in the first
expression,whichrendersaratioof2. Inthe
secondexpressiondividing2by1rendersaratio
of2.Thus8:4isequalinvalueto2:1.
Proportion.
(1) Proportionisastatementofequalitybetweentworatios.Thus,3:4
::6:8.Thesymbol(::)meansasorequals.Eitherthissymbolor
the equal sign (=) may be used. The extremes are the first and last
terms.Themeansarethesecondandthirdterms.
(2) Rule1.Inproportion,theproductofthemeansequalstheproductof
theextremes.
EXAMPLE
Therefore,3:4::9:12.
4x9=36
3x12=36
Multiplythemeans.
Multiplytheextremes.Thus,thetwoexpressions
areequal.
NOTE:Thismakesitpossibletofindanunknownquantity.Inotherwords,
whenthreetermsofaproportionareknownthefourthcanbefound.
43
(3) Rule2. Tofindoneunknownmean. Whenbothextremesandonemean

are known, the unknown mean can be found by dividing the product of the
extremesbytheknownmean.
EXAMPLE
Findtheunknownmeanfor15:5=?:20.
15:5=X:20
15x20=5xX
300=5X
60=X
LetXrepresenttheunknown
mean.Multiplytheextremes
andmeans.Dividebothsides
oftheequationby5.The
unknownmeanis60.
(4) Rule3.Tofindoneunknownextreme.Whenbothmeansandoneextreme
areknown,findtheunknownextremebydividingtheproductofthemeansby
theknownextreme.
EXAMPLE
Findtheunknownextremefor?:28::2:8
LetXrepresenttheunknown
extreme.Multiplythemeans.
Dividebytheknownextreme.
Theunknownextremeis7.
d.
InverseProportion.
(1) The ratio2:3istheinverseoftheratio3:2. Inproportion,

whenaratioisequaltoitsinverse,theelementsaresaidtobeinversely
proportional.
(2) Twonumbersareinverselyproportionalwhenoneincreasesastheother
decreases. In this case their product is always the same. A practical
exampleofinverseratioisseeninproblemsdealingwithpulleys.
(a) Rule 1. The speed of pulleys connected by belts are inversely
proportionaltotheirdiameters.Thesmallerpulleyrotatesfasterthenthe
largerpulley.
44
EXAMPLE
A 24 inch pulley fixed to a live shaft which makes 400 revolutions per
minute (rpm) is belted to a 6 inch pulley, as shown in figure 8 on the
followingpage.Findtherpmofthesmallerpulley.
Thisiswhattheproblemlookslike:
Aisthedrivingpulley,Bisthedrivenpulley.
Then,X:400::24:6
(b) Rule 2. The speed of gears running together is inversely

proportionaltotheirnumberofteeth.
EXAMPLE
Adrivinggearwith48teethmesheswithadrivengearwhichhas16teeth.
If the driving gear makes 100 rpm, find the number of rpm of the driven
gear.
3.
PulleyTrainsandGearTrains
a. In the previous paragraph, we discussed the meanings and methods of

solving ratio and proportion problems. In this paragraph, we will apply
thesemethodstohelpdeterminethesizetowhichapulleyorgearshouldbe
machinedinordertoenableittorotateatagivennumberofrevolutions
per minute(rpm)forefficientoperationofthemachinerypulleytrainor
vehicle gear train. A pulley train is a series of pulleys connected by
beltingasshowninfigure9onpage47.Ageartrainisaseriesofgears
running
45
FIGURE8.PULLEYS.
together; the power comes from one of the pulleys or gears. Neglecting
slippageofthebeltinginapulleytrain,thesamemethodofdetermining
relativesizesappliestobothsystems.
EXAMPLE
Findtherpmofthe6inchpulleyshowninfigure9onthefollowingpage.
Therefore
b.
ScrewGearing.
(1) Spiral.Gearsareoftenusedtoreducespeed.Theteethonthegears
arearrangedinthesamemannerasthethreadsofascrew. Aspiralgear
mayhaveanynumberofteeth. Aonetoothedgearcorrespondstoasingle
threadedscrew.A
46
MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - 0D1640 - LESSON 2/TASK 2
FIGURE9.PULLEYTRAIN.
manytoothedgearcorrespondstoamanythreadedscrew.Lookatfigure10.
Counttheteethintheuppergear.Thereare12.Thisgear,then,equalsa
12threadedscrew. Thelowergearhas36teeth. Itcorrespondstoa36
threaded screw. Hence, the small gear makes 3 complete turns while the
largegearismaking1.
FIGURE10.SPIRALGEARSYSTEM.
47
(2) WormandWormGearing.Wormgearingisusedtotransmitpowerbetween
two shafts at 90 to each other, but not in the same plane. In worm
gearing,thevelocityratioistheratiobetweenthenumberofteethonthe
gearsandthenumberofthreadsontheworm.Figure11showsawormanda
singlethreadedwormgear.
EXAMPLE
Findtherevolutionsperminute(rpm)forthewormgear.
20x60=1200
Convert 20 revolutionspersecond of the single

