A

SEMINAR REPORT
ON

SHUNT ACTIVE POWER FOR POWER QUALITY

IMPROVEMENT IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
(Power Systems)
By
P. Jothsna Praveena
(P13PS015)
: Supervisor:
Prof. H.R.Jariwala

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SARDAR VALLABHBHAI NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
SURAT 395007

November 2014

SARDAR VALLABHBHAI NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY

SURAT-395 007, GUJRAT, INDIA

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

S
V
N
I
T

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the seminar report entitled Shunt Active Power Filter for
Power Quality Improvement in Distribution systems submitted by P.JothsnaPraveena,
(P13PS015) is a record of bonafide work carried out by him in partial fulfillment of the
requirement for the award of the degree of MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (Power Systems).
Date: 11/11/2014
Place: SURAT

Prof.H.R.Jariwala
( Faculty Supervisor )

Prof.H.R.Jariwala

Dr. (Mrs.) A. Chowdhury

( PG In-charge )

( Head of Department )

1.2ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my Seminar guide Prof. H.R.Jariwala, who
provided me valuable suggestions, and support in execution of seminar.
I am also thankful to Dr. Ananditha Chowdhury, Head of the Department of Electrical
Engineering for her support and direction.
2

I am thankful to The Department of Electrical Egg, for giving me the opportunity to

execute this Seminar, which is an integral part of the curriculum in M. Tech program at the
Saradar Vallabhbhai National Institute Of Technology Surat.
I would also like to take this opportunity to express heartfelt gratitude for
Prof.H.R.Jariwala, my P.G. In charge, Electrical Engineering Department, for giving
permission to utilize lab resources of Power Systems lab.
I will also like to take this opportunity to thank all the staff members of Electrical
department, friends and parents for their support and blessings.

2.2ABSTRACT
The most common problem in the supply network is current harmonics caused by non-linear
loads. Active Power Filters (APFs) is widely used solutions to eliminate the power line
harmonic generated by non-linear loads. Many APF configurations are suggested in literature
for mitigating supply current harmonics produced by non-linear loads. Popularly used APF
configuration for mitigating supply current harmonics is Shunt Active Power Filter. The
instantaneous reactive power theory has been the most used in non-linear load compensation.
In this report, APF control circuit have been studied. The control strategy is p-q original
theory. The formation of calculating compensation current has been studied. Next, the
behaviour of an Active Power Filter with that control algorithm has been studied.

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
5
ABSTRACT
5
LIST OF
FIGURES.............................................................................................................................. 5
LIST OF
TABLES ........................................................................................................................... 5
Chapter 1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................2
1.2 Outlines of report..........................................................................................................3
Chapter 2 Review of Filtering Techniques............................................................................4
2.1 Passive Filters...............................................................................................................4
2.2 Active Filters................................................................................................................4
2.2.1 Series Active Power Filter
....5
2.2.2 Shunt Active Power Filter
...6
2.2.3 Hybrid Active Power Filter
....7
2.2.4 Series-Shunt Active Power Filter(UPQC)
......................................8
2.3 Principle of operation of Shunt Active Power Filter
9
Chapter 3 Simulation study of p-q theory based Shunt APF
12
3.1 p-q theory
.13
3.2 Basic formulations
...13
3.3 Reference current calculation
....15
3.4 Simulation study
17
Chapter 4 Conclusion and Suggested Future Work
22
4.1 Conclusion
...22

4.2 Suggested Future Work

.22

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
2.1
Series
active
power
filter
.6
Figure
2.2
Shunt
active
power
filter
.6
Figure
2.3
Hybrid
power
filter
topologies
7-8
Figure
2.4
Series-Shunt
active
power
filter
..8
Figure
2.5
Basic
principle
of
Shunt
active
power
filter
9
Figure
2.6
Shunt
active
power
filter
VSI-PWM
configuration
10
Figure
2.7
Power
exchanges
in
Shunt
active
power
filter
system
10
Figure 3.1 Three phase four wire source with non-linear load and Shunt active power filter
.12
Figure 3.2 Control strategy for shunt compensation based on p-q theory
16
Figure
3.3
System
without
Shunt
Active
Power
Filter
.17
Figure
3.4
source
current
without
Shunt
Active
Power
Filter
..18
Figure 3.5 FFT Analysis of source current without Shunt Active Power Filter
..18
Figure
3.6
System
with
Shunt
Active
Power
19
Figure
3.7
Compensating
currents
to
be
produced
by
19
Figure
3.8
Compensating
currents
produced
by
.20
Figure
3.9
source
current
with
Shunt
Active
Power
20

