Topic

10

Teaching for
Better
Learning

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Compare the expository and inquiry approaches;
2. List the characteristics of teacher-centred teaching methods;
3. Justify why teaching should be more learner-centred;
4. List the learning outcomes that may be achieved through computer
simulations;
5. Give reasons for using problem-based learning in schools; and
6. List the advantages of using role-playing in learning.

X INTRODUCTION
In Topics 1 to 9 we examined how humans learn, focusing on the different
explanations of how students acquire, process, store and recall information. In
this topic, we examine different teaching models or approaches that aim to
enhance student learning. There are many teaching methods available but the
extent to which they have been adopted in the classroom is still not clear. Is it
because educators are not aware of these methods or is it because of conditions in
the classroom that do not permit the use of different teaching approaches? The
didactic presentation continues to dominate much of teaching and educators
argue that other methods are not easily used because of conditions in the
classroom and the overemphasis on examinations.

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10.1

TEACHING FOR BETTER LEARNING

THE EXPOSITORY-INQUIRY CONTINUUM

Education literature is filled with many models and methods of teaching. There
are many powerful models of teaching designed to bring about particular kinds
of learning to help students become more effective learners. Educators need to be
able to identify these models and methods and to select the ones that will meet
the needs of the students and the subject taught. However, educators are well
aware that no teaching method can accomplish every purpose. So they need to
master a sufficient repertoire of methods to deal with specific kinds of learning
desired. For example, some methods are especially useful for presenting a body
of information to a large group of students while other methods are useful in
developing the problem-solving skills of learners. Many books have been written
on teaching methods. Joyce and Weil (1986) identified over 20 models of teaching
which they claimed would be able to accomplish most of the common goals of
schools. In this topic, we will focus on a few of these models of teaching. For
purposes of discussion, we have classified the selected teaching models or
methods on a continuum as shown in Figure 10.1.
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LEM

PBL
SIM

Teacher-centred
Instructor
Passive learner
Didactic
Deductive
Structured learning environment
PBL = Problem-based learning
SIM = Simulations
CPS = Creative problem solving

CPS
Student-centred
Facilitator
Active learner
Interactive
Inductive
Flexible learning environment
LEM = Lecture method
ROP = Role playing

Figure 10.1: A continuum of teaching methods

On one end of the continuum is the expository approach which is teacher-centred

and with information presented didactically. Learners are passive recipients of
information presented deductively. The role of the teacher is that of an instructor
or lecturer. On the other end of the continuum is the inquiry approach which is

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student-centred and learners actively participate in the teaching-learning process.

The learning environment is highly interactive with the teacher taking the role of
a facilitator. Between the two extremes of the continuum are numerous teaching
methods, depending on whether they are more teacher-centred or studentcentred. For example, the lecture method would be categorised more towards the
expository approach while teaching using role-playing would be categorised
more towards the inquiry approach.
Where would you put teaching in Malaysian schools on this continuum? To what
extent would you say that teaching in most schools and across most subject areas
tends to be more teacher-centred? Is teaching in our schools the same as when
we were in schools? Perhaps it has become so exciting and interesting to the
extent that students just cannot wait to go to school! Let us examine in more
detail the two extremes of the continuum: The Expository Approach and the
Inquiry Approach.

ACTIVITY 10.1
It has often been said that the two institutions that have not changed in
the last 100 years is the institution of religion (mosque, church, temple)
and of course, the school.
(a)

Compare teaching methods in school today with teaching

methods when you were in school.

(b)

Are they the same or different?

(c)

What do you mean if they are the same?

(d)

What do you mean if they are different?

10.2

THE EXPOSITORY APPROACH

The expository approach has its theoretical origins in behaviourism in which

psychologists focused on training people to perform complex behaviours that
involve a high degree of precision, such as training soldiers to handle
sophisticated weapons of war. The task is broken down into smaller components
with very specific objectives to be achieved. Learners master small chunks of
information before proceeding to the next level to ensure mastery. Learners
practise the concept or skill presented and corrective feedback is given
accordingly.

