Introduction to Folklore:

Definitions, examples, and

implications for contemporary society (rev. 1/23/07)
Wade Tarzia. Some of this unit was written for this document,
and some was extracted and adapted from the following source:
WadeTarzia,Chapter 4: Myth and Folklore. Religion and
Culture: An Anthropological Focus. Raymond Scupin, ed. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. 2000. 49-79);thatmaterialis
Prentice-Hall and will appear in 2007 in revised 2nd edition.
===============================================

SummaryofImportantFeaturesofFolklore
What is Folklore?
Folklore is a set of customs passed down the years in a specific community
(beliefs, sayings, stories, songs, dance, objects, rituals), but here I focus on verbal
art. Folklore then is the traditional stories handed down within a community; it
preceded the invention of writing by thousands of years yet exists alongside
written literature and film as a source of storytelling entertainment and social
functions.
Folklore is shared community knowledge and may be freely performed by
any member of the community; with a few exceptions, nobody but the community
owns folklore. In many ways, folklore is egalitarian because it is of the folk
whereas many forms of written literature are under control of a ruling or elite
social-class. As such, folklore may reflect unofficial yet popular opinions.
Folklore also varies between performances because the social context each
time may differ: storyteller skill, audience emotion, time, or place all affect what
is told, how well it is told, how long or short it is, and what information
(messages) is sent. Therefore any folklore item tends to be a re-telling with
new details rather than a fresh new piece of art (although all art forms exist in
some form of a tradition). These traits make folklore extremely adaptable and
useful.
Folklore Genres
Shortsayings:jokes,proverbs,riddles;
Anecdotes:personalstoriesbasedonfactsbutmayincludeexaggerationor
fantasy;
Fullnarratives(stories,ballads),sometimescalledfablesorfolktales,

General Introduction to Folklore, Tarzia--2

believedfictitious

General Introduction to Folklore, Tarzia--3

Myths:sacredstoriesbelievedtobetrue;
Legends,haveanelementoflocalhistorybutmayinvolvesupernatural
elements.
Nonverbalbehaviors,suchascustoms,music,dance,handicrafts.
Form of Delivery
Folklore means knowledge of the folk and that usually implies traditions passed
down by mimicking or word of mouth over the generations. Orally told stories
tend to differ from written stories. The storyteller uses a variety of techniques to
elaborate an oral story that would seem odd in written stories: details and episodes
can be added or subtracted depending on who is in the audience and how
interested the audience seems to be (think the way a long joke can be told at a
party). The skills of a good actor may be involved, and the audience is also
involved to some extent because they are present to feedback to the performer
in the form of comments or emotional cues (smiles, frowns, nods). This is part of
the context of folklore.
Folklore Structure
Except some of the shorter and informal (conversational) genres, much verbal
folklore has a structure that permits convenient performance by a live storyteller.
Narrative episodes: The folktale usually is constructed of sequential
episodes. Some episodes are core episodes and must always appear.
Other episodes can be added or subtracted: added if the audience seems
interested in having the tale stretched out, or not included if the audience
seems impatient.
Example from a short genre: Short genres show a general structure if not
distinct parts. Light bulb jokes show a traditional structure how many
[blank] does it take to screw in a light bulb? Answer: [blank, usually a
category of person that the joke accuses of stupidity].
Example from a story: folktales often have stock characters (wicked
witch, orphan, princess, wizard, cow herd, intelligent animals, unforeseen
helpers), objects (unusual or magical/amazing objects), obstacles, disguises,
beginning in isolation or low social status then evolution to full community
or higher social status, and sequence of necessary acts (plot) such as hero
leaves safe community>hero encounters object and picks up (may be
magical or useful later)> hero helps someone without being asked or
forced>the helped person/animal later helps or gives advice to hero>hero
encounters obstacle but uses cleverness or found object to overcome> these
episodes can be similarly repeated with carrying actors/details> hero ends
up with a symbol of maturation or success (restoration to family, marriage,
wealth, etc.) (Spy films are good examples too).

General Introduction to Folklore, Tarzia--4

Expansion of a folktale: Separate episodes can themselves to shortened or

lengthened (ornamented) depending on audience interest and storyteller
skills.
Example: the hero is simply described: He stopped before the cave of
the dragon and drew his sword; the sword shined with a light of its own and
he called the dragon out in a loud voice.
Example: the heros description is lengthened: He stopped before the
cave, whose entrance was taller than a fir tree and wider than the kings
palace gates. It took three strong men to carry his sword and two to lift the
buckle of the sword belt, but this he drew as easily as he lifted his fork at
dinnertime. The swords light reflected from the clouds, and the roosters on
the farms crowed again as if a new sun had risen.
Social Context
The environment affects any folklore item. Environment -- or context -includes time (day, season), place (home, outside, work, play, holiday, party, etc.),
and audience (who is listening). Some content made be included to send specific
messages depending on what the audience make-up is. For example, if
someone in the audience has not been acting properly, the storyteller might tell
a story or add a detail that seems to refer to that person in the audience. Since
folklore is used to help small groups hold together, this method enforces social
norms without making direct accusations that could lead to social disorder.
Variety in Folklore: variation of details alongside
repetition of general elements
Folklore differs from modern literature in that folklore has no owner except for
the community. Anyone can tell a joke or legend (but not anyone can claim to
have written Hamlet -- only Shakespeare can). Because folklore can be told by
anyone, it has acceptable degrees of variance, unlike a written story. Variance
occurs because folklore may be told under various conditions, and so the story can
be made to fit context. For example, different people are nearby each time a
folklore item is told, so the teller changes the story so some people are not
offended. The time may be different; farming communities used have more time
in the winter after harvest, and that is when the longest stories were told. People
sitting around a campfire may want to hear longer stories, as opposed to people
during a 15 minute break at work who have tie only for short anecdotes. Some
tellers are skillful and can extend a story or joke without killing it, and others are
no and can get away with only a short performance before the audience walks
away. All these conditions affect folklore and are part of the details we need to
consider.