wormtorpmbymultiplyingby60seconds.
Therefore
FIGURE11.WORMGEARSYSTEM.
48
LESSON2
CONVERSIONOFLINEAR
TASK3.
Describetheprocessesforsolvingproblemsusingtrigonometry.
CONDITIONS
assistance.
STANDARDS
Withintwohours
REFERENCES
1.
Introduction
Inthistaskwewilldiscusstheprocessesinvolvedinsolvingmachineshop
problemsthroughtheuseoftrigonometry.
2.
General
Task1and2ofthislessonservedrespectivelytodescribetheprocesses
forconvertinglinearmeasurementsfromtheEnglishtothemetricsystemand
fromthemetrictotheEnglishsystem,andforsolvingproblemsusingratio
andproportion. Inviewofthefactthatsomemilitaryequipmenthasbeen
developedwithbothmetricandEnglishmeasuredcomponents,Task1enables
the machinist to convert linear measurements from one system to another,
thereby ensuringthepropermatingofmachinedpartsthatmustoperatein
meshwitheachother. Task2enablesthemachinisttodeterminethesize
thataspool,pulleyorgearmustbemachinedto,topermititsrotationat
aspecified
49
rpminthepulleyorgeartrainofmilitarymachineryandvehicles.
Task 3 will describe the processes for solving problems through
triangulation,otherwiseknownastrigonometry.Trigonometryisessentially
thatbranchofmathematicswhichdealswiththerelationsexistingbetween
thesidesandanglesoftriangles. Inthistaskonlyrighttriangleswill
bediscussed. Arighttriangleisatrianglethatcontainsone90angle
and two other lesser angles for a total of 180 or half the number of
degreesinacircle,whichcontains360.
Thisprocesswillassistthemachinistindeterminingthepitchorangleof
screwthreads,gearteeth,andtapersforpartsthatmustbefabricatedfor
itemsnotnormallyavailablethroughsupplychannels,orinanemergencyin
a combat situation. Before going into the solving of trigonometric
problems,letsfirstreviewthetrigonometricfunctionswhicharethebasis
forsolvingthesetypesofproblems.
3.
TrigonometricFunctions
a.
For any given acute angle in a right triangle, certain ratios exist
among the sides. These ratiosarecalledtrigonometricfunctions. They
determinesidesandanglesinarighttriangle.Tothisend,thesidesofa
right triangle are given certain names to indicate their relation to the
angles. Thus, in any right triangle, such as shown in figure 12 on the
followingpage,thesidec,whichisoppositetotherightangleC,is
calledthehypotenuse;sideaisoppositeangleAandiscalledthe
opposite side; side b, is adjacent to angle A and is called the
adjacent side.Notice,however,thatwhenthesidesrefertoangleB,
sidebistheoppositesideandsideaistheadjacentside. However,
the hypotenuse, the longest side, is always called the hypotenuse with
referencetoeitherangle.
b.
Inthistriangle,itispossibletoshowsixdifferentratiosofthe
sides.Theyarea/c,b/c,a/b,b/a,c/b,andc/a.Anexplanationofthese
ratiosfollowsusingtheratioa/casanexample.Thisexplanationisalso
applicabletotheotherratios;a/cmeansthesameasadividedbyc,
50
FIGURE12.SIDESINREFERENCETOANGLEA.
oraoverc.Ineachratiotheletterinthesamepositionasain
relation to c represents the numerator, which can be given a numerical
value. The letter c in relationtothepositionofarepresents the
denominator, which can be givenanumericalvalue. Iftheletter a is
assigned the numerical value of 2 and the letter c is assigned the
numericalvalueof4,themathematicalexpressionwouldbethatthenumber2
must be divided by the number 4. Thus,2/4=.5. Theseratiosare the
trigonometricfunctionsasdescribedbelow:
51
c.
The trigonometric functions discussed here will be limited to the
sine, cosine, tangent, and cotangent, since practically every common shop
problem in trigonometry can be solved by means of these functions. The
values of the trigonometric functions in terms of the names of the sides
shouldbelearned. Toassistinlearningthesefunctions,usetheexample
below.
EXAMPLE
Using the lettered and named sides of the triangle (figure 12 on the
previouspage),writetheratiosforsinA,cosA,tanA,cotA,sinB,cos
B,tanB,andcotB.
sinA=a/c;cosA=b/c;sinB=b/c;
cosB=a/c;andtanA=a/b;cotA=b/a;
tanB=b/a;cotB=a/b.
Therefore
sinA=cosBandcosA=sinB
tanA=cotBandcotA=tanB
d.
Atrigonometricfunctionexpressesthevalueofanangleintermsof
thesidesoftherighttrianglecontainingthatangle. Forinstance,the
valueofangleAinfigure13onthefollowingpagemaybeexpressedas:
Thus,ifthefunctionandthedimensionofoneofthesidesofthatfunction
ratioareknown,thenthedimensionoftheothersidecanbefound.
52
FIGURE13.VALUEOFANANGLEINTERMS
OFTHESIDES.
e.
Therulesforidentifyinganglesandsidesofrighttrianglesare:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5) Sideopposite=hypotenusexsine
(6) Sideopposite=sideadjacentxtangent
(7) Sideopposite=sideadjacentcotangent
(8) Sideadjacent=hypotenusexcosine
(9) Sideadjacent=sideoppositexcotangent
53
(10) Sideadjacent=sideoppositetangent
(11) Hypotenuse=sideoppositesine
(12) Hypotenuse=sideadjacentcosine
f.
ProcedureforusingtheseRules.
(1) In a right triangle, both the known and unknown sides (opposite,
adjacent,andhypotenuse)oftheproblemarenamed.
(2) Choosefromamongthepreviousrules;selectonethatfitsthegiven
numericalvalues.
(3) Substitutethegivenvaluesintheruleandsolvefortheunknown.
EXAMPLE
FindsideaifsinA=3/5andsidec=20.5(figure14onthefollowing
page). HerethesineofangleAisgiven,andaisthesideopposite.
Accordingtorule(5)inparagraph3eonpage53,sideopposite=hypotenuse
xsine. Substituting20.5forhypotenuseand3/5forsine,weget: side
opposite=20.5x3/5=12.3.
FindbifcosA=.44andc=3.5(figure15onthefollowingpage).
Here the cosine of angle A is given, and b is the side adjacent.
Accordingtorule(8)inparagraph3eonpage53,sideadjacent=hypotenuse
x cosine. Substituting 3.5 for hypotenuse and .44 for cosine, the side
adjacent=3.5x.44=1.54.
FindaiftanA=11/3andb=25/11(figure16onpage56).Herethe
tangent ofangleAisgiven, andaisthesideopposite. According to
rule (6) in paragraph 3e on page 53, side opposite = side adjacent x
tangent. Substituting25/11forsideadjacentand11/3fortangent,side
opposite=25/11x11/3=9.
Find b if cot A = 4 and a = 17 (figure 17 on page 56). Here the
cotangentofangleAisgiven,andbisthesideadjacent.Accordingto
rule (9) in paragraph 3e on page 53, side adjacent = side opposite x
cotangent. Substituting 17 for side opposite and 4 for cotangent, side
adjacent=17x4=68.
54
FIGURE14.FINDTHESIDEOPPOSITEANGLEA.
FIGURE15.FINDSIDEADJACENTTOANGLEA.
55
FIGURE16.FINDSIDEOPPOSITEANGLEA.
FIGURE17.COTANGENTGIVEN,FINDADJACENTSIDE.
4.
CalculationswithAngles
a.
Toaddangles,arrangethedegrees,minutes,andsecondsinseparate
columns and add each column separately. Remember, in angles 60 seconds
makesaminuteand60minutesmakesadegree. Therefore,iftheseconds
columnaddsupto60ormore,subtract60,oramultipleof60,fromthat
column and add one minute, or the same multiple of one minute, to the
minutescolumn.Iftheminutes
56
column addsupto60ormore,proceedsimilarly,rememberingthatseconds
changetominutesandminutestodegrees.
EXAMPLE
Takeaway60from81and
add1to133.Thentake
away120from134andadd
2to58.Afterbecoming
accustomedtothisprocedure,
thevaluescanbecarriedto
theirrespectivecolumnsmentally.
b.
To subtract angles, arrange the degrees, minutes, and seconds in
separate columns, with the larger angle on top. Then subtract the
individualcolumns.Iftheuppernumberinacolumnistoosmalltoallow
subtraction,oneunitmustbetakenawayfromthefollowingcolumnand60
units added to the insufficient number. This makes the subtraction
possible.
EXAMPLE
Subtract145130from864510.
Herethesubtractioncannotbe
performedineithertheseconds
ortheminutescolumns.
Hencetakeaway1from45
leaving44,andadd60to10,
getting70.Also,take1
from86,leaving85,andadd
60to44,getting104.
c.
To multiply an angle by a number, it is necessary to multiply each
columnbythegivennumber. Then,iftheanswersinthesecondsorthe
minutes columns are greater then 60, they must be reduced, as in the
additionofangles.
57
EXAMPLE
Multiply152140by3.
d.
Todivideananglebyagivennumber,itisnecessarytodivideeach
columnbythenumber,beginningwiththedegreescolumn.Theremainderin
degrees, if any, must be changed into minutes and added to the minutes
column. The division is then performed on the minutes column. The
remainderinminutes,ifany,mustbechangedintosecondsandaddedtothe
seconds column. Finally, the division is performed on the seconds
column.
EXAMPLE
Divide712242by3.
Answer:234734
5.
TrigonometricTables
a.
General. In order to facilitate the solution of trigonometric
problems,tableshavebeenpreparedwhichgivenumericalvaluestothesine,
cosine,tangent,andcotangentofanglesfrom0to90.
b.
UseofTables.
(1) Tables 6 and 7, on the following pages, are an excerpt from the
trigonometric tables listed in Appendix C4 of FM 433. Notice that the
headingfordegrees(thatis,43,44,45,and46)appearbothatthetopand
atthebottomofeachpage.
58
Theminutecolumnattheleftofeachpageisreadfromthetoptowardthe
bottom, while the minute column at the right is read from the bottom
towardthetop.Notice,also,thatthefunctionsatthetopandbottomof
eachcolumnaredifferent. Thevaluesofthefunctionsaregiventofive
placesofdecimals.
TABLE6.TRIGONOMETRICTABLES.
59
TABLE7.TRIGONOMETRICTABLES(CONTINUED).
(2) To get the value of the sine, cosine, tangent, or cotangent of an

