1DWLRQDO3ROOXWDQW,QYHQWRU\

Emission Estimation
Technique Manual
for

Vegetable Oil
Processing Industry

First published in June 1999

EMISSION ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES

FOR

VEGETABLE OIL PROCESSING INDUSTRY

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................

2.0 PROCESSES AND EMISSIONS .............................................................................

2.1 Process Description .......................................................................................

2.1.1 Oilseed Handling/Elevator Operations ..............................................
2.1.2 Preparation of Soybeans for Solvent Extraction.................................
2.1.3 Solvent Extraction and Oil Desolventising .........................................
2.1.4 Desolventising Flakes.............................................................................
2.1.5 Vegetable Oil Refining ...........................................................................
2.2 Emission Sources and Control Technologies...........................................
2.2.1 Emissions to Air ......................................................................................
2.2.2 Emissions to Water .................................................................................
2.2.3 Emissions to Land...................................................................................

2
2
2
5
6
7
9
9
10
11

3.0 EMISSION ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES...........................................................

12

3.1 Direct Measurement......................................................................................

3.1.1 Sampling Data .........................................................................................
3.1.2 Continuous Emission Monitoring System (CEMS) Data ..................
3.2 Mass Balance ..................................................................................................
3.3 Engineering Calculations.............................................................................
3.3.1 Fuel Analysis ...........................................................................................
3.4 Emission Factors ............................................................................................
3.4.1 Industry-Wide Emission Factors ..........................................................
3.4.2 Predictive Emission Monitoring (PEM)...............................................

13
13
15
16
16
16
17
18
19

4.0 EMISSION ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES: ACCEPTABLE RELIABILITY AND

UNCERTAINTY..........................................................................................................
20
4.1 Direct Measurement......................................................................................
4.2 Mass Balance ..................................................................................................
4.3 Engineering Calculations.............................................................................
4.4 Emission Factors ............................................................................................

20
20
21
21

5.0 REFERENCES..............................................................................................................

22

Vegetable Oil Processing Industry

VEGETABLE OIL PROCESSING INDUSTRY

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLE
Figure 1 - Flow Diagram of a Typical Soybean Handling/Elevator Operation....

2 - Flow Diagram of a Typical Process for Preparing Soybeans for Solvent

Extraction ..........................................................................................................

3 - Typical Preparation and Extraction Plant..................................................

4 - Flow Diagram of the Conventional Solvent Extraction Process .......

5 - Flow Diagram of theConventional Process of Dry Material Sizing,

Grinding and Loadout ...................................................................................

6 - Flow Diagram of the Flash Desolventising Process ................................

Table 1 - Common Air Emissions of NPI-Listed Substances from Vegetable Oil

Processing...........................................................................................................

10

2 - Total Particulate Emission Factors for Soybean Milling ..........................

18

Vegetable Oil Processing Industry

ii

1.0

Introduction

The purpose of all Emission Estimation Technique (EET) Manuals in this series is to assist
Australian manufacturing, industrial and service facilities to report emissions of listed
substances to the National Pollutant Inventory (NPI). This Manual describes the
procedures and recommended approaches for estimating emissions from facilities
engaged in vegetable oil processing.
The extraction processes described in this Manual are focused upon hexane extraction,
however other non-chemical extraction processes such as double pressing, super critical
fluid, microwave etc will still fall into the Vegetable Oil Processing Industry.
EET MANUAL:

Vegetable Oil Processing Industry

HANDBOOK:

Oil and Fat Manufacturing

ANZSIC CODES :

2140

This Manual was drafted by the NPI Unit of the Queensland Department of Environment
and Heritage on behalf of the Commonwealth Government. It has been developed
through a process of national consultation involving State and Territory environmental
authorities and key industry stakeholders.

Vegetable Oil Processing Industry

2.0

Processes and Emissions

The following section presents a brief description of the vegetable oil processing industry
and identifies likely sources of emissions.
2.1