Filter
SAPF
SAPF
Filter

Figure 3.10 FFT Analysis of source current with Shunt Active Power Filter
..21

LIST OF TABLES
Table
3.1
Common
system
...13
Table
3.2
performance
of
SAPF
using
...21

parameters
p-q

theory

3.2Chapter 1
Introduction
The subject of power quality has been given increased attention over the past decade. Broadly
defined, power quality refers to the degree to which voltage and current in a system represent
sinusoidal waveforms. Increasing in harmonics and demand of reactive power has become a
serious concern for electrical engineers following the wide use of electronic appliances. In
this chapter, some basics of power quality problems include harmonics, its effects and
sources are elaborated.
4.2 Introduction
The quality of electrical power in commercial and industrial installation is undeniably
decreasing. With the increasing use of solid-state circuit equipment, harmonic distortion in
supply systems becomes more frequent and severe due to non-linear characteristics of such
circuits. Well known non-linear devices include converters, inverters, electronic-ballast,
variable frequency drives, lifts and computer equipment. These voltage or current distortions
may cause unsafe and unreliable electrical power supplies, malfunction of equipment,
overheating of conductors and can reduce the efficiency, and life of most connected loads.
Therefore, harmonic distortion is an undesirable effect for electrical systems. Clean power
refers to voltage and current waveforms that represent pure sine waves and are free of any
distortion. Dirty power refers to voltage and current waveforms that are distorted and do
not represent pure sine waves. Alternating current power supply has always suffered from the
effects of harmonics. In an electrical power system, there are various kinds of power quality
problems/disturbances like voltage sag, voltage swell, under voltage, over voltage, transient,
harmonics, voltage unbalance etc. Since the rapid development of semiconductor industry,
power electronics devices have gained popularity in our daily used electrical house-hold
appliances. Although these power electronic devices have benefited the electrical and
electronics industry, these devices are also the main source of power harmonics in the power
system. These power harmonics are called electrical pollution which will degrade the quality
of the power supply. As a result, filtering process for these harmonics is needed in order to
improve the quality of the power supply [1]. There are many solutions available to improve
the power quality like passive filtering and active filtering devices.
Harmonic is defined as a sinusoidal component of a periodic wave or quantity having
frequency that is an integral multiple of the fundamental frequency. Circulation of these

harmonic currents creates losses in and determines overheating and overrating of the power
system. Furthermore, harmonic currents cause harmonic voltage distortion, undesirable for all
other equipment connected to the power system, such as capacitors, ac machines, control and
protection equipment, measuring instruments and electronic power converters. For the
metering and comparison of harmonic contents of waveforms, a parameter is defined as a
total harmonic distortion (THD). THD is defined for both current and voltage as follows:
For voltage:

------------ (1.1)

For current:

------------- (1.2)

There are many non-linear loads drawing non-sinusoidal currents from electrical power
systems. These non-sinusoidal currents pass through different impedances in the power
systems and produce voltage harmonics. These voltage harmonics propagate in power
systems and affect all of the power system components.
The effects of harmonics in power systems and electrical loads are described below.
1. Overheating of transformer and motor
2. Disturbance to electric and electronic devices
3. Failure of capacitor banks due to dielectric breakdown or reactive power overload
4. Extra neutral current
5. Improper working of metering devices
6. De-rating of distribution equipment
7. Resonance problem
8. Mal-operation of circuit breaker
9. Lower power factor
10.Nuisance for sensitive loads
11. Interference with ripple control and power line carrier systems, causing misoperation
of systems.
The compensation for harmonic and reactive currents becomes increasingly important both
for utilities and industries to feed their sensitive equipment with quality power; thereby
avoiding malfunction and loss of revenue. Active power filters (APFs), also called active
power line conditioners or active power quality conditioners, have been known as the best
tool for harmonic mitigation as well as reactive power compensation, load balancing, voltage