anglebetween0and45,proceedasfollows:
(a) Findthenumberofdegreesatthetopofthepageofthetable.
(b) Findthenumberofminutesintheextremelefthandcolumn,reading
fromthetoptowardthebottom.
60
(c) Locatethepropercolumnforthefunction(sine,cosine,tangent,or
cotangent),usingtheheadingsatthetop.
(d) Findthevalueofthefunctioninthiscolumnatapointdirectly
acrossfromthegivennumberofminutes.
EXAMPLE
Findthesineof4330;thatis,sin4330=?
SOLUTION
Sincethisangleisbetween0and45,thedegreeheadingaswellasthe
function willbefoundatthe topofthepage. Usethelefthand minute
columnandfollowdowntothevalueof30.Thefirstcolumnoffunctions
is used because the required function is the sine. Thus, in the sine
column6atapointacrossfrom30,wefindthatsin4330=.68835.
EXAMPLE
Findthecosineof4359;thatiscos4359=?
SOLUTION
For angles between 0 and 45, the value of the cosine is found in the
column headed cosine. The minute column is followed down to 59, and
theninthecosinecolumn,atapointacrossfrom59,wefindthatcos
4359=.71954.
EXAMPLE
Findthetangentof4410;thatis,tan4410=?
SOLUTION
For angles between 0 and 45, the value of the tangent is found in the
columnheadedtangent.Theminutecolumnisfolloweddownto10,and
theninthetangentcolumn,atapointacrossfrom10,wefindthattan
4410=.97133.
61
6.
Interpolation
a.
Interpolation is a method of estimating the value of functions of
angleswhicharenotgiveninthetables,orestimatingtheangle,giventhe
functionwhichisnotlistedinthetables.Briefly,itisaprocessthat
assumesastraightlinedifferencebetweentwovalues,suchthatthesineof
43 30 30 has a value halfway between 43 30 and 43 31, and may be
foundbyaddingonehalftheirdifferencetothefunctionof4330
EXAMPLE
Findthesineof443040.
SOLUTION
Sincethesineof443040issomewherebetweenthesineof4430and
sine of 4431, find the valueofthelatterfunctionsandsubtract the
valueofsin4430fromthevalueofsin4431.
Thedesiredfunctionis40/60or.67oftheoneminutedifference.
Therefore,.67x.00021=.00014
sin443040=.70091+.000014=.70105.
EXAMPLE
Findthecosineof432020.
SOLUTION
Findandsubtractthevalueofthefunctioncos4321fromthevalueof
thefunctioncos4320.
62
Actually 20/60 x .00020 = .0000666. But rounding off .0000666 to five