Process Description

The industry group producing fats and oils includes cottonseed oil mills, soy bean oil
mills, vegetable oil mills (other than corn, cottonseed, and soybean), and other mills. Wet
corn mills are the primary producers of corn oil.
The following process description discusses soybean oil manufacture. Corn, cottonseed,
and peanut oil processing are similar to soybean processing, except for differences in the
soybean preparation for oil extraction. The process for soybeans typically consists of five
steps: oil seed handling/elevator operations, preparation of soybeans for solvent
extraction, solvent extraction and oil desolventising, flake desolventising, and oil refining.
2.1.1 Oilseed Handling/Elevator Operations
A typical soybean handling/elevator operation that precedes the preparation of soybeans
for the solvent extraction process is shown in Figure 1.
Soybeans received at the facility by truck or rail are sampled and analysed for moisture
content, foreign matter, and damaged seeds. Then the beans are weighed and conveyed to
large concrete silos or metal tanks for storage prior to processing. When the facility is
ready to process the soybeans, the beans are removed from the silo or tank and cleaned of
foreign materials and loose hulls. Screens are generally used to remove foreign materials
such as sticks, stems, pods, tramp metal, sand and dirt. An aspiration system is used to
remove loose hulls from soybeans; these hulls may be combined later with hulls from the
dehulling aspiration step. The beans are passed through dryers to reduce their moisture
content to approximately 10 to 11 percent by weight and then conveyed to process bins for
temporary storage and tempering for one to five days in order to facilitate dehulling.
2.1.2 Preparation of Soybeans for Solvent Extraction
Figure 2 is a schematic diagram of the process used to prepare soybeans for the solvent
extraction process. The process, which is fairly well standardised, consists of four principle
operations: cracking, dehulling/hull removal, conditioning and flaking.
Soybeans are conveyed from the process bins to the mill by means of belts or mass flow
conveyors and bucket elevators. In the mill, the beans may be aspirated, weighed, cleaned
of tramp metal by magnets, and fed into corrugated cracking rolls. The cracking rolls
crack each bean into four to six particles, which are passed through aspirators to remove
the hulls (processed separately after the removal of residual bean chips). These hulls may
be combined with the hulls from the grain cleaning process.

Vegetable Oil Processing Industry

Sampling

Raw Soybean
Receiving

Particulate Emissions

Handling/Storage

Grain Cleaning

Grain Drying

Particulate Emissions
Trash
Hulls (may be combined with
hulls from dehulling aspiration)
(see Figure 2)

Particulate Emissions

Process Bins

Soybeans to
Preparation
(See Figure 2)

Figure 1 - Flow Diagram of a Typical Soybean Handling/Elevator Operation

Source: USEPA, AP-42, Section 9.11.1, 1995

Next, the cracked beans and bean chips are conveyed to the conditioning area, where they
are put either into a rotary steam tubed device or into a stacked cooker and are heated to
condition them (ie. make them pliable and keep them hydrated). Conditioning is
necessary to permit the flaking of the chips and to prevent their being broken into smaller
particles. Finally, the heated, cracked beans are conveyed and fed to smooth, cylindrical
rolls that press the particles into smooth flakes, which vary in thickness from
approximately 0.2 to 0.51 millimetres. Flaking allows the soybean oil cells to be exposed
and the oil to be easily extracted. Figure 3 is a schematic diagram that shows both typical
preparation and extraction processes.

Vegetable Oil Processing Industry

Soybeans from
Handling/Elevator
Operations

OPTIONAL PROCESS

Particulate
Emissions

Aspiration

Cracking

Particulate
Emissions

Dehulling Aspiration

Hulls with Beans

Dehulling Aspiration

Bean Return
Particulate
Emissions

Cracked Bean
Conditioning

Particulate
Emissions

Flaking

Particulate
Emissions

Hulls
Hulls from
grain cleaning

Hulls to Sizing,
Grinding and
Loadout

Flakes to Solvent
Extraction

Figure 2 - Flow Diagram of a Typical Process for Preparing Soybeans for Solvent
Extraction
Source: USEPA, AP-42, Section 9.11.1, 1995

Vegetable Oil Processing Industry

Preparation Plant

Storage

Sifting

Trash

Preheater

Cracking
air

small meats,
hulls, air

Dehulling

hulls to storage

hulls + meat

Cyclone

sifter

soybean meats

Flakers

Extractor

meats

oil + hexane

Primary
Distillation

Secondary
Distillation

degumming

oil
hexane +
water

hexane +
steam
condensers

storage

hexane and water

are separated and
hexane is recycled

Extraction Plant

Figure 3 - Typical Preparation and Extraction Plant

Source: Cargill Australia, Newcastle, 1998

2.1.3 Solvent Extraction and Oil Desolventising

The extraction process consists of washing the oil from the soybean flakes with hexane
solvent in a countercurrent extractor. The solvent is then evaporated (ie. desolventised)
from both the solvent/oil mixture (micella) and the solvent-laden defatted flakes (see
Figure 4). The oil is desolventised by exposing the solvent/oil mixture to steam (contact
and non-contact). Then the solvent is condensed, separated from the steam condensate,

