: Dermatology for the Small Animal Practitioner, Mueller R.S. (Ed.).

Publisher: Teton
NewMedia, Jackson WY (www.tetonnm.com/). Internet Publisher: International
Veterinary Information Service, Ithaca NY (www.ivis.org), Last updated: 24-Feb-2006;
A3704.0206

Dermatologic Examination
R. S. Mueller
Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical
Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA.
A good dermatologic examination requires adequate lighting, a systematic and thorough
approach, and should always include a general physical examination. Observation from a
distance should be followed by close inspection of skin and mucous membranes. I start at
the head, look at the lips, mouth, ears, run my hands through the coat of the trunk, lift up
the tail to inspect the perianal area, and then examine the legs and feet with pads and
claws. Next, the patient is rolled on his back - reluctant small pets are made to sit up in
the lap of the owner; with larger dogs the front paws are lifted up for a short moment,
which gives me the opportunity to examine the animal's ventral aspects from the axillae
to the groin.

General Observation
Localized or Generalized Problem

Localized problems may be due to infectious organisms that gained entry at a certain
site and spread only locally such as atypical mycobacterial or fungal infections.
Neoplastic disease is commonly localized, at least initially.
Generalized disorders are more commonly due to hypersensitivities or systemic
conditions such as endocrine disorders and immune-mediated or metabolic skin diseases.
Symmetry

Bilaterally symmetric lesions are typically caused by internal disease such as

hypothyroidism, hyperadrenocorticism, or pemphigus foliaceus. Allergies may also
present with bilaterally symmetric symptoms.
Asymmetric lesions more commonly have external causes such as ectoparasites (e.g.,
demodicosis) or fungi (e.g., dermatophytosis).
Haircoat Quality, Color, and Shine

Is the haircoat dull or shiny? A dull haircoat may be due to metabolic or hormonal
diseases, nutritional deficiencies, or chronic skin disease.
Are there color abnormalities or changes and if so, did they occur before or concurrent
with the onset of skin disease or as a consequence of the disease. Hair color changes may

be associated with hormonal disease or follicular dysplasia.

Changes in the hair quality (either to a coarse coat or to a fine puppy coat) may again
point to hormonal disease or follicular dysplasia.
Close inspection of the skin and mucous membranes follows the general observation. Pay
special attention to any individual lesions. Primary lesions are initial eruptions that are
caused directly by the underlying disease process. Secondary lesions evolve from primary
lesions or are caused by the patient (self-trauma) or environment (medications). It is
important that the clinician be able both to differentiate between primary and secondary
lesions and to understand the underlying pathomechanism because this helps in the
formulation of a relevant list of differential diagnoses. I next discuss the individual
lesions and their implications and give the most common differential diagnoses for each
lesion.

Primary Lesions
Macule

Figure 1-1a. Macule - Definition: A focal, circumscribed, nonpalpable change in color <1
cm (when it is larger, it is termed a patch). Pathogenesis: Pigmentation change due to
decreased or increased melanin production, erythema due to inflammation or local
hemorrhage caused by trauma or vasculitis. To view click on figure

Figure 1-1b. Macule - Differential diagnoses-depigmentation: Vitiligo, discoid lupus

erythematosus, uveodermatologic syndrome, mucocutaneous pyoderma. Differential
diagnoses -hyperpigmentation: Lentigo, hormonal diseases or post-inflammatory with a
multitude of possible underlying causes lentigo. Differential diagnosis-erythema:
Inflammation due to a variety of underlying diseases or hemorrhage due to
vasculopathies or coagulopathies. To view click on figure
Papule

Figure 1-2a. Papule - Definition: A solid elevation of up to 1 cm in diameter. Larger

lesions are called plaques. Pathogenesis: Influx of inflammatory cells into the dermis,
focal epidermal hyperplasia, early neoplastic lesions. To view click on figure

Figure 1-2b. Papule - Differential diagnoses: Bacterial folliculitis, demodicosis, fungal

folliculitis, flea-bite and mosquito-bite hypersensitivity, scabies, contact allergy,
autoimmune skin disease, drug eruption. To view click on figure
Pustule

Figure 1-3a. Pustule - Definition: A small circumscribed area within the epidermis filled
with pus. Pathogenesis: Most pustules are filled with neutrophils, but eosinophilic
pustules may also be seen. Aspiration cytology and biopsy are indicated (Courtesy of Dr.
Thierry Olivry). To view click on figure

Figure 1-3b. Pustule - Differential diagnoses-neutrophils: Bacterial infection, fungal

infection, autoimmune skin disease. Differential diagnoses-eosinophils: Insect or contact
hypersensitivity, parasites, immune-mediated skin disease. To view click on figure
Vesicle

Figure 1-4a. Vesicle - Definition: A small circumscribed area within or below the
epidermis filled with clear fluid. Larger vesicles are called bullae. Vesicles are very
fragile and thus transient. Pathogenesis: Spongiosis and extra-cellular fluid collection due
to inflammation and loss of cohesion (Courtesy of Dr. Thierry Olivry). To view click on
figure

Figure 1-4b. Vesicle - Differential diagnoses: Immune-mediated and congenital skin

diseases, viral diseases, or irritant dermatitis. To view click on figure
Wheal

Figure 1-5a. Wheal - Definition: A sharply circumscribed, raised, edematous lesion that
appears and disappears within minutes to hours. Pathogenesis: Subcutaneous edema. To
view click on figure