placesis.00007.
Therefore,cos432020=.72737.00007=.72730.
b.
Inthenextexample,theprocessvariesslightly.Itisnecessaryto
subtractthedifferencefromthevalueofthesmallerangle. Thisistrue
inthecaseofallcofunctionsbecausetheirvaluesdecreaseastheangle
increases. The process varies slightly when an angle is desired from a
givenfunction.
EXAMPLE
Findtheanglewhosesineis.68420.
SOLUTION
sin4311 =.68434
sinx
=.68420(unknownangle)
sin4310 =.68412
Differencebetweensin4310andsin4311=.00022.
Differencebetweensin4310andsinx(unknownangle)=.00008.
Fromthisthedesiredangleisoftheway
from4310to4311;
Therefore,thedesiredangleis431022.
c.
To get the value of the sine, cosine, tangent, or cotangent of an
angle between 45 and 90, use the degrees at the bottom, as explained
below.
(1) Findthenumberofdegreesatthebottomofthetrigonometrictables
(seeTables6and7,onpages59and60).
63
(2) Findthenumberofminutesintheextremerighthandcolumn,reading
fromthebottomtowardthetop.
(3) Locatethepropercolumnforthefunction,usingtheheadingsatthe
bottom.
(4) Find the value of the function in this column at a point directly
acrossfromthegivennumberofminutes.
EXAMPLE
Findthesineof4615;thatis,sine4615=?
SOLUTION
Foranglesbetween45and90,thevalueofthesineisfoundinthecolumn
markedsineatthebottom. Theminutescolumnisfollowedupto15,
andtheninthesinecolumnatapointacrossfrom15,sin4615=.
72236.
EXAMPLE
Findthetangentof4548;thatis,tan4548=?
SOLUTION
For anglesbetween45and90, thevalueofthetangentisfoundin the
columnmarkedtangentatthebottom.Theminutecolumnisfollowedup
to48,andtheninthetangentcolumnatapointacrossfrom48,tan45
48=1.02832.
7.
AngleCorrespondingtoaGivenFunction
In the preceding examples and problems, finding the value of the

trigonometric function of a given angle has been discussed. It is also
necessarytounderstandthereverseofthisprocedure;thatis,howtouse
thetablesoftrigonometricfunctionstofindtheanglecorrespondingtoa
giventrigonometricfunction.Theprocedureisasfollows:
a.
Locatethegivennumber(valueoffunction)suchasthesineof.69466
inthepropercolumn,
64
using tables 6 and 7 on pages 59 and 60 to find the angle of the