General Introduction to Folklore, Tarzia--5

Folklore Functions
Demonstrates social norms and creates social cohesion (sometimes us vs.
them function).
Shows models of emulation and avoidance
Preserves group knowledge, both of philosophical and practical nature
(folk beliefs of capitalism in USA, occupational folklore of certain groups:
firefighters, waitresses, tradespeople)
Psychological benefits of some story telling patterns in folk tales (idea = the
world supports the human eventually)
Function of exploring nature of truth and the world in legend (idea = the
world can be uncertain)
Folklore and Literature/Film
Folklore as a process of re-using constantly modified yet in some cases very
ancient thought-patterns in a culture can blend perfectly with modern customs. In
fact, folklore was always modern but because our culture is capable of
preserving things from the past in a museum-like way, we are sometimes blinded
to the growth of new folklore genres and contexts, and the continuation of folk
practices right into the midst of contemporary society of all sorts: farms, factories,
offices, laboratories, locker rooms, living rooms. There is limited number of story
patterns in the world, but the basic patterns of stories are often quite ancient in a
region or culture ancient (quest, initiation, rite of passage, influence of
supernatural world, defense against monster, magical helpers, rags-to-riches, etc.).
Thought experiment: how is a modern spy film very like a folktale in pattern?
Differences between written stories and oral stories:
In oral traditions, the community has control (a live audience who can respond,
and a regular audience of the same people in the community),
Oral stories are performative, thus dramatic (unless oral stories are
recorded into print). Besides the storyteller, the audience can interact with
the performance. Creativity and change is possible in folklore but often at
a slower rate and in less drastic ways than literary traditions because
tradition acts as a gatekeeper preventing wild and idiosyncratic changes
to rapidly affect itself.
Thewrittenstorycreatedbyaliteratewriteris more stable, and has more
of a social context of reader-isolation. The writer is free from direct
audience influence. During creation, the writer has more time to prepare

General Introduction to Folklore, Tarzia--6

and craft, thus free from live performance more variety may be possible;
writing has changed our notions of tradition, innovation, and circulation:
now editors and publishers can control what the public sees, which
introduces the possibility for social control; the audience becomes
consumers so their buying habits can control what the publishers
publish. Therefore, in a literate society, a small number of people control
what a larger number read; in folk culture, a larger number of people, over
time, controls what the community hears.
=======================================================

The issues above are discussed a greater detail below. I also

include an expansion about the legend genres for my students
doing projects in that area.
=======================================================

ExpandedDiscussion
FolkloreDefinition
...[F]olkloreisanothertermthat,likemyth,isoftengivenanegative
connotationinpopularusage.Folkloredoesnotmeanfalsehoodoropinion
heldonlybyuneducatedorcredulouspeople.Folkloreismanyotherfascinating
things,though,andyouexperiencethemeverydaysuchascustoms,beliefs,
shortsayings,andnarrationsharedbypeoplewhobelongtoacommonsocial
group....folklorehasexistedinthepast(perhapsisnearlyasoldashumankind)
andstillthrivestoday.Morespecifictothetopicofthischapter:muchofthe
communicationofreligionandmythhaspropagated(andstilldoesinmanyareas)
throughthefolkloreprocess.Folklore...istheknowledgeofthepeople...
Folklore(thelore/knowledgeoffolk)isabodyofcommonknowledge,
performedincertainsocialcontextsaccordingtocertainmethodsofperformance.
Folkloreexistsinthemindsofgroupsofpeopleandtakesshapewhenutteredor
otherwisecommunicated.Itisnotthepropertyofanysingleindividualbutis
rathercommonlyowned,passedon(oftenbyhearingittold),andabletobe
usedbyanyonethatbelongstothegroupthatsharesafolkloretradition(theterms
traditionandtraditionalwillbeconsideredhereasbeingsynonymouswith
folklore).
...Afterastoryhasbeenrecorded,itisunderthepredominantcontrolofa
smallnumberoftheeliteclassofasociety(includingpoliticalleaders,priests,
scholars,andeditors).Whenknowledgeiscontrolledbythefewasopposedto
largenumbersofthefolk,asocialgrouphasfeweropportunitiestocontribute
tosharedknowledge,asituationthatisantifolk,sotospeak.Yetmost[pieces