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Steps in the Expository Approach

The expository approach consists of FIVE phases of
activity: Orientation, Presentation, Structured Practice,
Guided Practice and Independent Practice (see Figure 10.2).
This approach assumes that the teacher has an idea about
the prior knowledge of students, to benefit from the
presentation of new information.
Phase 1: Orientation
Teacher
- establishes content of the lesson
- reviews previous learning
- establishes lesson objectives
- establishes the procedures for the lesson
Phase 2: Presentation
Teacher
- explains/demonstrates concepts/skills
- provides visual representation
- checks for understanding

Phase 4: Guided Practice

Teacher
- circulates and monitors student practice
- provides feedback
Students may work in groups
Phase 5: Independent Practice
Students practise independently
Teachers assign homework
Teachers provide feedback on homework

Phase 3: Structured Practice

Teacher
- leads group through practice examples
step by step
- provides corrective feedback
Students respond to questions
Figure 10.2: Phases in the expository method

(a)

Phase 1: Orientation
This phase sets the framework for the lesson. During this phase, the
teachers expectations are communicated, the learning task is clarified and
student accountability established.
(i)

The objectives of the lesson are provided as well as the level of

performance desired.

(ii)

The teacher describes the content of the lesson and its relationship
with prior knowledge or experience.

(iii) The teacher discusses the procedures of the lesson and the
responsibilities of the students.

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(b)

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Phase 2: Presentation:
The teacher explains the new concept or skill through demonstration and
examples. If the material is a new concept, it is important that the teacher
discusses the characteristics (or attributes) of the concept, the rule or
definition and prepare several examples. If the material is a new skill, the
steps of the skill are identified with examples of each step. The information
is presented orally with visual representation, such as graphic organisers on
PowerPoint slides or transparencies.
Students are questioned to check that they understand before they apply it
in the practice phase. Can they recall the attributes of the concept that the
teacher explained? Can they recall the number and list of steps in the skill
they have just been shown?

(c)

Phase 3: Structure Practice  In structured practice, the teacher leads

students through practice examples working in a lock-step fashion.
Students practise in groups, offering or writing answers. Students show the
steps involved in the solution of problems which may be projected on to the
screen or written on the board. The teachers role in this phase is to give
feedback on the responses of students, to reinforce accurate responses and
to correct errors.

(d)

Phase 4: Guided Practice  Students practise on their own while the teacher
is still in the environment. This activity is often called seatwork. Guided
practice enables the teacher to make an assessment of the students abilities
to perform the learning tasks by assessing the amount and type of errors
the students are making. The teacher circulates and monitors students
work and provides feedback where necessary. Students are told how they
are performing and may repeat the lessons if there are errors.

(e)

Phase 5: Independent Practice  This phase begins when students have

achieved an accuracy level of 85% to 90% in the guided practice. The
purpose of independent practice is to reinforce the new learning to ensure
retention as well as develop fluency. Students practise on their own without
assistance and with delayed feedback. This can be done in class or at home.
The teachers role is to review students work after completion, to assess if it
is accurate.

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The expository approach is perhaps, the most common teaching method in

many educational institutions, especially in secondary schools and at
tertiary-level education. This is only a general description of the expository
approach as there are many variants to the approach. For example, the
lecture method adopted in the delivery of content in higher education, may
consist of only Phases 1 to 3. Some may make provision for Phase 4 during
tutorial or small-group sessions.

10.3

THE INQUIRY APPROACH

On the other end of the continuum is the inquiry approach. A teacher, who believes
in the inquiry approach, believes that knowledge is tentative and socially
constructed [Remember we discussed Constructivism in Topic 5]. As such,
teachers will want students to be actively engaged in their own learning with
students carrying out investigations to construct their understanding. For example,
in the teaching of science , knowledge is constructed with information from the
natural world. Thus, the collection of empirical evidence will always be important
in the construction of science knowledge. The teacher will also have students
discuss their findings with the teacher and their peers and checking what they have
learned with what scientists believe. The teacher who has inquiry as a philosophy,
will value the different perspectives that students bring to a question or issue. They
have to select topics worthy of exploration but will leave the rest to the students.
The topic will have to be left open to encourage students to do independent
research projects beyond the curricular material being covered in class.
Phases in the Inquiry Approach
The inquiry approach is a process, a way of thinking and problem solving for
students, which has application in various ways. It is an effective strategy for the
development of higher order thinking skills, increasing student involvement
and ownership of the curriculum. Involvement in the process of inquiry may be
a classroom activity that takes place in a lesson or occurs over a few lessons.
Figure 10.3 shows the basic phases involved in the inquiry approach. Teachers
and students should be involved in the process of making decisions about the
inquiries being developed. Systematic observations of inquiries in classrooms
suggest that students puzzling over a problem seldom follow an organised
model of inquiry in its ideal form. Many students rapidly scan the available data
and jump to premature conclusions. Others give up easily if they are unable to
come quickly to a conclusion. Teachers should be prepared to intervene while
their students are developing inquiry skills. The roles teachers and students will
take in the inquiry process, should be carefully planned.