correspondingfunction,asexplainedinthefollowingtwoparagraphs.
b.
Whentheheadingisatthetopofthecolumn,thenumberofdegreesis
found at the top of the page, and the number of minutes will be in the
extremelefthandcolumn.Inthiscase,theangleofthesineof.69466is
440.
c.
Whenthebeadingisatthebottomofthecolumn,thenumberofdegrees
isfoundatthebottomofthepage,andthenumberofminuteswillbeinthe
extremerighthandcolumn.NOTE:Thefollowingsummaryisprovidedtohelp
in locating the value of functions in the trigonometric tables. This
summaryshowshowthefunctionsofananglechangeinvalueforanglesfrom
0to90.Noticethatastheangleforsineincreasesfrom0to90,its
valuealsoincreasesfromzeroto1.0000.Astheangleforcosineincreases
from0to90,itsvaluedecreasesfrom1.000tozero. Astheanglefor
tangentincreasesfrom0to90,itsvalueincreasesfromzerotoinfinity.
And, as the angle for cotangent increases from 0 to 90, its value
decreasesfrominfinitytozero.
EXAMPLE
FindthevalueofangleAwhensinA=.96923.
SOLUTION
By referring to the preceding summary, it is seen that angle A must be
greaterthan45andcloserto90. Therefore,examiningthecolumnswith
thesineheadingatthebottomdisclosesthenumber
65
0.96923onthepagemarked75atthebottom(seeTable8).Inthiscase,
theminutesarefoundintheextremerighthandcolumn. Thevalueofthe
minutescorrespondingtothenumber0.96923is45. Therefore,angleA=
7545.
EXAMPLE
FindthevalueofangleAwhencosA=0.86603.
SOLUTION
Accordingtotheprecedingnote,angleAmustbelessthan45.Thenumber
0.86603isfoundatthe30columnmarkedcosineatthetop(Table9on
thefollowingpage).Thevalueoftheminutes,inthelefthandcolumn,is
foundtobezero.Therefore,angleA=300.
TABLE8.TRIGONOMETRICTABLE.
EXAMPLE
FindthevalueofangleAwhentanA=0.18384.
SOLUTION
EvidentlyangleAislessthan45.Therefore,thenumber0.18384isfound
inthetangentcolumnwiththeheadingatthetopofthe10page(Table
10onthefollowingpage).Thevalueoftheminutesinthelefthandcolumn
isfoundtobe25.Therefore,angleA=1025
66
8.
SolutionofRightTriangles
Ifanytwosidesofanyrightangledtriangleareknown,thethirdsidecan
becalculatedfromtheformulac2 =a2 +b2 ,wherecisthehypotenuse,
andaandbaretheothersides.
Aneasiermethodforthesolutionofthesidesofarighttriangle,andone
which also includes the solution of the angles, is found in the use of
trigonometricfunctions.Thepartsofatriangleconsistofthreesidesand
threeangles.Arighttrianglemaybesolvedif,inadditiontotheright
67
angle,twopartsareknown(atleastoneofthembeingaside). Thetwo
knownpartsmustbeeitheroneoftheacuteanglesandanyoneofthesides,
oranytwosides.
EXAMPLE
Givenanacuteangleandthehypotenuseinfigure18,findangleBandsides
aandb.
SOLUTION
Here, a is the side opposite and b is the side adjacent to Angle A.
AngleB=90A=4640,whichisthecomplementofangleA.According
torule(5)(seepage53),sideopposite=hypotenusexsine. Substituting
2.5 cm forhypotenuseand.6862forsine,sideopposite=2.5x.6862 =
1.716cm.Accordingtorule(8)(seepage53),sideadjacent=hypotenusex
cosine. Substituting 2.5 cm for hypotenuse and .7274 for cosine, side
adjacent=2.5x.7274=1.819.
FIGURE18.FINDANGLEBANDSIDESAANDB.
68
EXAMPLE
Givenanacuteangleandtheoppositesideinfigure19,findangleBand
sidesbandc.
SOLUTION
Here,sidebistheadjacentsidetoangleAandcisthehypotenuse.
Angle B = 90 A = 74 5. According to rule (9)(see page 53), side
adjacent = side opposite x cotangent. Substituting 1.7 inch for side
opposite and 3.5067 for cotangent, side adjacent = 1.7 x 3.5067 = 5.961
inch. According to rule 11, hypotenuse = side opposite + sine.
Substituting1.7inchforsideoppositeand.2742forsine,sideopposite=
FIGURE19.FINDANGLEBANDSIDESBANDC.
69
EXAMPLE
Givenanacuteangleandadjacentsideinfigure20,findangleBandsides
aandc.
SOLUTION
Here,aisthesideoppositeandcisthehypotenuse.AngleB=90A
= 61 39. According to rule (6)(see page 53), side opposite = side
adjacenttangent,orrule(7)(seepage53),sideopposite=sideadjacent
cotangent.Substituting.300metersforsideadjacentand.5396fortan,
sideopposite=.300x.5396=.1619meter.Or,substituting.300forside
adjacentand1.8533forcotangent,sideopposite=.3001.8533=.1619.
According to rule (12)(see page 54), hypotenuse side adjacent cosine.
Substituting.300forsideadjacentand.8801forcosine,hypotenuse=.300
.8801=.34087.
FIGURE20.FINDANGLEBANDSIDESAANDC.
70
EXAMPLE
Giventhehypotenuseandoneside,findtheanglesAandB,andsidebof
figure21.
SOLUTION
Here,bisthesideadjacent.Accordingtorule(1)(seepage53),sinA=
side oppositehypotenuse. Substituting.430forsideoppositeand.610
forhypotenuse,sinA=.430.610=.70492.
Therefore,A=444923andB=90A=451037.Accordingtorule
8, sideadjacent=hypotenusexcosine. Substituting.610forhypotenuse
and.7093forcosine,weget:sideadjacent=.610x.7093=4327.
FIGURE21.FINDANGLESAANDB,ANDSIDEB.
EXAMPLE
Giventwosides(figure22onthefollowingpage),findanglesAandB,and
sidec.
SOLUTION
Accordingtorule(3)(seepage53),tanA=sideoppositesideadjacent.
Substituting.360forsideoppositeand.250forsideadjacent,
71
tanA=.360.250=1.44;hence,angleA=551320,angleB=3446
40.Accordingtorule12,hypotenuse=sideadjacentcosine.
Substituting.250forsideadjacentand.5704forcosine:hypotenuse=.250
.5704=.4383.
Thisconcludestheprocessesforsolvingrighttriangles.Inthefollowing
paragraphs, the process for solving special right triangles will be
described. Here, the sum of all the angles is 180, as in the right
triangles previously discussed. Special right triangles, however, are
triangles such as the isosceles triangle, which has two 45 angles at
opposite ends from each other, with the third angle equaling 90 and,
therefore,hastwosidesthatareofequallength.Thus,45+45+90=
180.Theotherspecialtypeoftriangleisthatwhichhasa30angleand
a600onoppositeendsfromeachother,withthethirdangleequaling90.
Thus,30+60+90=180.
FIGURE22.FINDANGLESAANDB,ANDSIDEC.
9.
SpecialRightTriangles(4545;3060)
a.
Theisoscelesrighttriangles(twoequalsidesandtwoequalangles)
and triangles with a 30 angle and a 60 angle are referred to in the
machineshopasspecialrighttrianglesbecause
72
oftheformulaswhichcanbederivedfromtherelationshipoftheirsides
andangles.Theserelationshipsenableonetomakecertainsubstitutionsin
the general right triangle rule formula, and to derive certain constants
whichholdtruenomatterwhatthesizetherighttriangleis,justaslong
asitsanglesare4545or3060.
b.
Derivationofthe4545IsoscelesTriangleRelationship.
(1) Ina4545righttriangle,asinanyisoscelestriangle,thesides
opposite the equal angles are equal. Thus, in figure 23, side A can be
substituted for side B. For example, if side A equals 2 inches, side B
wouldalsoequal2inches;therefore,thelengthofthehypotenuse,sideC,
couldbedeterminedbymultiplyingthesquarerootofonesidebyavalueof
2. In the following example we will show how the length of side C, the
hypotenuse, is derived by using sideAasdescribedabove. Thelast two
stepsinthisprocedureservetodemonstratethatoncethelengthofsideC
hasbeenfound,thelengthofthetwooppositesidescanbedeterminedby
multiplyingthelengthofthehypotenuseorsideCbythesineofeitherof
the45angles.Thefollowingexampledemonstratesthisprocess.
FIGURE23.FUNCTIONSOFA45ANGLE.
73
EXAMPLE
Given:SidesAandBbothequal2inchesinlength.
Therefore:
Toconfirmtherelationship:
sideA =hypotenusexsineof45
=2.83x.707
=2inches
(2) Thus,inevery4545righttriangle,eachoftheothertwosides
isalwaysequalto.707xhypotenuse.
c.
Derivationofthe3060TriangleRelationship.
(1) To understand the derivation of this relationship, it must be

rememberedthatinarighttrianglethesineof30equals.5000(seeTable
9 on page 67) or 1/2, and also equals the side opposite the 30 angle
divided by the hypotenuse. Therefore, the side opposite the 30 angle
divided by the hypotenuse is equal to 1/2, or the side opposite the 30
angleisequalto1/2timesthehypotenuse.
EXAMPLE
Infigure24onthefollowingpage,letsideA=5inchesandsideC=10
inches.AccordingtoRule(1)(seepage53),
74
AccordingtoRule(5)(seepage53),thesideopposite=hypotenusexsine.
Therefore:
SideA
(theside
oppositethe
30angle)
=10inchesx.5(sineofthe
30angle)
=5inches(or1/2thelengthof
thehypotenuse)
FIGURE24.RELATIONSHIPBETWEEN30AND60ANGLES.
(2) In figure 24, A is the side opposite the 30 angle, C is the