regulation and voltage flicker compensation.APFs are basically categorised into two types,
namely, single phase, three phase configurations to meet the requirements of the non-linear
loads in the distribution systems. Many configurations, such as the series active filter [2],
shunt active filter [2][3], and combination of shunt and series filter [3] has been developed.
Control strategy plays a vital role in the overall performance of the power conditioner. Rapid
detection of disturbance signal with high accuracy, fast processing of the reference signal and
high dynamic response of the controller are the prime requirements for desired
compensation. This control is realized using discrete analog and digital devices or advanced
programmable devices. The control action is initiated through the detection of essential
voltage or current signals using PTs, CTs, Hall-effect sensors to gather system information.
Typical voltage signals are ac terminal voltage, dc bus voltage of APF, and voltage across
series elements. The current signals to be sensed are load currents, supply currents,
compensating currents and dc link current of APF. Based on these measured signals,
compensating commands in terms of current or voltage levels are derived in time-domain or
frequency-domain. Finally appropriate gating signals for the solid-state devices of the APF
are generated using sinusoidal PWM, hysteresis band current control. Generation of
appropriate switching pattern or gating signal with reference to command compensating
signal determines the control strategy of the APFs. since derivation of reference signal from
measured distorted signals plays major role.
5.2 Outlines of report
The outlines of the report are as below:
Chapter 1 deals with an introduction about harmonics, harmonic sources and effects of
harmonics and proposed different harmonics mitigation methods by researchers.
Chapter 2 deals with brief idea about different filtering techniques. It also includes principle
of operation shunt active power filter.
Chapter 3 deals with simulation of shunt active power filter based on pq theory with
balanced supply and non-linear load. It also includes conclusion.
References

10

Chapter 2
Review of Filtering Techniques
In this chapter power quality problem and various harmonic mitigation techniques are
discussed. There are two approaches to the mitigation of power quality problems. The first
approach is called load conditioning, which ensures that the equipment is made less sensitive
to power disturbances, allowing the operation even under significant voltage distortion. The
other condition is to install line-conditioning systems that suppress or counteract the power
system disturbances. Among the different new technical options available to improve power
quality, active power filters (line conditioning) have proved to be an important and flexible
alternative to compensate for current and voltage disturbances in power distribution systems.
The various harmonic mitigation techniques are explained below:
2.1 Passive Filters
Passive filters have been most commonly used to limit the flow of harmonic currents in
distribution systems. They are usually custom designed for the application. However, their
performance is limited to a few harmonics, and they can introduce resonance in power
system. They consist of capacitors, inductors and damping resistors. Passive filters have some
advantages such as simplicity, reliability, efficiency and low cost. However, passive filters
have many disadvantages, such as
1. Resonance problem
2. Large size
3. Fixed compensation characteristic
4. Possible overload
5. Poor dynamic behaviour
These drawbacks are overcome with the use of active power filters. Nowadays, active filters
are used to cancel harmonics generated by non-linear load. Tuned filters are used with active
filters to cancel specific frequencies and decrease the power rating of the active filters.
2.2 Active Filters
Active power filter has been proposed since 1970s. The advantage of the active filtering
process over the passive one caused much research to be performed on active power filters
for power conditioning and their practical applications. They are applicable to compensate
current-based distortions such as current harmonics, reactive power, and neutral current. They
are also used for voltage-based distortions such as voltage harmonics, voltage flickers,
11