General Introduction to Folklore, Tarzia--7

offolklore],evenwhentheyexistinbooks,beganastraditionalnarratives;they
stillcarrysomeofthemarksofthosetraditions...Inaddition,somescholarsdo
notdrawstrictlinesbetweenfolkloreandwrittentexts,forgoodreasons:bothcan
berelatedbydefiningthepeoplewhousefolklorethefolkgroup,the
considerationofwhichhelpsusunderstandwhatfolkloreisandwhyitis
important.
FolklorewithinFolkgroups
Theideaofthefolkgroupunitesbothoralandtextualnarrativesunderthe
folklorecategory.Thebasicpremisethatunderliesfolkgroupsisthatfolkloreis
afunctionofsharedidentity.AsdefinedbyAlanDundes,thefolkgroupisthat
groupofpeopleusingatraditionthatisbuiltaroundatleastonecommonfactor
suchasoccupationorreligion.Thefolkgroupmightthenbearegionalcomplex
oftribalvillagesinthemountainsofNewGuinea,orthestudentsonthethird
floorofacollegedormitory,oragroupofpeoplemeetingweeklytosewquilts
andconverse,oracompanyssoftballteam,orsubcontractors(carpenters,
roofers,plumbers,electricians)whomeetperiodicallytobuildhouses,aswellas
justtheplumbers,justtheroofers,etc.Theimportantpoint,here,isthatweall
belongtofolkgroupsofonekindoranother.Whensomenumberofpeopleshare
abelieforwayoflifeandcommunicateaboutit(haveasharedidentity),afolk
groupisformed,andfolklorethegroupssharedpropertyconsistingofbeliefs,
sayings,jokes,anecdotes,stories,songs,rituals,andmaterialartifactsis
born. ...
i

Once,thedefinitionoffolklorewasrestrictedtoorallytransmittedbeliefs,
sayings,andstorieswithinsmallgroupsespeciallytraditionalagricultural
societies. Thisdefinitionstilldescribeswellmuchfolklorearoundtheworld.
Howevermostfolkloristsnowbroadenthedefinitiontoincludemanykindsof
communities,fromfarmingvillagestofactoryandofficeworkers.Similarly,
manykindsoftextsarenowadmittedintofolklorestudy,suchasprintedtexts
andbroadcastmedia. Thustherangeofpotentialfolklorematerialsishuge.In
anycase,themostimportantcommonaspectofallfolkloreisthatthebeliefs,
sayings,stories,andartarethepropertyofthefolkgroupandcanbetransmitted
byanymemberofthegroup,usuallywithonlyminorvariationsacceptableforthe
specificfolkgroupandgenre.
ii

iii

TheJokeasanExampleofEverydayFolkloreUse
Jokes,whichareoneofthemostcommonformsoffolkloreinmodern
Westernsocieties,areagoodexampleoffolklore.Althoughtheindividual
numberofjokesiscountless,theyactuallyfollowamuchsmallernumberof
forms.Thenamesandcharactersmaychange,butjokesfollowasomewhat
predictablestructure.Thelightbulbjokesfollowtheformula,Howmany

General Introduction to Folklore, Tarzia--8

[certaincategoryofpeople]doesittaketoscrewinalightbulb?Theanswers
andcharacterschangebuttheessentialformandfunction(castingderisionona
certaincategoryofperson)remainlargelyunchanged.Andanyoneisallowed
totellsuchajoke;itiscommonproperty.
Butwiththatcommonpropertycomesunwrittenrulesofuse.Indeed,if
folkloreistorepresenttheimportantideasofagroupofpeople,thenindividuals
mustnotbefreetochangetheloreidiosyncraticallyordrastically.Changesina
folkloreitemarepossiblebecauseofacombinationofthestorytellerscreative
impulse(usuallyrestrainedwithinthetraditionalrulesofperformance)andthe
existenceofanaudiencethathascertainexpectationsofhowperformancewithin
theirtraditionoughttoproceed.Theaudiencelistensandoftenjudgesandmakes
theirjudgmentsknown,andthetellerisaffectedbythecommentsandattitudeof
theaudience(thinkofsomeonelaughingorfrowningwhenyoutellajoke).The
tellerhassomelatitudetochangeastoryoritsdramaticpresentationifshesees
thattheaudienceisbored,interested,orpuzzled.
Forexample,ifyoutakeafamiliarjokeandchangeafewsurfacedetails,it
willstillberecognizedasacertainkindofjoke.Butifyouchangetoomany
details,thejokewillnolongerbeunderstoodasajoke,andyouraudiencewillnot
laugh.Theymaynot,infact,beawarethatyouhavemadethemyouraudience
andsomaynothavebeenlisteningverywellforproperfolkloreperformance
marksoutaritualmomentthatpeoplerecognizeasdeservingmorethanordinary
attention .Thisiswhatismeantbytheinabilityofchangingfolkmaterialstoo
muchthepubliclikelytounderstandafolkloreitemwillpenalizetheradical
innovatorbysaying,Thatsnotfunny,orIdontunderstandit.Inmanyother
ways,thisistheprocessthatrestrictstoomuchchangewithinafolkloretradition,
whetherthelorebejokes,riddles,melodies,folktales,ormyths. Yettheability
ofindividualperformersinatraditiontovarytheirperformancewithincertain
limitsmeansthat,yes,changedoesoccur,andnosingletellingofafolkloreitem
isexactlythesameasanyother(shortgenressuchasproverbsandriddlescanbe
exceptions).Still,mostperformancesofacertainfolkloretypeinagivenlocale
(say,thelightbulbjoke,oradragonslayerlegend)willhaveacommoncoreof
structureandthemefromtellingtotelling.Theconservativetendencyinfolklore
actsasanormativeforceinsocietyensuresthatastablecoreofcommon
understandingexistsinacommunity.Yetfolktraditiondoesinfactchange,
usuallyslowly,butinevitably.Considertheadvantagesofbothconservatismand
innovationinanyculture,andknowthatsocietiescanusebothtoadvantage,and
do,andhavealwaysdoneso.
iv

TheModernStudyofFolklore
Folkloristicsthemodernstudyoffolklore...concernsthefundofideas
thatafolkgroupuses(whatissaid,made,andactedinatradition);andit