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Figure 10.3: Phases in the Inquiry Approach

(a)

(b)

Phase 1: Selecting the Topics, Audience and Purpose

Students will be involved in the proposal and selection of inquiry topics,
especially as they become skilled in understanding the inquiry process and
the economic concepts, integral to the inquiry. The inquiries are selected
using the following:
(i)

Access to and availability of resources for use by students;

(ii)

Significance of the content;

(iii)

Relationship of the content to other topics studied;

(iv)

Appropriateness of the content to needs and interests of students; and

(v)

Capacity of the inquiry to help students meet the skills, processes and
affective objectives of the syllabus.

Phase 2: Identifying Questions, Issues or Problems

This phase is important because it affects the type and scope of the inquiry.
The questions or problems may come from the students or from the teacher.
The students should want to pursue the inquiry and may be motivated by
some particular quality in the problem that makes it especially interesting to
them (encouragement by the teacher). For example, Flooding of Urban
Areas in the Klang Valley.
(i)

The role of the teacher in this phase may include:

x

Selecting the questions, issues or problems;

Creating an atmosphere conducive to inquiry;

Relating the inquiry to available learning resources;

Arousing and sustaining interest in the students; and

Presenting the problems or issues where appropriate.

254 X

(ii)

(c)

TOPIC 10

TEACHING FOR BETTER LEARNING

The role of students in this phase may include:

x

Selecting the questions, issues or problems;

Becoming involved in the process of inquiry;

Gaining personal satisfaction from this involvement; and

Identifying questions, issues or problems that require further

investigation.

Phase 3: Conducting the Inquiry

During this phase, students are usually involved in:
(i)

Selecting an appropriate way of gathering data, such as locating

statistics, constructing and implementing surveys or questionnaires,
text or journal research;

(ii)

Establishing goals and criteria for quality outcomes;

(iii) Planning, prioritising and organising their inquiry;

(iv) Working either individually or in teams;
(v)

Applying problem-solving, critical-thinking and decision-making

strategies, to achieve expected or unexpected outcomes; and

(vi) Evaluating the effectiveness of processes and outcomes.

At times, it will be essential for the teacher to intervene and help students to
refine or redevelop some particular aspects of the inquiry. Students in this
phase are to use various critical-thinking operations and data-gathering
procedures as defined in the objectives. The teachers role in this phase is to
act as facilitator, with a major contribution in sustaining the inquiry. This is
particularly true while students are being taught the procedures associated
with the inquiry. Teachers may reduce their intervention when students
are proficient. The teacher should be involved in sustaining the inquiry by:

TOPIC 10

TEACHING FOR BETTER LEARNING

(i)

Encouraging and motivating the students;

(ii)

Facilitating the collection of information;

W 255

(iii) Encouraging clear, lateral and critical thinking; and

(iv) Advising and assisting students in their inquiries.
(d)

Phase 4: Concluding the Inquiry

During this phase of the inquiry, students should be involved in deriving
conclusions consistent with established criteria. The findings of the inquiry
are presented in modes and forms appropriate to audience and context.
During this phase, teachers are involved in assisting students to carry out
the above tasks and providing feedback to students.
The greatest challenge to those who advocate inquiry teaching is the threat
to the traditional and dominant role of the teacher in the classroom. The
philosophy of inquiry implies that the teacher views the learner as a
thinking, acting and responsible person. Students are capable of learning
how to learn; they have within their repertoire, the ability as well as the
motivation to question, to find out about and seek knowledge; they are
persons and therefore learners in their own right.

ACTIVITY 10.2
1. List the main differences between the expository approach and the
inquiry approach.
2. Which approach is dominant in the Malaysian classroom?
3. Why is this approach dominant?