hypotenuse,andBistheadjacentside. Sine60equals.866(Table11on
thefollowingpage);andsincesine60=sideopposite+hypotenuse=B/C,
then B/C = .866. Therefore, B = .866 x C, the hypotenuse. Thus, the
following relationship is derived: side opposite 60 angle = .866 x
hypotenuse.
75
EXAMPLE
Infigure24,onthepreviouspage,letsideC=10inchesandsideB=8.66
inches.AccordingtoRule(1)(seepage53),
AccordingtoRule(5)(seepage53),thesideopposite=hypotenusexsine.
Therefore:
sideB
(theside
oppositethe
60angle)
=10inches
x.866
(lengthof
(sineofthe
sideC,the
60angle)
hypotenuse)
=8.66inches
10.
PracticalApplications
The cutting of regular polygons, such as hexagons and squares, is common

practiceinshopwork.Theconstantsjustdiscussedareputtousehere.
76
EXAMPLE
Findthedistanceacrosstheflatsofthelargesthexagonwhichmaybecut
froma15inch(or15cm)diameterbarofroundmildsteelstock.
SOLUTION
Ahexagonisapolygonboundedbysixflatsides. Eachflatsideisthe
oppositesideofa60angle.The15inch(or15cm)diameteroftheround
stockisthehypotenuseofeachofsix60anglesintheroundstockwhen
viewedfromeitherend.
Inparagraph9c(2)onpage75,andTable11onthepreviouspage,wefound
thatsine60=.866.
AccordingtoRule(5)(seepage53),theoppositeside=hypotenusexsine.
Therefore:
Distanceacrossflats=diameterofstockx.866
(oppositeside)
Distanceacross =15inx.866
flats(opposite
side)
or
=12.99in
15cmx.866
12.99cm
EXAMPLE
Findthediameterofroundbarstockrequiredtocutahexagon9cmacross
flats.
SOLUTION
77
EXAMPLE
Findthelargestsquarewhichmaybecutfroma13cmdiameterbarofround
stock.
SOLUTION
Largestsquare =diameterofstockx.707
=13cmx.707
=9.191cm
EXAMPLE
Findthediameterofroundstockrequiredtocutasquareof10cm.
SOLUTION
11.
GeneralProcedureforSolvingProblemsinTrigonometry
a.
Itisrelativelyeasytosolveashopproblemwhenthenecessaryright
triangle is immediately obvious. But in actual practice, problems arise
which involve shapes other than right triangles. In such cases, it is
necessarytoresolvetheproblemintorighttrianglesbymeansofconnecting
lines.Thisprocedureiscalledtriangulation.Sometimesasmanyasfour
right triangles must be constructed in order to figure a desired value.
Where any difficulty is experienced in recognizing the elements of the
necessaryrighttriangles,itisadvisabletoconstructadiagramthreeor
fourtimeslargerthanactualsize,accordingtoscale.
78
b.
In many problems involved in tool work, exact measurements can be
obtainedonlybytheuseofaccuratelygroundplugs. Thesolutionofsuch
problemsinvolvesseveralprinciplesoflayoutworkwhichmustbethoroughly
understood. Apluginsertedinanopeningcanberepresentedbyacircle
touchingtwosurfaces,asshowninfigure25.
FIGURE25.LAYOUTOFPLUGINSERTEDINOPENING.
The points of contact, A and B are called the points of tangency. A

tangenttoacircleisperpendiculartotheradiusatthepointoftangency;
thus,DCmakesarightanglewithradiusAO. Twotangentsdrawnfromthe
same point to a circle are equal; hence, DA = DB. A line, joining the
centerofacirclewiththeintersectionoftwotangents,bisectstheangle
betweenthetangents;thus,lineODbisectsangleADB.
EXAMPLE
FindthedimensionofXinfigure26,viewA,onthefollowingpage.
79
FIGURE26.FINDTHEDIMENSIONOFx.
SOLUTION
Step1.
Inspecttheproblemtodeterminewhichsidesoranglesareknown.
According to figure 26, view A, there are two 32 30 angles.
Thediameterofthecircle(plug)is1inch.
Step2.
Generally, the first distance which must be found is that from

thecenteroftheplugtothevertexoftheangle.
Step3.
To do this, it is necessary to find a right triangle which

includes this distance. First, find the point of tangency on
both sides of the slot by constructing a radius line at right
anglestothesideoftheslot,asshowninfigure26,viewB.
Step4.
ThenconstructABCDasshowninfigure26,viewC. Thecenter
lineoftheslotbisectsangleD,anddividesthefigureintotwo
equalrighttrianglesABD
80
and CBD. The angle at D in each triangle has a value of 32

30(onehalf thevalueof65),showninfigure26,view A,on
thepreviouspage.
Step5.
Thus,thelineDB(fromthecenteroftheplugtothevertex)is
the hypotenuse. According to Rule (11), page 54, hypotenuse =
oppositesidesine.Thus:
Step6.
Subtracttheheightoftheslotfromtheheightoftheblockto
getthedimensionY.Thus1.5001.100=.400.
Step7.
Add the values line DB (hypotenuse), .9305788 inch, .400 inch