voltage sags and voltage swells and voltage imbalances. Active power filter consists of an
inverter with switching control circuit. The inverter of active power filter will generate the
desired the desired compensating harmonics based on the switching gates provided by the
controller. The active power filter injects an equal but opposite distortion harmonics back into
the power line and cancel with the original distorted harmonics on the line. Active filters are
categorised into two main groups: single-phase and three-phase. Three-phase active filters
may be with or without neutral connection. Single-phase active filters are used to compensate
power quality problems caused by single phase loads such as DC power supplies. Threephase active filters are used for high-power non-linear load such as adjustable speed drives
and AC/DC converters. An active filter can utilize current source inverters (CSIs) or voltage
source inverters (VSIs). CSI-based active filters employ an inductor as the energy storage
device. VSI-based active filters use capacitor as energy storage device [5][6]. Many
configurations such as series, shunt, hybrid (a combination of shunt and series active filters),
and unified power quality conditioner (UPQC), which is a combination of series and shunt
active filters, have been introduced.
2.3 Series Active Power Filter
The series connected active filter protects the consumer from an inadequate supply-voltage
quality. This type of approach is especially recommended for compensation of voltage
unbalances and voltage sags from the ac supply and for low-power applications and
represents an economically attractive alternative to UPS, since no energy storage element
(battery) is necessary and the overall rating of the components is smaller [2]. The series
active filter injects a voltage component in series with the supply voltage and therefore can be
regarded as a controlled voltage source, compensating voltage sags and swells on the load
side. Figure 2.1 shows the connection of a series active power filter, the series filter is used to
compensate the voltage harmonics on the load side. Series filters can also be useful for
fundamental voltage disturbances. The compensating voltage, of the series active filter is
added into the phase of supply voltage to cancel harmonic voltage in each phase. Thus,
supply becomes sinusoidal and free from voltage harmonics.
Figure 2.1 Series active power filter
2.4 Shunt Active Power Filter
The shunt-connected active power filter, with a self-controlled dc bus, has a topology similar
to that of a static compensator (STATCOM) used for reactive power compensation in power
12

transmission systems [2][3]. Shunt active power filters compensate load current harmonics by
injecting equal but opposite harmonic compensating current. In this case the shunt
active power filter operates as a current source injecting the harmonic components generated
by the load but phase shifted by. Figure 2.2 shows the connection of a shunt active power
filter, the compensating current is exactly equal and opposite to the load harmonic
components, thus supply current is becoming sinusoidal.
Figure 2.2 Shunt Active Power Filter
2.5 Hybrid Active Power Filter
Hybrid Active Power Filters are a combination of active and passive filters. There is series
hybrid active power filter, which is combination of series active power filter and shunt
passive filters, and shunt hybrid power filter, which is combination of shunt active power
filter and shunt passive filters. There are numerous topologies of hybrid active power filter;
two among them are shown in Figure 2.3. Figure 2.3(a) shows the series hybrid active power
filter and Figure 2.3(b) shows shunt hybrid active power filter. In hybrid active power filter, it
allows the passive filters to have dynamic low impedance for current harmonics at load side,
increasing their bandwidth operation and improving their performance. This behaviour is
reached with only a small power rating PWM inverter, which acts as an series active filter
with the shunt passive filter. The passive filter is used to remove higher order harmonics, so
that active power filter has to remove the lower order harmonics.
Figure 2.3 (a) Series hybrid active filter

Figure 2.3 (b) Shunt hybrid active power filter

2.2.4 Series-Shunt Active Power Filter (UPQC)
As the name suggests, the series-shunt active filter is a combination of the series active filter
and the shunt active filter. An interesting combination topology is shown in Figure 2.4. The
shunt active filter is located at load side and can be used to compensate for load current
harmonics. On the other hand, the series portion is at the source side and can act as a
harmonic blocking filter. This topology has been called the Unified Power Quality
Conditioner. The series portion compensates for supply voltage harmonics and voltage
unbalances, act as a harmonic blocking filter, and damps power system oscillations. The
shunt portion compensates load current harmonics, reactive power, and load current
unbalances. In addition, it regulates the dc link capacitor voltage. The power supplied or

13

absorbed by the shunt portion is the power required by the series compensator and the power
required to cover losses [8].
Figure 2.4 Series-Shunt active power filter (UPQC)
2.3 Principle of operation of Shunt Active Power Filter
The basic principle of shunt active power filter is explained using Figure 2.5. The harmonic
current compensation by the active power filter is controlled in a closed loop manner. The
active power filter will draw and inject the compensating current, to the line, based on the
changes of the load in the power supply system. The supply line current, is described by the
following equation,
-------- (2.1)
Figure 2.6(a) shows a typical VSI-PWM shunt active power filter, which is mostly used for
the harmonic current compensation [10].