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10.4

METHODS IN-BETWEEN THE TWO ENDS

OF THE CONTINUUM

Having looked at the two extremes of the continuum, let us next examine those
methods that lie between these two ends of the continuum. Figure 10.1 lists some
of the methods which may be grouped as lying between the expository and
inquiry ends. The classification is based on the extent to which a particular
method may be considered as having, the attributes of an expository approach or
the attributes of an inquiry approach. However, this classification can be
disputed as some will argue that a particular method is either more expository
or more inquiry and so forth.

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(a)

TEACHING FOR BETTER LEARNING

W 257

Lecture Method
Perhaps the most widely used method
is the lecture method, which is certainly
the cornerstone of university teaching.
Not surprisingly, it is also popular in
secondary school, where the teacher
might spend the whole 40 minutes
doing all the talking! A lecture can be
an effective method for communicating
theories, ideas and facts to students. It is best for the presentation of high
consensus content  those in which there is agreement on the fundamental
principles and procedures.
The lecture is an economical and efficient method for delivering large
amounts of information to a large number of students. It provides a
framework or overview for subsequent learning such as reading
assignments, small group discussion and laboratory work. It offers current
information from various sources. However, it does not allow for the
instructor to provide students with individual feedback. It is difficult to
adapt to individual differences and fails to promote active participation
unless other teaching strategies, such as questioning and problem-solving
activities, are incorporated into the lecture. It also does not promote
independent learning.

(b)

Role Playing
Role playing originated from psychotherapy in the 1930s. From that narrow
beginning, role playing has spread and is now used by primary schools to
training of managers and company executives. Many teachers confuse role
playing with drama. Although they are similar, they are also very distinct
in style. Perhaps the most strategic point of difference is the handling of the
subject matter. Genuine drama usually requires a script, whereas role
playing retains the element of spontaneous or at least, extemporaneous
reaction. Role may be defined as the way one behaves in a given position
and situation. Role playing as a teaching methodology is the conscious
acting out and discussion of the role in a group. In the classroom, a
problem situation is briefly acted out so that the individual student can
identify with the characters.
Role playing can be used for students of most ages. The complexity of the
role situations must be minimised in using the method with children. But if
we keep it simple for their limited attention spans, role playing can be used
even in teaching pre-schoolers.

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Role playing allows people to make mistakes in a non-threatening

environment. They can test several solutions to very realistic problems and
the application is immediate. It also fulfils some of the very basic principles
of the teaching-learning process, such as learners involvement and
intrinsic motivation. A positive climate often results in which, one can see
himself as others see him. The involvement of the role-playing participants
can create both an emotional and intellectual attachment to the subject
matter at hand. If a skilful teacher has accurately matched the problem
situation to the needs of his group, the solving of realistic life problems can
be expected. Role playing can often create a sense of community within the
class. Although at first it may seem a threatening method, once the class
learns to share mutual confidence and commitment to the learning process,
the sharing of analysis over the role situations, will develop a camaraderie
never possible in teaching methods, such as the lecture.
(c)

Simulations
The word simulation comes from the Latin word simulare which means
to produce a convincing re-creation of real-life event or set of conditions.
Simulations have been used as a tool for teaching in many areas and
disciplines. The idea behind using simulations as pedagogical tools relies
on the idea that experience is the best teacher. If access to such experience
in real-time is impossible, an artificial environment may be, if not ideal, at
least sufficient. Simulations are useful in preparing students to cope with
future roles, providing practice in a safe environment with minimal risk
and testing as well as challenging students technical and decision-making
skills in realistic situations.
The use of computer simulations in teaching various subjects has rapidly
grown in the last decade. It is a computer application that replicates a
process and is designed for classroom instruction, either in a traditional
face-to-face classroom, a computer lab setting, or in an online environment.
A computer simulation is:
(i)

Interactive: It requires active participation by the user. Its purpose is to

teach by helping the user replicate and participate in a process  the
user is not simply receiving information passively. The user introduces
information that actually contributes to the creation of the process.

(ii)

Non-linear: There are multiple, perhaps infinite, paths that a user

could initiate. The simulation reacts to the users input, rather than
following a pre-programmed agenda.