General Introduction to Folklore, Tarzia--9

concernsthesettingswherethingsaresaid,made,andacted,intowhichshared
ideasarefunneledduringperformance.Becausefolkloreisasetofideasheldin
commonbyhumangroups,itisalivingsystem,andseldomcanwepointtoone
originalstoryoronefixedformofastory(thinkofajokeyouheardrecently;how
wouldyoutraceitsorigin?Whereandwhatisitsoriginal?).Instead,as
mentionedabove,thereareliterallyendlessnumbersofstoriestoldbyindividuals
overtheyears.Mostofthemwillresembleoneanotherclosely,butbecause
folkloreistoldinspecificsettingsforfamily,atagatheringofneighbors,on
ritualoccasionsthepurposesandspecificcharacterofanyonetellingarenever
quitethesame.Forthesereasons,modernapproachestofolkloreattemptnotjust
apassivecollectionandpublicationofthewordsormovementsofatraditional
performance,butalsotrytorecordthesocialcontext:whowaspresentatthe
performance(family,adultsonly,children,friends,dignitaries,etc.),inwhatkind
ofphysicalspace(indoors/outdoors,ritualspace,etc.),whenthestorywastold
(season,timeofday,holiday?),andwhatdramaticgesturesaccompaniedthestory
(Didtheperformermakegestures,orsing,oruseprose,poetry,oramixtureof
all?Didtheaudiencespeakrefrains,ormakeotherinterjectionsorparticipation?).
Unfortunately,afterfolkloreismadestaticasprint,photograph,video,orsound
recording,thecontextualdetailssurroundingthefolklorearegone,andtheitem
becomesfrozeninformandmaybecomeviewedasatypicalpieceof
folklorebyreaders,viewers,orlistenerswheninfacttheperformancemaynot
havebeentypical.However,themodernfolkloristprovidesasmuchofthis
backgroundaspossible,aswellascluesinthetextabouthowthestorywastold.
Specialsymbolscanbeinsertedinaprintedtexttoindicatewhenthenarrator
smiledorgesturedorraisedthepitchofhervoice;annotationofthetextcan
provideotherinformationaboutthecontextoftheperformance.
vi

Contextualdetailsareimportantwhenwewanttospeculateaboutthe
reasonsforchangeinperformances,andwhenwewanttoconsiderfunction.
Folklorecanhavemanyfunctions,andthesamekindofstorycanhavedifferent
functionsindifferentsocieties(thedragonslayerstorycanbeamythinone
societyandalegendorfolktaleinanother).Sometimesfolklorecanhavevery
directrolesingettingthingsdoneinsociety.Theuseofproverbsisaperfect
example.Traditionalproverbscanbetoldtogetapointacrossbyavoidingdirect
mentionofapotentiallyupsettingsubject.Ifyoudislikegettingupearlytogoto
work,someonemightsay,Theearlybirdcatchestheworm,sendingyoua
messagewithouthavingtosaydirectly,Yourelazy!Gotowork!Evenwhen
folkloreisnotaimedatobtainingsomedirectaction,thestoriesserveasmodels
ofbehaviorthatcangenerallyeducatetheaudienceinsocialvalues.Audiencesof
folktraditionsmaygoontoemulatethegoodbehaviorofheroesandavoidor
criticizeaberrantbehaviorsofantiheroes.Especiallyinanoral/auralsetting,
individualscanobservethereactionsofotherstotheeventsinfolknarrativeand
learnhowcertainbehaviorsarevaluedinthecommunity.(Youlearnthesame
thingbylisteningtoordinaryconversations,butfolkloreofferstheadvantageof

General Introduction to Folklore, Tarzia--10

condensingandenhancingsocialinformationandpresentingitinafocused
medium.)
vii

Whatisimportanttonoteisthatnoneofthesepossibilitiescanbeexplored
withoutincludingcontextualinformationinthestudyoffolklore.Weneed
answerstosuchquestionsas:Doestheaudienceemulateoravoid(orvalueor
devalue)patternsofbehaviorportrayedinthelore?Doestheperformanceget
somethingdoneinthesociety?Whatstoriesaretoldtowhom,andwhen?What
relevanteventswereoccurringinthecommunityatthetimethestorywastold,
andwasthestorytoldasasymboliccommentaboutthoseevents?Withthiskind
ofinformation,wecanlearnmuchabouttheroleoffolkloreinlivingsociety.
viii

FolkloreCategories
Severalcategoriesunderthetermfolklorehavealreadybeenmentioned
songs,proverbs,anecdotes,folktales,legends,myths.Folkloreindeedexistsin
manyforms.Theshortlistbelowismeanttoprovidesomeideaoftheseforms
butisnotacompletelisting;nordoallformsappearinallsocieties:
Shortsayings(eitherasrelativelyformlessbeliefsthosethatcanbe
communicatedinavarietyofwaysorcertainformssuchasjokesand
proverbs,whicharerecognizedonlywhenappropriatelystructuredandtoldat
certainoccasions);
Anecdotes(generallyfactualpersonalstoriesthatneverthelesscanmixin
exaggerationorevenfantasy);
Fullnarratives(stories),sometimescalledfablesorfolktales,andaretaken
tobefiction(canincludenarrativesongs,sagas,andepics,althoughscholars
oftenseetheseasseparatenarrativegenres);
Myths:sacredstoriestakentobetrue;
Legends,usuallytakentohaveanelementoflocalhistory(known
characters,events,andlandmarks)butmayinvolvesupernaturalelements.
Legendscaninvitedifferentpositionsofbelieftheycanbebelieved,partly
believed,ornotbelieved,yetpassedalongasaninterestingstory(ahousein
yourneighborhoodreputedtobehauntedisagoodexample;somepeople
maybelieveinaghost,othersmaykeepbacktheiropinionbutagreethat
somethingthereisstrange,othersmaylaughatthewholeidea).Religious
folkloremakesfrequentuseoflegendstyle.Modernreportsofsightingsof
theVirginMaryshowsignsofthelegendformandprocess.
Thebuiltinambiguitiesoflegends(especiallycontemporarylegends)