Vegetable Oil Processing Industry

and reused. Residual hexane not condensed is removed with mineral oil scrubbers. The
desolventised oil, called crude soybean oil, is stored for further processing or loadout.
2.1.4 Desolventising Flakes
The flakes leaving the extractor contains up to 35 to 40 percent solvent and must be
desolventised before use. Flakes are desolventised in one of two ways: either
conventional desolventising or specialty (also called flash) desolventising. The
method used depends on the end-use of the flakes. Flakes that are flash desolventised are
typically used for human foods, while conventionally desolventised flakes are used
primarily in animal feeds.

Hexane and Steam Vapours

Flakes from
Preparation
Hexane

Hexane - Water
Separation

Hexane
and Water

Water

Reboiler

Hexane and Steam Vapours

Hexane-Water
Condensate

Hexane-Steam
Condensing

Oil Extraction
Flash
Desolventising
(see Figure 5)

Hexane Vapour to
Mineral Oil Scrubber

Mineral Oil
Scrubber System

Hexane-Steam
Condensing
Hexane and
Steam Vapours

Hexane and Oil

Extracted
Flakes and
Hexane

Oil/Hexane
Distillation

Hexane and
Steam Vapours

Oil

Flake
Desolventising
and Toasting

Crude Oil
Storage

Desolventised and
Toasted Meal
Meal Dryer

Further
Processing
or Loadout

Hexane and
Particulate
Emissions

Dried Meal

Meal Cooler

Hexane and
Particulate
Emissions

Cooled Meal
Cooled Dried Meal to
Sizing, Grinding
and Loadout
(see Figure 4)

Figure 4 - Flow Diagram of the Conventional Solvent Extraction Process

Source: USEPA, AP-42, Section 9.11.1, 1995

Vegetable Oil Processing Industry

Main Vent

Hexane
Emissions

Conventional desolventising takes place in a desolventiser-toaster (DT), where both

contact and non-contact steam are used to evaporate the hexane. In addition, the contact
steam toasts the flakes, making them useable for animal feeds. The desolventised and
toasted flakes then pass through to a dryer, where excess moisture is removed by heat,
and then to a cooler, where ambient air is used to reduce the temperature of the dried
flakes. The desolventised, defatted flakes are then ground for use as soybean meal (see
Figure 5).
The production of flakes for human consumption generally follows the diagram in
Figure 6 for the conventional process, except for the desolventising step. In this step, the
flakes from the oil extraction step are flash desolventised in a vacuum with non-contact
steam or superheated hexane. This step is followed by a final solvent stripping step using
steam. Both the hexane vapour from the flash/vacuum desolventiser and the hexane and
steam vapours from the stripper are directed to a condenser. From the condenser, hexane
vapours pass to the mineral oil scrubber and the hexane-water condensate goes to the
separator, as shown in Figure 4. The flakes produced by the flash process are termed
white flakes. A process flow diagram for the flash desolventising portion of the soybean
process is shown in Figure 6. From the stripper, the white flakes pass through a cooker (an
optional step) and a cooler, prior to the further processing steps, which are similar to the
conventional process. A plant that uses specialty or flash desolventising requires
different equipment and is far less efficient in energy consumption and solvent recovery
than a plant that uses conventional desolventising. Given these facts, the solvent emissions
are considerably higher for a specialty desolventising process than for a similar-sized
conventional desolventising process.
2.1.5 Vegetable Oil Refining
Crude oil is typically shipped for refining to establishments engaged in the production of
edible vegetable oils, shortening, and margarine. Crude vegetable oils contain small
amounts of naturally occurring materials such as proteinaceous material, free fatty acids,
and phosphatides. Phosphatides are removed for lecithin recovery or to prepare the crude
oil for export. The most common method of refining oil is by reacting it with alkali
solution, which neutralises the free fatty acids and reacts with the phosphatides. These
reacted products and the proteinaceous materials are then removed by a centrifuge
process.
Following alkali refining, the oil is washed with water to remove residual soap, caused by
saponification of small amounts of the triglycerides (oil). Colour-producing substances
within an oil (ie. carotenoids, chlorophyll) are removed by a bleaching process, which
employs the use of absorbents such as acid-activated clays. Volatile components are
removed by deodorisation, which uses steam injection under a high vacuum and
temperature. The refined oil is then filtered and stored until used or transported.