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W 259

(iii) Complex: More than one interaction is required to consider an

application to be a simulation.
It allows students to access a process as many times as they like, at their own
speed and at their own convenience, without worrying about limiting issues,
such as conflicting timetables or cost of materials. In addition, simulations
are particularly good at developing many critical skills (for example,
hypothesis testing) that can be difficult to acquire using traditional methods.
Simulations make it possible for students to participate in and learn from
situations that might otherwise be problematic due to various considerations.
(i)

Danger: Anything that explodes or involves large projectiles; anything

involving chemicals, radiation or acid rain. These things can all be
studied safely with simulations.

(ii)

Expenses: Chemistry experiments involving very expensive materials

and anthropology simulations that allow the user to travel to another
country and interact with its culture.

(iii) Ethical considerations: Cloning; any kind of experiment on the human

body (and for many people, on animals too).
(iv) Abstract nature of the material: Economic phenomena (e.g. how
inflation works, or the stock market); processes or phenomena that are
difficult to see and so require a mental picture such as, how gases
occupy physical space.

ACTIVITY 10.3
1. What kinds of computer simulations would you like to have for
teaching the topics in your subject area?
2. Why do you want to teach these topics using computer simulations?

(d)

Creative Problem Solving

A new idea is a combination of old elements. Being able to devise new
combinations depends on ones ability to discern relationships between
seemingly disparate items. Creativity is the juxtaposition of ideas, which
were previously thought to be unrelated. It is the ability to combine ideas
in a unique way or to make useful associations among ideas. Creativity is
not about inventing something totally new, it is about making new
connections. One does not have to be a special kind of person to be creative

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 everyone can do it. It is not about who one is, it is about what one does.
Psychologists call the activities associated with idea generation loose
associative thinking processes. Associative thinking is not linear or
sequential. It is jumpy. To invent new connections, the maintenance of
uncertainty is important for a time. Closure is a killer; it strangles
associative thinking, in favour of arriving at an answer.
To facilitate the generation of new ideas, the Creative Problem Solving
Model was developed by Scott Isaksen and Donald Treffinger as described
in their book Creative Problem Solving: The Basic Course (1985). Creative
thinking is described as making and communicating connections to  think
of many possibilities; think and experience in various ways and use
different points of view; think of new and unusual possibilities and guide
in generating and selecting alternatives. Critical thinking is described as
analysing and developing possibilities to  compare and contrast many
ideas; improve and refine ideas; make effective decisions and judgements
and provide a sound foundation for effective action. The development of
these two kinds of thinking is facilitated by using a six-stage problemsolving process:
(i)

Stage 1:

Mess Finding
Just what is the mess that needs cleaning up, the situation
that demands our attention? We have to identify and
acknowledge this first before we can proceed.

(ii)

Stage 2:

Data Finding
Once the general mess is defined, the next stage involves
taking stock unearthing and collecting information,
knowledge, facts, feelings, opinions and thoughts to sort
out and clarify your mess more specifically. What do you
know about the situation and what do you still need to
know?

(iii)

Stage 3:

Problem Finding
Now that your data is collected, you need to formulate a
problem statement that expresses the heart of the
situation. You must try to put aside the common
assumption that you already know what the problem is
and try to state the problem in such a manner as to invite
novel perspectives on it.

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(iv)

Stage 4:

Idea Finding
This is the state in which you brainstorm as many ideas or
alternatives as possible for dealing with your problem
statement. Do not evaluate your ideas at this point,
merely list them as an idea pool from which you will
draw out, putting together a variety of solutions to your
problem.

(v)

Stage 5:

Solution Finding
Now that you have a number of ideas that can serve as
possible solutions to your problem, its time to evaluate
them systematically. To do this, you have to generate a
variety of criteria and select the most important one for
your problem. Is it cost, expediency, pleasure, time
involvement or something else? In this way, you will be
able to identify and evaluate the relative strengths and
weaknesses of the possible solutions.

(vi)

Stage 6:

Acceptance Finding
Having decided upon a solution, it is time to formulate a
plan of action to implement your solution. Determine
what kind of help you will need, what obstacles or
difficulties might get in the way and what specific shortand long-term steps you are going to take, to rid yourself
of that original mess!