(the distance of Y), and .5 inch, the radius of the circle
(plug),asfollows:
Valueofhypotenuse
DistanceofY
Radiusofcircle
Thus,thevalueofXis:
or1.8306
12.
LawofSines
a.
Intheobliquetriangleshowninfigure27,viewA,onpage83,his
perpendiculartoAB.
(1)
(2)
Divide(1)by(2):
81
Thefollowingprocedureshowsthesimilarity:
Reference:Thesineof(AB)theorem:
sin(AB)=sinAcosBcossinB
UsingsinC=sinAcosB+cosAsinB
Therefore:
Therefore:
82
FIGURE27.SOLVEUSINGTHELAWSOFSINE,
COSINE,ANDTANGENT.
83
b.
Thetermsintheequationspresentedina.abovecanberearrangedin
theform:
(1) Since,
(2) Andsince,
84
Then,
(3) Therefore:
Theaboveisknownasthelawofsines,andshouldbeinterpreted: Any
sidedividedbythesineoftheangleoppositeisequaltoanyotherside
dividedbythesineoftheangleoppositeit.Thislaw,andthelawsand
formulas in the following paragraphs, are useful in solving oblique
triangles.
EXAMPLE
Solvethetriangleoffigure27,viewB(onpage83)forangleCandsideX
usingtheLawofsines.
SOLUTION
AngleC+42+75=180,angleC+117=180;therefore,angleC=63.
85
EXAMPLE
Solvethetriangleinfigure27,viewC(onpage83),forangleBusingthe
Lawofsines.
TofindangleBinterpolateasfollows:
Fromthisthedesiredangleisofthewayfrom7435to7436;
Therefore,angleBis:
743653
13.
LawofCosines
a.
AccordingtothePythagoreanTheorem,c2=a2+b2
(1) Fromfigure27,viewA,triangle1,AD=cDB. ADmustbesquared

foruseinthisequation.
b2=AD2+h2
86
(2) SquaringofADprocedurefollows:
AD2=(cDB)2
AD2=(cDB)(cDB)
AD2=c2cDBcDB+DB2
AD2=c22cDB+DB2
(3) SubstitutingAD2intoequationat(1)above:
b2=c22cDB+DB2+h2
(4) Equationfortriangle2,figure27,viewA(onthepreviouspage):
a2=h2+DB2
(5) FindingthevalueofDB2:
DB2+h2=a2
DB2+h2h2=a2h2
DB2=a2h2
(6) SubstitutingDB2intoequationat(3)above:
Accordingtothelawofcosines,
b2=a2+c22acCosB.
b.
Sincetheresultoftheequationat(6)aboveandthelawofcosines
bothcontainb2,bothequations,therefore,areequal.
Therefore:
(1) c22cDB+a2=a2+c22accosB
(2) Subtractingbya2c2:
87
(3) 2cDB=2accosB
(4) Dividingby2ac:
(5)
(6) Multiplyingbothsidesbya:
Thelawofcosinesisinterpretedas:Thesquareofanysideofatriangle
isequaltothesumofthesquaresoftheothertwosidesminustwicethe
productofthosetwosidesandcosineoftheincludedangle.
EXAMPLE
Solvethetriangleoffigure27,viewD(onpage83)forXusingtheLawof
cosines.
SOLUTION
Fromthelawofcosines:
c2=a2+b22abcosC
Given:
x=c
8=a
10=b
cosC=cos78
X2=82+102(2x8x10cos78)
X2=64+100(2x8x10x0.20791)
88
x2=64+10033.266
X=11.434cm
EXAMPLE
Solvethetriangleoffigure27,view3(onpage83),forangleAusingthe
Lawofcosines.
SOLUTION
a2=b2+c22bccosA
Given:
a=6
b=5
c=7
62=52+72(2x5x7cosA)
36=25+4970cosA
36=7470cosA
Subtractingby74:
Dividing38by70:
cosA=0.54286
Byinterpolation:
angleA=57718
89
14.
LawofTangents
Whenthesidesofatriangleareexpressedinseveralfigures,itismore
efficienttousethefollowingformula:
whichisknownasthelawoftangents;aandbareanytwosides.AandB
aretheanglesoppositethosesides.
EXAMPLE
FindanglesAandBinfigure28,viewA(onthefollowingpage)usingthe
Lawoftangents.
90
15.
AreaofTriangles
a.
TheareaofatriangleisexpressedbytheformulaA(area)=1/2bh,
whenbisthebaseandhisthealtitude.Whentwosidesandincludedangle
aregiven(figure28,viewB),theareacanbeobtainedfromthefollowing
formula,wherehandaarethesidesandCistheangle:
Thus,theareaofthetrianglemaybewritten:
FIGURE28.FINDANGLESANDAREAOFTRIANGLES.
91
b.
Whentwoanglesandtheincludedsidearegiven(figure28,viewB,on
thefollowingpage),theareacanbeobtainedfromthefollowingformula:
Substitutingintheformulagivenin15a,above,thefollowingisobtained:
c.
Whenthreesidesaregiven,thefollowingformulaisusedwherea,b,
andcarethethreesidesandA=1/2(a+b+c),then
16.
Conclusion
This lesson served to describe the processes for converting linear

measurementsfromtheEnglishtometricsystemandfromthemetrictothe
English system, and for solving problems using ratio, proportion, and
trigonometry.Thesemathematical
92
processesarecommonlyusedinallfacetsofmachineshopoperationsforthe
fabricationofthoseparts,witheitherEnglishormetricmeasurements,not
normally found in the supply system. This lesson, therefore, provides a
solidbackgroundinmachineshopmathematics,whichcanalsobeusedasa
futurereferencetoassistinsolvingproblemsencounteredindailymachine
shopwork. Attheendofthislesson,thereisapracticalexercisethat
contains problemswhichrequirecomputationthroughtheuseofallofthe
processescoveredinthislesson.
93
PRACTICALEXERCISE2
1.
Instructions
Readthescenarioandrespondtotherequirementsthatfollowthescenario.
2.
Scenario
In practical exercise 1 you developed a list of mathematical problems