Vegetable Oil Processing Industry

Particulate
Emissions

Cooled Dried Meal From

Solvent Extraction

Hulls from
Dehulling Aspiration

Meal Grinding
and Sizing

Hull Grinding
and Sizing

Particulate
Emissions

OPTIONAL PROCESS

Hull Toasting

Toasted Hull
(Millfeed)
Storage
10% Protein

Meal Storage
(High Protein)
48% Proteinx

Meal-Millfeed
Blending
44% Protein Meal
x

Typical or nominal values;

actual values may vary

Meal Storage
(Low Protein)

Sampling

Loadout
(Rail, Truck,
Barge)

Particulate
Emissions

Figure 5 - Flow Diagram of the Conventional Process of Dry Material Sizing,

Grinding, and Loadout
Source: USEPA, AP-42, Section 9.11.1, 1995

Vegetable Oil Processing Industry

Solvent Laden Flakes

From Oil Extraction

Super-Heated
Hexane

Hexane Vapour

Flash/Vacuum
Desolventiser

Hexane and Steam Vapours

Stripping
Steam

Hexane-Steam
Condenser

Stripper

Cooker
(Optional)

White-Flake Cooker

Particulate
Emissions

Defatted, Desolventised
Flakes to Further
Processing

Figure 6 - Flow Diagram of the Flash Desolventising Process

Source: USEPA, AP-42, Section 9.11.1, 1995

2.2

Emission Sources and Control Technologies

2.2.1 Emissions to Air

Air emissions may be categorised as:
Fugitive Emissions
These are emissions that are not released through a vent or stack. Examples of fugitive
emissions include dust from stockpiles, volatilisation of vapour from vats, open vessels, or
spills and materials handling. Emissions emanating from ridgeline roof-vents, louvres,
and open doors of a building as well as equipment leaks, and leaks from valves and
flanges are also examples of fugitive emissions. Emission factor EETs are the usual method
for determining losses through fugitive emissions.

Vegetable Oil Processing Industry

Point Source Emissions

These emissions are exhausted into a vent or stack and emitted through a single point
source into the atmosphere. Table 1 highlights common air emissions from vegetable oil
processing. The Combustion in Boilers EET Manual, along with other Manuals in this series,
is available from State and Territory environment agencies. The Combustion in Boilers EET
Manual is designed to provide guidance on estimating emissions from combustion sources
such as combustion of natural gas, oil, LPG or coal which may be of particular relevance to
the vegetable oil processing industry.
Table 1 - Common Air Emissions of NPI-Listed Substances from Vegetable Oil
Processing
Substances
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
Particulate Matter (PM10)
n-hexane
Chlorine (Cl2) *
Source: Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage, 1998
Chlorine is a common substance used for disinfecting/cleaning purposes, hence a possible
emission source.

Air emission control technologies, such as electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters or

baghouses, and wet scrubbers, are commonly installed to reduce the concentration of
particulates in process off-gases before stack emission. Where such emission abatement
equipment has been installed, and where emission factors from uncontrolled sources have
been used in emission estimation, the collection efficiency of the abatement equipment
needs to be considered. Guidance on applying collection efficiencies to emission factor
equations is provided in later sections.
With regards to emission controls for PM10 emissions (particulate matter with an
equivalent aerodynamic diameter of 10 micrometres or less ie. 10m), in the absence of
measured data, or knowledge of the collection efficiency for a particular piece of
equipment, an efficiency of 90% should be used in the emission factor equation to calculate
actual mass emissions. This default should only be used if there is no other available
control efficiency.
2.2.2 Emissions to Water
Emissions of substances to water can be categorised as discharges to:
Surface waters (eg. lakes, rivers, dams, and estuaries);
Coastal or marine waters; and
Stormwater.