General Introduction to Folklore, Tarzia--11

makethisgenrefascinatingyetdifficultasacategorybecauseitcanuse
anecdotalnarration(personalstorytoldastrue),storytelling(narratoris
distancedfromthelegend),supernaturalevents,andlocalcharacters.Also,
legendscanbedividedintomorethanonekind.Twobroaddivisionsare
legendsofthedistantpastinvolvingimportantfolkheroes(theexploitsof
KingCharlemagne,St.Patrick,orGeorgeWashingtoncanbeanalyzedas
legends),andlocallegendsinvolvingthenearpastofonescommunity(the
authorsneighborhoodrecountedstoriesabouthiscousinsadventureson
motorcycleandhorseback,someofwhichinvolvedsupernaturalmotifs,such
asstretchesofcountryroadterrorizedbystrangepeoplelivinginthewoods).
Nonverbalbehaviorsarealsoincludedinfolklore,suchasdanceand
handicrafts.Thegeneralfundofsharedfolkideascanaffectbehaviorsas
diverseastellingastory,dancingadance,orbuildingabenchorsewinga
quiltinwaysthatcanbeidentifiedwithacertaintraditionandfolkgroup.
Folklore and Literature/Film
Folklore as a process of re-using constantly modified yet in some cases very
ancient thought-patterns in a culture can blend perfectly with modern customs. In
fact, folklore was always modern but because our culture is capable of
preserving things from the past in a museum-like way, we are sometimes blinded
to the growth of new folklore genres and contexts, and the continuation of folk
practices right into the midst of contemporary society of all sorts: farms, factories,
offices, laboratories, locker rooms, living rooms. There is limited number of story
patterns. There are endless little details, and those details a usually concern with
modern customs, technology, ways of dressing, current ways of using language,
and other things. But underneath those details there are a lot of similar kinds of
stories -- basic patterns of stories are ancient (quest, initiation, rite of passage,
influence of supernatural world, defense against monster, magical helpers, ragsto-riches, etc.).
The modern spy film is a good example. A James Bond kind of character
often enacts episodic series of events throughout many movies (sneaks into
buildings, uses extraordinary objects to get things done, such as a laser-beam
watch, defuses bombs at the last moment, escapes from an elaborate
plan/mechanism meant to execute the spy-hero) and meets stock characters (the
mad scientist who want to dominate the world, the sultry, sexy spy-chick who is
as clever as he is but is his enemy, the somewhat humorous side-kick who is
technically clever and loyal but seldom gets to do the cools tuff that the spy-hero
does, the powerful almost ogre-like male opponent the spy-hero must overcome).
These features may remind us of folktale patterns.
Differences between written stories and oral stories:
In oral traditions, the community has control (a live audience who can respond,

General Introduction to Folklore, Tarzia--12

and a regular audience of the same people in the community),

Oral stories are dramatic (gestures, tones of voice, song, audience
participation)
Creativity and change is possible and usual but often at a slower rate and
in less drastic ways than literary traditions.
In contrast, the written tale is more stable, and has more of a social context of
reader-isolation.
The writer is free from direct audience influence;
The writer has all the time in the world to think and prepare and craft;
writing has changed our notions of tradition and innovation; literature is
even more free to change, although is not free from influence of past
stories; (editors do control in some ways, and audience controls with
buying behavior), also social niches in complex society and mass media
allow authors to find niches.
Stability of written form lets too weird stories find more hospitable
audience/editor/publisher later (i.e., Melvilles novel Moby Dick was not
popular at the time he published, but because the novel was preserved in
writing, it could become popular after his death, at a time when society
was ready for this story. In this case the publishing/editing industry
becomes both a gatekeeper that prevents circulation of written stories
(often a gatekeeper based in classist, ethnocentrist, sexist, and racist
values, unfortunately) and as a preserver of that which was first held down
due to editing or marketing forces.
========================================================

Specifics on the Legend Genre

Next to the joke and the short saying, the telling of legends is one of the most
common storytelling methods used in contemporary society, and its makes a good
area of study in a variety of contexts. A legend is usually a story told orally (and
sometimes received over Internet or even made into Hollywood films) concerning
an unusual or possibly fantastic incident. The incident may even be defined as
supernatural. The legend may be treated as a historical fact, but the teller and the
listener do not necessarily have to believe that the legend is true. In other words,
legends create a variety of beliefs about their relationship to the truth. This is
because the primary function of legends is to pass along a strange story.
A legend is usually a story told orally (and sometimes received over Internet