Problem-Based Learning
Problem-based learning (PBL) is an instructional method that challenges
students to learn to learn and work in groups to seek solutions to realworld problems. These problems are used to engage students curiosity and
initiate learning on the subject matter. PBL prepares students to think
critically and analytically and to find and use appropriate learning
resources. The following is a general method for PBL:
(i)

Form Small Groups

You may decide to devote all or part of a class session to PBL, but
students must form small workgroups during that time. Ask the
students to form groups of three to five people, or assign the groups
yourself or by lottery.

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(ii)

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TEACHING FOR BETTER LEARNING

Present the Problem

Present the students with a brief problem statement (preferably on a
printed work sheet, an example of which is shown below), e.g.
Pigeons in the district are suddenly dying. In some cases, a video
clip or specimen might be used as a trigger. Emphasise to the students
that they are dealing with an authentic case history. Bizarre problems
work best.

(iii) Activate the Groups

Ask the groups to brainstorm possible causes for the death of the
pigeons. Each group will have to discuss, review or investigate
bacteria and viruses affecting birds. This is when much learning
occurs, as the students help each other understand about diseases
among birds rather than just memorising facts (as might occur in
some traditional lecture-only courses). The instructor circulates
among the groups, providing assistance but not solutions. The groups
may well explore avenues unanticipated by the instructor. This is
highly desirable and should not be discouraged. The instructor should
avoid controlling the agenda of the groups. Each group ranks its
hypotheses in order of priority and prepares requests for more data.
(iv) Provide Feedback
Ask that a representative from each group place their top priority
hypothesis or data request on the chalkboard (if already entered by
another group, place their second choice, etc.). If this is not practical,
ask for oral suggestions from the groups, when the small group work
is halted and the class is reconvened. The small group work can be
stopped and the instructor can briefly discuss the ideas with the entire
class. It is important to value every contribution, to assist the students
in analysing the issues involved and to provide further information.
The students can be prompted for data requests by: If you could ask
for just three test results from the examination of the birds, what
would they be? The key to managing a PBL session is providing
continuous feedback to maintain student enthusiasm while
simultaneously prolonging the resolution of the problem, to ensure
that adequate learning occurs.
(v)

Ask for a Solution

When a reasonable number of groups have solved the problem, you
might request for a brief written analysis from each group describing
the case. Students may be asked to include certain key words in their
reports. If you wish, you could pursue this case at a later date.

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TEACHING FOR BETTER LEARNING

W 263

Problem-based learning engages students with fuzzy, messy problems

such as those we encounter in real life. Students work in teams with
projects they develop, based on higher order thinking, collaboration,
communication and just-in-time learning of content and skills.

Educators need to master a sufficient repertoire of methods to deal with

specific kinds of learning desired.

The expository approach has its theoretical origins in behaviourism, in which

psychologists focused on training people to perform complex behaviours that
involve a high degree of precision.

The expository approach consists of five phases of activity: Orientation,

Presentation, Structured Practice, Guided Practice and Independent Practice.

A teacher who believes in the inquiry approach believes that knowledge is

tentative and socially constructed.

The inquiry approach involves the following phases: selecting the topic,
audience and purpose; identifying questions, issues or problems; conducting
the inquiry and concluding the inquiry.

Simulations are useful in preparing students to cope with future roles,

providing practice in a safe environment with minimal risk and testing as
well as challenging students technical and decision-making skills in realistic
situations.

Problem-based learning (PBL) is an instructional method that challenges

students to learn to learn, working cooperatively in groups, to seek
solutions to real-world problems.

Creative Problem Solving

Problem-Based Learning

Expository Approach

Role Playing

Inquiry Approach

Simulations

Lecture method

264 X

TOPIC 10

TEACHING FOR BETTER LEARNING

Advantages and Disadvantages of the Lecture Method. Retrieved from

http://www.oir.uiuc.edu/Did/docs/LECTURE/Lecture1.htm

Creative Problem Solving. Retrieved from

http://www.breakoutofthebox.com/ifc.htm

Creative Problem Solving. P. Lutus. Retrieved from

http://www.arachnoid.com/lutusp/crashcourse.html

Problem-Based Learning. Retrieved from http://www.studygs.net/pbl.htm

What is Inquiry-Based Learning. Concept to classroom. Retrieved from
http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/inquiry/