Vegetable Oil Processing Industry

10

Because of the significant environmental hazards posed by emitting toxic substances to

water, most facilities emitting NPI-listed substances to waterways are required by their
relevant State or Territory environment agency to closely monitor and measure these
emissions. This existing sampling data can be used to calculate annual emissions.
If no wastewater monitoring data exists, emissions to process water can be calculated
based on a mass balance or using emission factors.
The discharge of listed substances to a sewer does not require you to report to the NPI.
However, leakage and other emissions (including dust) from a tailings storage facility are
reportable. (See also Section Three of The NPI Guide.)
2.2.3 Emissions to Land
Emissions of substances to land on-site include solid wastes, slurries, sediments, spills and
leaks, storage and distribution of liquids and may contain listed substances. These
emission sources can be broadly categorised as:
surface impoundments of liquids and slurries; and
unintentional leaks and spills

Vegetable Oil Processing Industry

11

3.0

Emission Estimation Techniques

Estimates of emissions of NPI-listed substances to air, water and land should be reported
for each substance that triggers a threshold. The reporting list and detailed information on
thresholds are contained in The NPI Guide at the front of this Handbook.
In general, there are four types of emission estimation techniques (EETs) that may be used
to estimate emissions from your facility.
The four types described in The NPI Guide are:

sampling or direct measurement;

mass balance;
fuel analysis or other engineering calculations; and
emission factors

Select the EET, (or mix of EETs), that is most appropriate for your purposes. For example,
you might choose to use a mass balance to best estimate fugitive losses from pumps and
vents, direct measurement for stack and pipe emissions, and emission factors when
estimating losses from storage tanks and stockpiles.
If you estimate your emission by using any of these EETs, your data will be displayed on
the NPI database as being of acceptable reliability. Similarly, if your relevant
environmental authority has approved the use of EETs that are not outlined in this
handbook, your data will also be displayed as being of acceptable reliability.
This Manual seeks to provide the most effective emission estimation techniques for the
NPI substances relevant to this industry. However, the absence of an EET for a substance
in this handbook does not necessarily imply that an emission should not be reported to the
NPI. The obligation to report on all relevant emissions remains if reporting thresholds
have been exceeded.
You are able to use emission estimation techniques that are not outlined in this
document. You must, however, seek the consent of your relevant environmental
authority. For example, if your company has developed site-specific emission factors,
you may use these if approved by your relevant environmental authority.
You should note that the EETs presented in this manual relate principally to average
process emissions. Emissions resulting from non-routine events are rarely discussed in
the literature, and there is a general lack of EETs for such events. However, it is important
to recognise that emissions resulting from significant operating excursions and/or
accidental situations (eg. spills) will also need to be estimated. Emissions to land, air and
water from spills must be estimated and added to process emissions when calculating
total emissions for reporting purposes. The emission resulting from a spill is the net
emission, ie., the quantity of the NPI reportable substance spilled, less the quantity
recovered or consumed during clean up operations.

Vegetable Oil Processing Industry

12

The usage of each of the substances listed as Category 1 and 1a under the NPI must be
estimated to determine whether the 10 tonnes (or 25 tonnes for VOCs) reporting threshold
is exceeded. If the threshold is exceeded, emissions of these Category 1 and 1a substances
must be reported for all operations/processes relating to the facility, even if the actual
emissions of the substances are very low or zero.

3.1

Direct Measurement

You may wish to undertake direct measurement in order to report to the NPI, particularly
if you already do so in order to meet other regulatory requirements. However, the NPI
does not require you to undertake additional sampling and measurement. For the
sampling data to be adequate and able to be used for NPI reporting purposes, it would
need to be collected over a period of time, and to be representative of operations for the
whole year.
3.1.1 Sampling Data
Stack sampling test reports often provide emissions data in terms of parts per million
3
(ppm) or grams per cubic metre (g/m ) (dry standard). Annual emissions for NPI
reporting can be calculated from this data. Stack tests for NPI reporting should be
performed under representative (ie. normal) operating conditions. You should be aware
that some tests undertaken for a State or Territory license condition may require the test be
taken under maximum emissions rating, where emissions are likely to be higher than
when operating under normal operating conditions.
This Section shows how to calculate emissions in kg/hr based on stack sampling data, and
how to convert this to an annual emissions figure. Calculations involved in determining
particulate emissions are used as an example, although the same calculations are
applicable for most of the substances listed on the NPI. Use Equation 1 to calculate the
3
concentration of PM10 in g/m and use Equation 2 to calculate the hourly emission of PM10
in kg/hr.
Equation 1
CPM

Cf / Vm, STP

where:
CPM
=
Cf
=
Vm,STP =

concentration of PM or gram loading (g/m3)

filter catch (g)
metered volume of sample at STP (m3)

Vegetable Oil Processing Industry

13

Equation 2
EPM

CPM * Qd * 3.6 * [273/(273+T)]