Figure 2.5 Basic principle of shunt active power filter

Figure 2.6(a) Shunt active power filter VSI-PWM configuration
The load current contains its fundamental plus harmonic components. The compensator
(APF) supplies equal and opposite harmonic current components to the load current,
therefore they cancel each other, and source has to be supply only fundamental component of
the load current. Thus the source current is shaped to be sinusoidal.

14

The basic idea of power exchange between source and load with shunt APF is shown in
Figure 2.6
Figure 2.6(b) Power exchanges in shunt active power filter
The instantaneous non-linear load current can be represented by,
------------ (2.2)
The instantaneous load power can be given as:
where, is the peak value of the fundamental load current, is the peak value of the harmonic
load current, and are the phase angle of the fundamental and harmonic component of the
load currents, respectively. In equation (2.3) the instantaneous power of non-linear load is
divided into three terms. The first term is the instantaneous load fundamental power. The
second term is is the instantaneous load fundamental reactive power and third term is the
instantaneous load harmonic power. Shunt APF is designed to be connected in parallel with
the load, to detect its harmonic and reactive current and to inject into the system a
compensating current, identical with the load harmonic and reactive current [4]. Therefore,
instantaneous source current having only fundamental component which is in phase with the
source voltage .

15

Chapter 3
3.1 Simulation study of p-q theory based Shunt APF
In this chapter simulation study of shunt APF based on p-q control strategy. The simulation
has been performed and analyzed for balanced sinusoidal supply voltage to balanced nonlinear load.
For evaluating performance of shunt APF, using p-q control strategy the simulation study is
performed in MATLAB software. Figure 3.1 shows shunt active power filter connected to a
three phase four wire source that supplies a non-linear load. The control strategy generates
the reference current (a,b,c) is also shown in Fig. 3.1.
Supply voltage values are considered as;

Figure 3.1 Three-phase four-wire source with nonlinear load and Shunt Active Power
Filter

16

Table 3.1 shows the system values with which the simulation work is done
Sr.
No

Quantity

Value

Source impedance

Rs=0.1ohm , Ls=0.5e-8

DC capacitor

2000uF

EMI Filter

Lf=2mH

DC Link Voltage

900V

Load

Three phase rectifier, R=10Ohm

3.2 p-q theory

The instantaneous reactive power theory (p-q theory) proposed by H.Akagi, Y.Kanazawa and
A.Nabae Instantaneous reactive power compensators comprising of switching devices
without energy storage components in 1984 [4]. The p-q ththeory is based on the --0
stationary reference frame. This theory is suitable only for three-phase system and its
operation takes place under the assumption that three-phase system is balanced with voltage
waveforms are purely sinusoidal. If this technique is applied to unbalanced or non-sinusoidal,
the resulting performance is proven to be poor.
3.3 Basic Formulation
The p-q theory uses the 0 transformation known as the Clarke transformation. The 3-phase
voltages or currents are transformed from a-b-c reference frame to 0 stationary reference
frames. The Clarke transformation for the voltage variables and its inverse are given by:
-------------- (3.1)
------------- (3.2)
Similarly the transformation can also be applied for the current variables as:
------------- (3.3)
-------------- (3.4)
One advantage of applying the 0 transformation is to separate zero-sequence components
from the a-b-c phase components. The and axis make no contribution to zero sequence
components.
In the new co-ordinates system, three power terms are expressed: zero-sequence
instantaneous real power, instantaneous real power , and instantaneous imaginary power
vector , i.e.,

17

---------------- (3.5)
The norm of vector defines the instantaneous reactive power as follows:
------------- (3.6)
Equations in (3.5) define the three power variables , and . They may be expressed in the
matrix form as follows:
------------- (3.7)
3.4 Reference current calculation
From Eq. (3.5) instantaneous real power can be written as sum of mean value of
instantaneous real power () and alternating value of instantaneous real power (),
instantaneous imaginary power can be written as sum of mean value of instantaneous
imaginary power () and alternating value of instantaneous imaginary power (), zero sequence
instantaneous real power can be written as sum of mean value of zero sequence instantaneous
real power () and alternating value of zero sequence instantaneous real power ().
------------ (3.8)
For harmonic elimination from nonlinear load, total , the oscillating term of p and q have to
be removed. So the powers to be compensated chosen as:
,