involving the addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of
fractionsanddecimals;andconversionoffractionstodecimalsanddecimals
to fractions. You have administered these problems to the two former
machinistswhowillbeusedasasecondshiftinthemachineshop.Nowyou
want to test their knowledge of machine shop calculations involving the
conversionoflinearmeasurementsfromtheEnglishtothemetricsystemand
viceversa, and the solving of problems using ratio, proportion, and
trigonometry. You have, therefore, developed a list of mathematical
problemsthatyoufeelwillassistyouindeterminingtheirknowledge.
3.
Requirement
Belowisthelistofmathematicalproblemsthatyouhavedeveloped.Prepare
ananswersheetbysolvingtheseproblems.
a.
If2.54centimetersequals1inch,howmanycentimetersarethereina
pieceofflatmetalstockthatis3yards1footand6incheslong?
b.
at is the length, in inches, of a piece of round stock that is 3
metersand15centimeterslong?
c.
brassrodwascutintofivelengths: 41/4inch,31/2inch,61/2
inch,183/4inch,and63/4inch.Howlongwastherodincentimetersif
1/8inchwaswastedineachcut?
d.
Usetherulesofconversioninparagraphs3band3c,Lesson2,Task1
andsolvethefollowingproblems:
(1) Convert1/32inchtomillimeters.
94
(2) Convert304.801millimeterstoinches.
e.
Iftwogearshave180and40teethrespectively,whatistheratioof
thenumbersofteeth?
f.
Divide80trucksbetweentwosergeantsintheratioof5to3.
g.
Theefficiencyofamachineiscommonlystatedasbeingtheratioof
the outputtotheinput(E =O/I). E=efficiency,O=output,and I=
output.Supposetheinputinamotoris7000wattsandtheoutputis6500
watts.Whatistheefficiencyofthismotor?
h.
Usetherulesofproportiontosolvethefollowingproblems:
(1) 70:45::45:X
(2) 31/4:74/5::15:X
(3) X:5.6::45:125
i.
Studythegeartraininfigure29onthefollowingpageandfindthe
rpmofthe36toothgear.
j.
A certain singlethread worm makes 25 revolutionspersecond. It
turnsawormwheelthathas27teeth.Howmanyrevolutionsperminutewill
thiswormgearmake?
k.
Solveforthefollowingsidesoftherighttriangle:
(1) FindsideaifsinA=0.8,andsidec=18.5cm.
(2) FindsidebifcosA=0.35andsidec=4.25cm.
(3) FindsideaiftanA=1.902andsideb=3.75cm.
1.
Usetheinstructionsforcalculationofanglesinparagraph4,Lesson
2,Task3(onpage56)tosolvethefollowingproblems:
95
(1) Add:
(2) Subtract:
(3) Multiply:
152940by2
(4) Divide:
851540by2
FIGURE29.GEARTRAIN.
m.
Usetable12onpage98andfindthesine,cosine,andtangentofthe
followingangles:
(1) 0
(2) 1
(3) 8930
96
n.
Find the distance X in figure 30. Use the proper trigonometric
functionandthetrigonometrictablesattable12toassistyouinsolving
thisproblem.
FIGURE30.FINDTHEDISTANCEX.
o.
Findthesineof445945.Usethetrigonometrictablesattables
6(page59)and7(page60)toassistyouinsolvingthisproblem.
p.
Find the value of the following angles to the nearest minute. Use
trigonometric tables 6, 7, and 12 (on the following page) to solve these
problems.
(1) SinA=.70711
(2) CosA=.82887
(3) TanA=.05241
(4) CotA=38.1885
97
98
LESSON2.PRACTICALEXERCISEANSWERS
1.Requirement
a.320.04centimeters
b.124inches
c.102.24centimeters
d.
(1) 0.79375millimeters
(2) 12inches
e.4.5to1
f.50and30
g.93%
h.
(1) 2813/14
(2) 36
(3) 22/125
i.400rpm
j.55.5rpm
k. (1) 14.8centimeters
(2) 1.4875centimeters
(3) 7.1325centimeters
l. (1) 116630
(2) 174652
(3) 305920
(4) 423750
m.
(1) Sin0=0
Cos0=1.0000
Tan0=0
(2) Sin1=.01745
Cos1=.99985
Tan1=.01746
(3) Sin8930=.99996
Cos8930=.00873
Tan8930=114.589
n.4.5inches
o.
.70706
99
p.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
100
45
341
3
130
MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - REFERENCE
REFERENCES
101
MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - REFERENCE
REFERENCES
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FM433
102

Machine Shop Math

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SUBCOURSE

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640

TASK1: Describe the processes for converting linear measurements from

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640

*** IMPORTANT NOTICE ***

THE PASSING SCORE FOR ALL ACCP MATERIAL IS NOW 70%.

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 1

The service section of a ground equipment maintenance support company

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 1

whole number system will be provided, including addition, subtraction,

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 1

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 1

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 1

(1) Fraction. Afractionisanindicateddivision. Itexpressesoneor

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 1

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 1

(6) Improper Fraction. This is a fraction having a numerator that is

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 1

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 1

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 1

(1) Rule1. Multiplyingordividingbothnumeratoranddenominatorofa

(3) Rule 3. Dividing the numerator or multiplying the denominator by a

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 1

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 1

Rule 1. Divide both terms by a common factor or the greatest common

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 1

Divide the denominators 6 and 9 by the prime number 3. Bring

Divide the digits (remaining numbers, 2 and 2, by the prime

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 1

Rule 1. To add together two or more fractions, first reduce them to

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 1

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 1

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 1

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 1

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 1

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 1

Rule1. Reducethemixednumberstoimproperfractions. Theninvertthe

Rule 1. In solving the complex fraction, first reduce it to a simple

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 1

This task served to describe the processes for adding, subtracting,

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 2

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 2

accuracy in measurement, as for piston, bearing, and valve clearances or

These common fractions are now decimal fractions. But, instead of

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 2

number 3 to the left of the decimal point is a plain 3, meaning 3 whole

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 2

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 2

Rule 1. First write the numberssothatthedecimalpointsaredirectly

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 2

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 2

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 2

In many cases,itisnot practicalorpossibletocarryoutaproblem to

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/TASK 2

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/PE 1

You are theRepair Shop Technicianinchargeoftheservicesection of a

Below is the list of mathematical problems you developed. Prepare the

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - 0D1640 - LESSON 1/PE 1

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 1/PE 1

MACHINE SHOP CALCULATION - OD1640 - LESSON 2/TASK 1

* IMPORTANT NOTICE *