=
=
=
=

hourly emissions of PM (kg/hr)

concentration of PM or gram loading (g/m3)
stack gas volumetric flow rate (m3/s)
stack gas temperature (C)

where:
EPM
CPM
Qd
T

The information from some stack tests may be reported in kilograms of particulate matter
per cubic metre of exhaust gas (wet). Use Equation 3 to calculate the dry particulate
emissions in kg/hr.
Equation 3

PM

273

= Q * C PM * 3.6 * 1 moist R
*
(
)
T
100
273
+
a

where:
=
EPM
Qa
=
CPM
=
3.6
=
moistR =
273
=
T
=

hourly emissions of PM in kilograms per hour, kg/hr

actual (ie. wet) cubic metres of exhaust gas per second, m3/s
concentration of PM or gram loading, g/m3
3600 seconds per hour multiplied by 0.001 kilograms per gram
moisture content, %
273 K (0C)
stack gas temperature, C

Total suspended particulates (TSP) are also referred to as total particulate matter (total PM). To
determine PM10 from total PM emissions, a size analysis may need to be undertaken. The weight
PM10 fraction can then be multiplied by the total PM emission rate to produce PM10 emissions.
Alternatively, assume that 100% of PM emissions are PM10; ie assume that all particulate matter
emitted to air has an equivalent aerodynamic diameter of 10 micrometres or less ie. 10m.

To calculate moisture content use Equation 4.

Vegetable Oil Processing Industry

14

Equation 4
Moisture percentage =

100 % * weight of water vapour per specific

volume of stack gas/ total weight of the
stack gas in that volume.

100% *

moist

(1000 *V

moist
m , STP

)
g

(1000 *V

moist
m , STP

)+

STP

where
moistR =
gmoist =
Vm,STP =
=
STP

moisture content, %
moisture collected, g
metered volume of sample at STP, m3
dry density of stack gas sample, kg/m3 at STP
{if the density is not known a default value of 1.62 kg/m3
may be used. This assumes a dry gas composition of
50% air, 50% CO2}

Example 1 Calculating Moisture Percentage

A 1.2m3 sample (at STP) of gas contains 410g of water. To calculate the moisture
percentage use Equation 4.

100% *

moist

(1000 *V

gMOIST/1000 * Vm,STP =
=
moistR
=
=

moist
m , STP

)
g

(1000 *V

moist
m , STP

)+

STP

410 / (1000 * 1.2)

0.342
100 ( 0.342 / (0.342 + 1.62))
17.4%

3.1.2 Continuous Emission Monitoring System (CEMS) Data

A continuous emission monitoring system provides a continuous record of emissions over
time, usually by reporting pollutant concentration.
Once the pollutant concentration is known, emission rates are obtained by multiplying the
pollutant concentration by the volumetric gas or liquid flow rate.
Vegetable Oil Processing Industry

15

It is important to note that prior to using CEMS to estimate emissions, you should develop
a protocol for collecting and averaging the data in order that the estimate satisfies your
relevant environmental authoritys requirement for NPI emissions estimations.
Most food processing industries however, will not be required to use this method of EET
for the reporting of substances.
3.2

Mass Balance

A mass balance identifies the quantity of substance going in and out of an entire facility,
process, or piece of equipment. Emissions can be calculated as the difference between
input and output of each listed substance. Accumulation or depletion of the substance
within the equipment should be accounted for in your calculation.
3.3

Engineering Calculations

An engineering calculation is an estimation method based on physical/chemical

properties (eg. vapour pressure) of the substance and mathematical relationships (eg. ideal
gas law).
3.3.1 Fuel Analysis
Fuel analysis is an example of an engineering calculation and can be used to predict SO2
and metal emissions based on application of conservation laws, if fuel rate is measured.
The presence of certain elements in fuels may be used to predict their presence in emission
streams. This includes elements such as sulfur, which may be converted into other
compounds during the combustion process.
The basic equation used in fuel analysis emission calculations is the following:
Equation 5
Ekpy, i

= Qf * pollutant concentration in fuel * (MWp / EWf) * OpHrs

where:
Ekpy, i =
Qf
=
MWp =
EWf =
OpHrs=

emissions of pollutant i, kg/yr

fuel use, kg/hr
molecular weight of pollutant emitted, kg/kg-mole
elemental weight of substance in fuel, kg/kg-mole
operating hours, hr/yr

For instance, SO2 emissions from oil combustion can be calculated based on the
concentration of sulfur in the oil. This approach assumes complete conversion of sulfur to
SO2. Therefore, for every kilogram of sulfur (EW = 32) burned, two kilograms of SO2
(MW = 64) are emitted. The application of this EET is shown in Example 2.