------------ (3.9)

For reactive power compensation, total , total q have to be removed. So the powers to be
compensated chosen as:
,

------------- (3.10)

For harmonic elimination and reactive power compensation from nonlinear load, total , the
oscillating term of p and q have to be removed. So the powers to be compensated chosen as:
,

-------------(3.11)

The compensating powers, and can be extracted from , , . The compensating current
corresponding to unwanted component of active power can be expressed as
------------ (3.12)

18

Figure 3.2 Control strategy for shunt current compensation based on p-q
theory
Figure 3.2 shows the control strategy for shunt compensation based on p-q theory. The three
phase load voltages and currents are sensed and converted into --0 component. These --0
voltage and current components are used to calculate instantaneous power. This calculated
instantaneous power having constant part and oscillating part, then selection of power should
be done to compensate the unwanted current generated by non-linear load. From these power,
compensation currents in --0 stationary frame is calculated; it is then converted into a-b-c
frame by using inverse Clarke transformation, which is applied at point of common coupling
to mitigate load current harmonics generated by non-linear loads.

19

3.5 Simulation study:

The control strategy derived

from p-q theory is compared by simulation results. The

simulation result of this control strategy is tested under balanced supply voltage condition
fed to balanced non-linear load.
Simulation Results:
Results of system without Shunt Active Power Filter

Figure 3.3 System without Shunt Active Power Filter

20

Figure 3.4 source current without Shunt Active Power Filter

S e le c t e d s ig n a l: 5 0 c y c le s . F F T w in d o w (in re d ) : 5 0 c y c le s
50

-5 0
0

0 .1

0 .2

0 .3

0 .4

0 .5
T im e (s )

0 .6

0 .7

0 .8

0 .9

F u n d a m e n ta l (5 0 H z ) = 5 9 , T H D = 2 8 .0 1 %

M a g (% o f F u n d a m e n t a l)

20

15

10

100

200

300

400

500
F re q u e n c y (H z )

600

700

800

900

1000

Figure 3.5 FFT Analysis of source current without Shunt Active Power Filter

21

Results of system with Shunt Active Power Filter

Figure 3.6 System with Shunt Active Power Filter

Figure 3.7 compensating currents to be produced by SAPF

22

Figure 3.8 compensating currents produced by SAPF

Figure 3.9 Source current with Shunt Active Power Filter

23

Figure 3.10 FFT Analysis of source current with SAPF

Sr.No
1
2

24

Table 3.2 Performance of SAPF using p-q theory

system
%THD
Without SAPF
28.01
With SAPF
2.53

Chapter 4
Conclusion and Suggestions for Future Work
4.1 Conclusion
The increased use of power electronic equipments in the power system has a profound impact
on the power quality. In this study the supply current harmonic mitigation is done by p-q
control strategy.
It is observed from simulation that the proposed control strategy eliminates harmonics
without adding any delay when the supply voltage is sinusoidal and balanced. The proposed
system gives best results when the supply voltage is balanced and sinusoidal.
4.2 Suggestions for Future Work
As the proposed method gives best results only with balanced and sinusoidal supply voltage
there should be modification p-q theory. So the other modified theories are modified p-q
theory, d-q theory and p-q-r theory. With these theories we can also get better results even
under unbalanced and non-sinusoidal condition.

25

REFERENCES
[1] Robert D Henderson, Patrick J. Rose Harmonics: The effect on power quality and
transformer IEEE Trans. Industry Applications, vol.30, n0.3, (1994):pp.528-532.
[2] W.M.Grady, M.J. Samotyj, A.H.Noyola, Survey of Active Power Line Conditioning
Methodologies, in IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, vol.5, no.3,pp.1536-1542, July 1990.
[3] H.Akagi, New Trends in Active Filters for Power Conditioning, in IEEE Trans .on
Industry Applications, vol.32, no.6, pp.1312-1322, Nov./Dec.1996.
[4]
H.Akagi, Y. Kanazawa and A. Nabae, Instantaneous reactive power compensators
comprising of switching devices without energy storage components IEEE
Trans.Ind.Appl.Vol.20.no.3,pp.625-630,May/June 1984.

26