General Introduction to Folklore, Tarzia--13

or even made into Hollywood films) concerning an unusual or possibly fantastic

incident. The incident may even be defined as supernatural. The legend may be
treated as a historical fact, but the teller and the listener do not necessarily have to
believe that the legend is true. In other words, legends create a variety of beliefs
about their relationship to the truth. This is because the primary function of
legends is to pass along a strange story and to discuss the nature of reality. The
legend shows the intrusion of another world onto our own; the uncertainty of
worldview then allows us to discuss what home is, what the rules are, what is
normal and what is not.
The legend almost always involves a place or person/group near your own
community (or at least in the same region -- you should be able to get there with
little trouble). You might say that, unlike the fairytale which shows the hero
leaving the community on an adventure with the promise of a safe ending, the
legend focuses on the home community and concerns strange events in or on the
borders of that community, and the ending does not exist because we are left
wondering about that intrusion of another world into our own.
Functions of Legends
Here are some functions of the legend genre (you might think of others, or other
ways to think of my own categories):
Legends Entertain Us
I am uncomfortable by the deceptive term entertainment because we can use it
to write off a behavior as just entertainment when in fact the behavior may
represent meanings as complex as any other human custom. Yes, we are thrilled
by strange stories, or we may even laugh at them, and we are always interested in
hearing one. One way to dig deeper into why strange stories interest us is to
apply psychological and social theories.
A social theory: We are interested in the way the hero of a legend may or
may not have handled the situation because humans always seek models for both
successful behavior (to be emulated) and unsuccessful behavior (to be avoided).
A psychological theory: One common theory is that we like to experience
safe horror in the form of a story because we can release our dark and hidden
subconscious desires and fears by seeing these desires and fears played out
against other people. Also, we may subconsciously want to experience (safely)
extreme danger, and then re-emerge (safely!) back into the real world; the
emotional roller coaster ride provides a sense of release (this is called catharsis).
A combo-theory?: The legend seems to make us appreciate our home
communities. Whereas the folktale/fairytale urges us to leave home to have an
adventure and learn to grow as self-sufficient heroes (a benefit to personal

General Introduction to Folklore, Tarzia--14

psychology and growth) -- and ends happily -- the legend urges to think that the
home where things are normal is the safest place to be because outside the norms
of the home lie Hook murders, ghosts, monsters, UFOs, and cursed locales. If the
outer world is uncertain, even unsafe, then this concept might aid the formation of
close-knit community feeling.
On the other hand, the ultimate destruction of the feeling of safety is any
story in which ones familiar relations and home are threatened: the monster
invades the house, the car, the spaceship; your parent or spouse seems different
and you cant trust them. These fears have been expressed in a variety of
folktales, legends, and films. How the situation ends will help define what kind
of story it is: if a hero arises to throw the monster out of your home, then we have
a good ending, thus a folktale or epic (whether it is in the form of a medieval epic
like Beowulf or a science fiction film like Aliens may not much matter!). If we
are left with a feeling of dread, with no solution to the threat to our safe
environment, if a strange occurrence such as a ghost or UFO upsets the rules of
ordinary life (which may include our beliefs in orderly rules governing the world),
then the story may have legend-qualities -- a tale designed to make us consider
and discuss the cosmos itself. And that is a bit beyond mere entertainment.
Some examples of legend topics that may seem entertaining/thrilling are:
unexplained disappearances, murders, ghosts, haunted houses, strange people in
the neighborhood, UFO sightings, monster sightings (often like Big Foot or
perhaps lake monsters), odd events, interesting rumors (a house exists under a
lake where it fell off a barge while it was being moved; a tunnel exists under the
ground from some forgotten project).
Note: family legends can also be included in this study, although the
stories may not have all of the features of the typically horrific or supernatural
legend. Obviously a family legend will be based in fact (the real family
member, a real location, a real historical event), although sometimes family
members can tell stories with the mysterious ingredients of legends. Your Uncle
Joe saw a ghost, your mother grew up in a haunted house, etc.
Strange stories let us test audience reaction, and thus the social ideas held by
the audience
Audience reaction reveals their position in society and their worldview
(general philosophy about life and other people). You dont have to believe in the
legend to be entertained by it (we do not always belief in the films we see though
we enjoy seeing them). When you see the reaction to the legend, you form your
own reaction in order to shape your social identity. For example, if you tend to
believe in the supernatural, and if the other listeners of the legend seem to be
open-minded, you might risk mentioning your beliefs among like-minded people
(this is where social identity is formed: you have found people who seem to
believe as you do; you may want to join this community by identifying with

General Introduction to Folklore, Tarzia--15

them). On the other hand, if the audience seems to disbelieve in the supernatural,
you have the option of restraining yourself so as not to open yourself to criticisms
of your beliefs.
Or we may even adopt different positions at different times to play with
our identities (perhaps this is like putting on a costume for a costume party): in
one group you may be skeptical about Big Foot legends, and in another group you
may express belief in Big Foot; thus the legend lets you create a persona (identity)
to fit into various social groups, perhaps as harmless play, perhaps as exploration
of who we really are.
Legends may present national history and help form comfortable beliefs
about national origins and national heroes (often a conservative function
helping enforce establish political power)
Other types of legends include those taken to be historical fact, including both
ancient history and local (possibly recent) neighborhood history. The story that a
young George Washington chops down a cherry tree leading him to confess the
truth to his father is a historical legend. This incident probably never happened,
but became part of our legendary history because it is a story that emphasizes the
honesty of the founding president of our nation, and this is an important belief to
hold about such important person. Even more ancient legendary history is the
legends of the Old Testament (Judaeo-Christian legendary history), and the
legends of King Arthur (British legendary history). Note that the process can also
occur for local history and local neighborhoods -- neighborhood tricksters, heroes,
and bullies -- strange character get the next category under ostracism.
Sometimes our strange stories (legends) also are used in social control
Societies contain a variety of individuals with their own set of idiosyncratic
characters, but societies also hold beliefs called norms, which curb our public
behaviors. Some legends are designed to serve the needs of the neighborhood
society by expressing and enforcing its norms of behavior. These norms are not
usually confined to specific locales but rather are the norms of social classes and
ethnic groups.
One category of people a legend may be aimed at is the people whom we
associate with and protect: for example, young adults. Legends that tell about
murders who haunt lovers lanes -- the legends of "hook" -- in essence warn young
lovers about transgressing the rules created by adults covering sexual behavior for
teenagers. Such legends may become models to show good and bad behavior in
that community, or to comment about the authority in a society. For example, the
various lovers lane legends such as Hook punish lovers enjoying illicit sexual
relations who fail to heed the radio news alert of an escaped murderer in the area
(one of the lovers is murdered in the legend), but lovers who heed the warning
and leave the secluded area are rewarded by surviving (and presumably they will