Vegetable Oil Processing Industry

16

Example 2 - Using Fuel Analysis

This example illustrates how SO2 emissions can be calculated from oil combustion based
on fuel analysis results and the fuel flow information from a processing facility. The
facility is assumed to operate 1500 hours per year.
Ekpy,SO2 = may be calculated using Equation 5.
Fuel flow
Weight percent sulfur in fuel
Ekpy,SO2 =

3.4

=
=

2 000 kg/hr
1.17

Qf * pollutant concentration in fuel * (MWp / EWf ) * OpHrs

=
(2 000) * (1.17 / 100) * (64 / 32) * 1 500
=
46.8 kg/hr * 1 500 hr/yr
=
70 200 kg/yr

Emission Factors

An emission factor is a tool that is used to estimate emissions to the environment. In this
Manual, it relates the quantity of substances emitted from a source to some common
activity associated with those emissions. Emission factors are obtained from US, European,
and Australian sources and are usually expressed as the weight of a substance emitted
divided by the unit weight, volume, distance, or duration of the activity emitting the
substance.
Emission factors are used to estimate a facilitys emissions by the general equation:
Equation 6
Ekpy,i

[A * OpHrs] * EFi * [1 - (CEi/100)])

where :
Ekpy,i =
A
=
OpHrs=
EFi
=
=
CEi

emission rate of pollutant i, kg/yr

activity rate, t/hr
operating hours, hr/yr
uncontrolled emission factor of pollutant i, kg/t
overall control efficiency of pollutant i, %.

Emission factors developed from measurements for a specific process may sometimes be
used to estimate emissions at other sites. Should a company have several processes of
similar operation and size, and emissions are measured from one process source, an
emission factor can be developed and applied to similar sources. You are required to have
the emission factor reviewed and approved by State or Territory environment agencies
prior to its use for NPI estimations.

Vegetable Oil Processing Industry

17

3.4.1 Industry-Wide Emission Factors

Table 2 presents emission factors for total PM emissions resulting from handling and
processing soybeans in vegetable oil manufacturing. Emission factors are provided for
PM-generating processes for the meal production process, including meal drying and
cooling.
a, b, c

Table 2 - Total Particulate Emission Factors for Soybean Milling

Process
Receiving
Handling
Cleaning
Drying
Cracking/Dehulling
Hull Grinding
Bean Conditioning
Flaking Rolls
White Flake Cooler
Meal Cooler
Meal Dryer
Meal Grinding/Sizing
Meal Loadout

Control Device
None
ND
ND
ND
Cyclone
Cyclone
Cyclone
Cyclone
Cyclone
Cyclone
Cyclone
Cyclone
None

Emission Factor (kg/tonne)

0.075
ND
ND
ND
0.18
0.10
0.005
0.018
0.475
0.095
0.09
0.17
0.135

Source: USEPA, AP-42, section 9.11.1, 1995

a
Emission factors are based on kilograms per tonne of soybean processed by the unit. Factors represent
controlled emissions, excepted as noted. ND = No Data
b
Emission factor uncertainty rating = E
c
Utilisation of emission factors from this table will over-estimate the calculation of PM10 emission for your
facility (conservative estimate as PM10 would probably account for 30 - 50% of total particulate matter)

Example 3 - Using Emission Factors

Table 2 shows that 0.10 kg of particulate matter are emitted from hull grinding from a
soybean mill, for each tonne of soybean processed by the unit. The overall control
efficiency of the pollutant is 50%. If it is assumed that the facility operates 260 days per
year, then
EFPM
=
Activity rate =
=
OpHrs
=
=
CE
=

0.10 kg/t
100 t/d * (1d/8hr)
12.5 t/hr
8hr/d * 260 d/yr
2080 hr/yr
50%

Ekpy,PM

[A * OpHrs] * EFi * [1 - (CEi/100)])

12.5 * 2080 * 0.1 * 0.5
1300 kg/yr

=
=
=

Vegetable Oil Processing Industry

18

3.4.2 Predictive Emission Monitoring (PEM)

Predictive emission monitoring is based on developing a correlation between pollutant
emission rates and process parameters. A PEM allows facilities to develop site-specific
emission factors, or emission factors more relevant to their particular process.
Based on test data, a mathematical correlation can be developed that predicts emissions
using various parameters.