Figure 1-5b. Wheal - Differential diagnoses: Urticaria, insect bites, other

hypersensitivities, drug eruption. To view click on figure
Nodule

Figure 1-6a. Nodule - Definition: A circumscribed, solid elevation more than 1 cm in

diameter that extends into deeper layers of the skin. Pathogenesis: Massive infiltration of
inflammatory or neoplastic cells into the dermis and subcutis or deposition of fibrin and
crystalline material. To view click on figure

Figure 1-6b. Nodule - Differential diagnoses: Sterile granulomatous diseases, bacterial or

fungal infections, neoplastic diseases, calcinosis cutis. To view click on figure
Tumor

Figure 1-7a. Tumor - Definition: A large mass involving skin or subcutaneous tissue.
Pathogenesis: Massive influx of inflammatory or neoplastic cells. To view click on figure

Figure 1-7b. Tumor - Differential diagnoses: Sterile granulomatous diseases, bacterial or

fungal infections, neoplastic diseases. To view click on figure

Primary or Secondary Lesions

Alopecia

Figure 1-8. Alopecia - Definition: Partial to complete loss of hair. Pathogenesis: Selftrauma, damage to the hair or hair follicle due to dysplasia, inflammation and/or
infection, lack of hair regrowth often due to hormonal disease. To view click on figure
Differential diagnoses: Primary lesion in follicular dysplasias, endocrine disorders,
telogen effluvium, anagen defluxion. Secondary lesion in pruritic skin diseases, bacterial
or fungal folliculitis, demodicosis.
Scale

Figure 1-9a. Scale - Definition: An accumulation of loose fragments of the horny layer of
the skin. Pathogenesis: Increased production of keratinocytes (often associated with

abnormalities of the keratinization process) or increased retention of corneocytes. To

view click on figure

Figure 1-9b. Scale - Differential diagnoses: Primary lesion in follicular dysplasias,

idiopathic seborrheas and ichthyosis. Secondary lesion in diseases associated with
chronic skin inflammation. To view click on figure
Crust

Figure 1-10a. Crust - Definition: Adherence of dried exudate, serum, pus, blood, scales,
or medications to the skin surface. To view click on figure

Figure 1-10b. Crust - Differential diagnoses: Primary lesion in idiopathic seborrhea, zincresponsive dermatitis, metabolic epidermal necrosis. Secondary lesion in a variety of skin
diseases. To view click on figure
Follicular Cast

Figure 1-11a. Follicular Cast - Definition: An accumulation of keratin and follicular

material to the hair shaft. To view click on figure

Figure 1-11b. Follicular Cast - Differential diagnoses: Primary lesion in vitamin Aresponsive dermatosis, idiopathic seborrhea, and sebaceous adenitis. Secondary lesion in
dermatophytosis and demodicosis. To view click on figure

Pigmentary Abnormalities
Hyperpigmentation

Figure 1-12a. Hyperpigmentation - Definition: Increased epidermal and/or dermal

melanin. Pathogenesis: Increased production, size, or melanization of melanosomes or
increased number of melanosomes due to a variety of intrinsic or extrinsic factors. Most
common cause: Chronic inflammation. To view click on figure

Figure 1-12b. Hyperpigmentation - Differential diagnoses: Primary lesion in endocrine

dermatoses, secondary post-inflammatory change due to a variety of skin diseases. To
view click on figure
Comedo

Figure 1-13a. Comedones - Definition: A dilated hair follicle filled with corneocytes and
sebaceous material. Pathogenesis: Primary keratinization defects or hyperkeratosis due to
hormonal abnormalities or inflammation. To view click on figure

Figure 1-13b. Comedones - Differential diagnoses: Primary lesion in feline acne, some
idiopathic seborrheas, Schnauzer comedo syndrome, endocrine diseases. Secondary
lesion in demodicosis, and less commonly dermatophytosis. To view click on figure

Secondary Lesions
Epidermal Collarette

Figure 1-14a. Epidermal Collarette - Definition: Scale of loose keratin flakes or "peeling"
keratin arranged in a circle. Pathogenesis: Remnant of a pustule or vesicle after the top
part (the "roof") has been lost, or caused by a point source of inflammation, such as a
papule. To view click on figure

Figure 1-14b. Epidermal Collarette - Differential diagnoses: Most likely bacterial

infection, less commonly fungal infection, immune-mediated skin disease, insect-bite
reaction, or contact hypersensitivity. To view click on figure
Erosion

Figure 1-15a. Erosion - Definition: A shallow epidermal defect that does not penetrate the
basal membrane. Pathogenesis: Trauma or inflammation leads to rapid death and/or loss
of keratinocytes. To view click on figure

Figure 1-15b. Erosion - Differential diagnoses: Various skin diseases associated with self
trauma such as infections or allergies. To view click on figure
Ulcer

Figure 1-16a. Ulcer - Definition: Focal loss of epidermis with exposure of underlying
dermis. Pathogenesis: Severe trauma and/or deep and severe inflammation. To view click
on figure

Figure 1-16b. Ulcer - Differential diagnoses: Various skin diseases associated with
trauma such as infections and allergies, also immune-mediated diseases. To view click on
figure
Lichenification

Figure 1-17a. Lichenification - Definition: Thickening and hardening of skin

characterized by exaggerated superficial skin markings. Pathogenesis: Chronic trauma
such as friction or rubbing. To view click on figure

Figure 1-17b. Lichenification - Differential diagnoses: All chronic and pruritic skin
diseases. To view click on figure