General Introduction to Folklore, Tarzia--16

curb their illicit sexual meetings in the future). For the young people, the legend
can also have a symbolic function: hook could symbolize the adult who try to
force young-folks behavior to conform to the adults norms. Legends can indeed
offer rich opportunity for discussing a societys concerns.
Sadly, some legends scapegoat minority groups by portraying them in
legends as having strange, harmful customs. These kind of legends probably have
a long history. Societies often like to maintain an illusion of purity (behavioral
and ethnic or homogeneity, which may seem safe and comfortable for the
majority members (we are all majorities and minorities in certain contexts: all we
need to do is walked into a new region, neighborhood, or job, and suddenly we
become a minority with odd ideas!). People who do not conform to the illusion
of social purity are sometimes pressured to conform, and stories/jokes/legends
told about them is part of this social pressure.
Historically, various groups of people have been portrayed negatively in
folklore: loners (example: sometimes old men or women living alone have been
made into witches or murderers in legends), small social groups (example: young
adult societies such as Skinheads, Goths, video-gamers, role-playing gamers,
etc.), social class groups (examples: the so-called odd behaviors of rural people,
the supposed criminal behaviors of inner-city people, the coldhearted materialism
of wealthy people), religious and ethnic groups (many examples: when America
was predominantly Protestant and Anglo, Jews, Catholics, Irish, and Italians were
discriminated against; nowadays other religions and immigrant groups suffer).
Norms can be enforced right in your own neighborhood through the folklore
process. If someone leads a somewhat unusual lifestyle, even though it may be
entirely legal the local people may feel that social norms have been broken.
Consider the case of the person who lives alone in a secluded house, who seems
to have no visitors, whose occupation is unknown, and who may have an unusual
appearance, such as long hair or old clothes. Local legend sometimes turns this
kind of person into a witch or some other threatening personality. Stories
circulated about this person will then have nothing to do with fact (beliefs about
illegal activity, black magic, kidnapping, and other stories). In these cases,
legends emphasize normal behavior by defining abnormal behavior in the form of
legends about unusual people.
Unfortunately, these kinds of legends often operate according to stereotypes
-- in other words they may represent our prejudiced thinking and could result in
harm to the person who is considered unusual. Throughout history, many
individuals and groups have been persecuted based on such disagreeable thinking
circulated as legends. In medieval times, anti-Semitic feeling against Jews
resulted in legends that claimed Jews kidnapped and murdered children; such
stories expressed not fact but a prejudiced and unsubstantiated belief about people
of another religion and culture; and sadly, such stories probably resulted in poor
behavior or even violence against Jews. Thus legend has a strong function in

General Introduction to Folklore, Tarzia--17

society in teaching and enforcing the norms, but can have tragic results.
Social/Political Protest
But enforcing the norms is not the only important duty of legends; a legend
can also be a form of social protest. At one time, stories were told in South and
Central America about rich Americans who were allegedly having poor children
kidnapped to have their organs stolen; their bodies were dropped by the wayside
with their eyes and major organs cut out of their bodies. These organs were to be
used to transplant into wealthy, diseased Americans. As it turned out, the stories
themselves were not true, but the legend highlighted the concerns of some of the
Central and South American communities: (a) the great difference in wealth and
privilege between the two regions, and (b) the behavior of Americans -- perhaps
in the form of rude tourists -- who sometimes act as if all other countries exist to
serve Americans. So even though the legends are at the surface untrue, the core
of their meaning contains a deeper symbolic truth about the unequal relationship
between First World and Third World nations.
Legends Can Challenge the Mainstream Knowledge Base
The protest can also be about less sensational things that, nonetheless, influence
our lives, such the very beliefs the mainstream society wishes us to live by (for,
after all, knowledge is power). Said another way, sometimes we form social
identity by challenging other parts of society. Example: Telling legends can
challenge the privileged views of science (and thus of scientific or educated
people) by leading into a general philosophical discussion about the nature of
truth; and indeed, there are different kinds of truths in culture.
Many societies have both conventional and unconventional forms of
knowledge. For example, scientists tend to discredit the tales of the supernatural,
or stories that lack any evidence (such as Big Foot and UFO stories). Some
people may feel that this state of knowledge is too harsh or strict. For such
people, the legend exists to question our mainstream (or official) knowledge to
suggest that the strict limits of official knowledge can be transcended. This can
give them a feeling of comfort by thinking that the privileged view of science in
our society (and the privileged position of scientists) can be challenged by the
common persons observations of the world.
[ Add and cite example of political challenge: the local miner from an
Appalachian village vs. the mine manager; the mine manager named the mine on
a map in the official company term, Pit #12, whereas the miner kept calling the
vast hole in the ground, Rattlesnake Gutter, after the ancient placename before
the mine had come to devastate local villages. ]
========================================================
Possible Exercises/Essays: (1) the legend collection exercise; (2) compare fairy