Vegetable Oil Processing Industry

19

4.0

Emission Estimation Techniques: Acceptable Reliability and

Uncertainty

This section is intended to give a general overview of some of the inaccuracies associated
with each of the techniques. Although the National Pollutant Inventory does not favour
one emission estimation technique over another, this section does attempt to evaluate the
available emission estimation techniques with regards to accuracy.
Several techniques are available for calculating emissions from vegetable oil processing
facilities. The technique chosen is dependent on available data, available resources, and
the degree of accuracy sought by the facility in undertaking the estimate. In general, sitespecific data that is representative of normal operations is more accurate than industryaveraged data, such as the emission factors presented in Section 3.4.1 of this Manual.
4.1

Direct Measurement

Use of stack and/or workplace health and safety sampling data is likely to be a relatively
accurate method of estimating air emissions from vegetable oil processing facilities.
However, collection and analysis of samples from facilities can be very expensive and
especially complicated where a variety of NPI-listed substances are emitted and where
most of these emissions are fugitive in nature. Sampling data from a specific process may
not be representative of the entire manufacturing operation and may provide only one
example of the facilitys emissions.
To be representative, sampling data used for NPI reporting purposes needs to be collected
over a period of time, and to cover aspects of production of vegetable oil products.
In the case of CEMS, instrument calibration drift can be problematic and uncaptured data
can create long-term incomplete data sets. However, it may be misleading to assert that a
snapshot (stack sampling) can better predict long-term emission characteristics. It is the
responsibility of the facility operator to properly calibrate and maintain monitoring
equipment and the corresponding emissions data.
4.2

Mass Balance

Calculating emissions from a vegetable oil processing facility using mass balance appears
on the surface to be a straightforward approach to emission estimations. However, it is
likely that few Australian vegetable oil processing facilities consistently track material
usage and waste generation with the overall accuracy needed for application of this
method. Inaccuracies associated with individual material tracking or other activities
inherent in each material handling stage can often result in large deviations of total facility
emissions. Because emissions from specific materials are typically below 2 percent of gross
consumption, an error of only 5 percent in any one step of the operation can significantly
skew emission estimations.

Vegetable Oil Processing Industry

20

4.3

Engineering Calculations

Theoretical and complex equations or models can be used for estimating emissions from
vegetable oil processes.
Use of emission equations to estimate emissions from vegetable oil processing facilities is a
more complex and time-consuming process than the use of emission factors. Emission
equations require more detailed inputs than the use of emission factors, but they do
provide an emission estimate that is based on facility-specific conditions.
4.4

Emission Factors

Every emission factor has an associated emission factor rating (EFR) code. This rating
system is common to EETs for all industries and sectors and therefore, to all Industry
Handbooks. They are based on rating systems developed by the United States
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), and by the European Environment Agency
(EEA). Consequently, the ratings may not be directly relevant to Australian industry.
Sources for all emission factors cited can be found in Section of this Manual. The emission
factor ratings will not form part of the public NPI database.
When using emission factors, you should be aware of the associated EFR code and what
that rating implies. An A or B rating indicates a greater degree of certainty than a D or E
rating. The less certainty, the more likely that a given emission factor for a specific source
or category is not representative of the source type. These ratings notwithstanding, the
main criterion affecting the uncertainty of an emission factor remains the degree of
similarity between the equipment/process selected in applying the factor, and the target
equipment/process from which the factor was derived.
The EFR system is as follows:
A
B
C
D
E
U

Excellent
Above Average
Average
Below Average
Poor
Unrated

Vegetable Oil Processing Industry

21

5.0

References

Cargill Newcastle , August 1998, Written Communication from: Monica McGahey to Rene
Batchelor.
National Pollutant Inventory Homepage
http://www.environment.gov.au/epg/npi/home.html

USEPA, 1995, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Volume 1: Stationary Point and
Area Sources, fifth edition, AP-42. Section 9.11.1 Vegetable Oil Processing, United States
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Research
Triangle Park, NC, USA.
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42.html

The following Emission Estimation Technique Manuals referred to in this are available at
the NPI Homepage and from your local environmental protection agency (see the front of
the NPI Guide for details):

Emission Estimation Technique Manual for Combustion Engines; and

Emission Estimation Technique Manual for Fuel & Organic Liquid Storage.

Vegetable Oil Processing Industry

22