General Introduction to Folklore, Tarzia--18

tales to genre film plots. (3) Define myths further and ask them to find developing
modern myths (New Age, political film, science-based, etc.). (4) Folklore in
Microcultures -- what rituals, jokes, stories, and legends do focused groups use:
skateboarder/roller-blader/snowboarders, groups based on music lifestyles,
motorcycle clubs/ATVers, sailing/boating enthusiasts, hotrod builders/antique
vehicle restorers, actors/actresses (interview students at NVCCs Theatre Dept),
scuba divers, joggers, weightlifters, plumbers, roofers, carpenters, police/fire
personnel, cooks, waiters/waitresses, pilots, medical/EMT personnel, role-laying
gamers, video gamers, radio-controlled car/aircraft hobbyists, amateur
photographers, amateur astronomers, home decorators, craftspeople....and any
group imaginable. Many or most of these groups have magazines devoted to their
lifestyle; go to the magazine section of any large bookstore to find your primary
source materials!

Richard Bauman, Differential Identity and the Social Base of Folklore, Toward New Perspectives in
Folklore, A. Paredes and R. Bauman, eds., Austin: University of Texas Press, 31-41, 1972. See Alan Dundes
works on the folk group and folk idea: Folk Ideas as Units of World View, Toward New Perspectives in
Folklore, A. Paredes and R. Bauman, eds., Austin: University of Texas Press, 93-103, 1972; and Interpreting
Folklore, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1980.
ii Concerning definitions of folklore centering around the size and nature of groups, see Dan Ben-Amos,
Toward a Definition of Folklore In Context, Toward New Perspectives in Folklore, A. Paredes and R.
Bauman, eds., Austin: University of Texas Press, 3-15, 1972, and Alan Dundes, Folk Ideas as Units of World
View, cited above.
iii See Linda Dgh, American Folklore and the Mass Media, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994; and
Catherine Lynn Preston and Michael Preston, eds., The Other Print Tradition: Essays on Chapbooks,
Broadsides, and Related Ephemera, New York: Garland Publishers, 1997.
iv Consult the review article of Richard Bauman and Charles L. Briggs to learn more about the function of
performance in society: Poetics and Performance as Critical Perspectives on Language and Social Life,"
Annual Review of Anthropology 19:59-88, Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews, Inc., 1990.
v Excellent introductory texts to folklore will serve the student well to gain a general background in folklore
studies. Elliott Oring, ed., Folk Groups and Folklore Genres: An Introduction, Logan, UT: Utah State
University Press, 1986/8th printing 1996. Barre Toelken, The Dynamics of Folklore (revised and expanded
edition), Logan, UT: Utah State University Press, 1996. Robert A. Georges and Michael Owen Jones,
Folkloristics: An Introduction, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995. Collections of classic folklore
studies can be found in Alan Dundes The Study of Folklore, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1965, and
Interpreting Folklore, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1980. The classic work on oral epic traditions
is Albert Lords The Singer of Tales, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1960. See also John Miles Foley,
The Theory of Oral Composition, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988. On the general concept of
tradition, see Henry Glassie, Tradition, Journal of American Folklore 108/430:395-412, 1995. J.E. Limon
and M.J. Young review recent theories in Frontiers, Settlements, and Developments in Folklore Studies,
1972-1985, Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 15, Bernard J. Siegal, ed., Palo Alto: Annual Reviews,
Inc., 1986.
vi For examples and discussion of such methods see Henry Glassies Passing the Time in Ballymenone,
Philadelphia: University of Philadelphia Press, 1982; and Dell Hymes, Ethno-Poetics, Oral Theory, and
Editing Texts, Oral Tradition 9/2: 330-370, 1994.
vii For discussion of ways in which folk traditions served as emulative or avoidance models of behavior, see:
Joseph J. Duggan, Social Functions of the Medieval Epic in the Romance Literatures, Oral Tradition 1:3.
728-766, 1986., Roger D. Abrahms, Personal Power and Social Restraint in the Definition of Folklore,
Toward New Perspectives in Folklore, A. Paredes and R. Bauman, eds., Austin: University of Texas Press, 1630, 1972.
viii On the ways in which context influences and frames performances in a group see: Mary Hufford, Context,
Journal of American Folklore 108/430: 528-549, 1995. The following works consider the function of
folklore: William R. Bascom, Four Functions of Folklore," Journal of American Folklore 67:333-349, 1954;
Richard Bauman and Charles L. Briggs (1990, cited above); Charles L. Briggs, The Pragmatics of Proverb
Performances in New Mexican Spanish, American Anthropologist, 87/4:793-810, 1985; Luisa Del Giudice,
Oral Theory and the Northern Italian Ballad Traditions: An Ethnographic Approach to the Ballad Formula,
The Journal of Folklore Research 31:1-3: 97-126, 1994; see also Duggan (1986, cited above); John C.
Messenger, Jr., The Role of Proverbs in a Nigerian Judicial System, Southwest Journal of Anthropology 15:
64-73, 1959.