8.

RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Increasing the use of domestic renewable energy resources is one of the primary goals of
U.E. and U.S.A. energy policy makers. Unfortunately there is an underlying problem to
this growth target. Renewable energy market penetration continues to lag expectations,
and significant efforts on many fronts will be needed to expand the level of renewable
energy generation to the point where it can begin to account for such a significant
segment of the supply base. From these sources, power production will continue to
expand especially small scale hydro, solar and wind power, because are quite flexible and
can be integrated most easily into the existing infrastructure. The main renewable energy
plants are the followings:
- fuel cell plants,
- small scale hydro,
- solar plants,
- wind plants.
8.2 FUEL CELL PLANTS
The base element of a fuel cell plant is the fuel cell. A complete fuel cell plant comprises
a fuel delivery system, a stack, various controls over the plant operation and output power
conditioning equipment.
8.2.1 Fuel cells
Fuel cells are energy conversion devices, which by combining hydrogen and oxygen into
water convert chemical energy into electricity and heat. A fuel cell works much like a
battery. In both batteries and fuel cells two electrodes, an anode and a cathode, are
separated by an electrolyte. Whereas a storage battery contains all the substances in the
electrochemical oxidation-reduction reactions involved and has, therefore, a limited
capacity. A fuel cell is supplied with its reactants externally and operates continuously as
long as it is supplied with fuel.
There are five basic types of fuel cell being commercially developed, a classification
being based on the electrolytes used. Low temperature types include the alkaline fuel cell
(AFC) and the solid polymer fuel cell (SPFC), to which belong the proton exchange
membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) and the direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC), the medium
temperature type is the phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) and the two high temperature
types are the molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) and the solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC). An
idealized schematic diagram illustrating the structure, electron and ion flow for the
various types of fuel cell is shown in Fig. 8.1.
Phosphoric acid (PAFC) and proton exchange (PEMFC) fuel cells both use acid
electrolytes, alkaline (AFC) and molten carbonate (MCFC) fuel cells use liquid alkaline
based electrolytes while solid oxide (SOFC) fuel cells use a zirconia-based ceramic. The
direction of the ion flow depends on whether the ion is positively or negatively charged

and also determines the site of water formation and subsequent removal. Table 8.1
summarizes the different characteristics of these fuel cells.

Fig. 8.1: Principle of fuel cell operation.

Alkaline fuel cells (AFC): the application of AFCs in space has been especially
noteworthy. They are ideally suited to closed environments containing their own supplies
of hydrogen and oxygen and have also been demonstrated in a variety of automotive
applications. AFC performance is particularly sensitive to contaminants in the gas
supplies, notably carbon dioxide, which reacts with the electrolyte to form a carbonate
and reduces the conductivity. With the chemical reaction occurring at the cathode and the
low operating temperature the start-up time of the AFC is very fast and the cell yields
high power generation efficiencies.
Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC): the low operating temperatures and the
solid electrolyte (an acid-based ion conducting plastic membrane) also make PEMFCs
suited to a wide array of uses from low and medium to high power applications. Such a
list would include power tools, compressors, recreational applications in camping and
boats, heat and electricity to dwellings and electricity to commercial buildings, schools
and hospitals. They are most widely known at present for their potential in automotive
applications where much evaluation is underway. The low temperature electrolyte
requires platinum as the catalyst applied to either side of the membrane to accelerate the
dissociation of hydrogen and oxygen.

Direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC): this cell is similar to the PEMFC except that
hydrogen is extracted from a methanol/water solution. This gives it an advantage in as
much as the hydrogen is extracted by the catalyst and not by the addition of complex
reforming plant. The initial markets for DMFCs are considered to be in the small and
medium power applications such as occupied by batteries in consumer and military
electronic products. The power to weight ratio is theoretically of the order of 10:1
compared with batteries. The main outstanding problem is the cross-over of methanol
from the anode to the cathode through the membrane drastically reducing the cell
performance.
Table 8.1: Fuel cell types and characteristics.

Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC): these fuel cells have given much durable service over
many years with a very stable electrolyte in medium to high power stationary
applications. Typically 200 kW units are found in hospitals, schools, hotels and various
military installations. With its higher temperature carbon monoxide poisoning is not such
a severe problem as in the PEMFCs, but with poor ionic conduction this comparatively
large and weighty cell technology appears to be relatively expensive.
Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC): multi-megawatt plants have been demonstrated with
obvious applications in commercial buildings, especially those requiring high quality heat
such as in commercial buildings, hospitals and hotels. Developments include cells for use
in natural gas and coal-based power plants in heavy industries. The high operating
temperatures allow the use of fuels such as natural gas and coal gas without the need of
noble metal catalysts and allow the fuel to be internally reformed without the need of

complex reforming equipment. The quality of the heat allows for the possibility of higher
efficiencies when coupled to CHP or combined cycle plant.
Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC): here the biggest problem in the development of these cells
is working with the high operating temperatures above 850oC where significant material
problems occur. Below this temperature ionic conduction is a problem and the cell's
performance deteriorates rapidly. Designs and demonstrations are being carried out to
supply a wide variety of stationary needs from a few kilowatts to multi-megawatt
industrial and power system plants as well as automotive power units.
The high temperatures confer the same advantages onto this cell as for the MCFC design
with the high temperatures adding further to CHP and combined cycle plants. As a
completely solid state device, however, the management problems inherent in liquid
electrolyte designs are avoided and, in principle, there are no constraints on cell
configuration allowing flexibility in design.
The theoretical limit on voltage developed by a single cell is about 1.23 V with typical
operation being at about 0.7 V. Current (d.c.) delivered is approximately 0.5 amps/cm 2 of
cell surface area giving an output power of about 0.35 watts/ cm 2. To generate more
power the cells are connected together in stacks.
8.2.2 Fuel Delivery System
The fuel delivery system can range from a simple flow control unit to a fuel preprocessing unit. In practice hydrogen always occurs in combination with other elements.
It is necessary, therefore, to produce it either by electrolysis in the case of water or by
separation in a reformer if a hydrocarbon fuel is used as a primary source. A fuel cell
system, which includes a fuel reformer, utilizes, in principle, the hydrogen from any
hydrocarbon fuel from natural gas to methanol.
The two primary types of reformers being developed for transportation are steam
reformers and partial oxidation reformers. Steam reformers have higher efficiency but
partial oxidation reformers are simpler.
8.3.3 Plant Control System
Plant control includes water management control and appropriate temperature control. As
exhaust product water is seen as providing a potentially important added benefit in fuel
cell operation in future, given concerns about the adequate local supplies of pure water
for human consumption and industrial purposes.
With regard to temperature control, a preheating stage particularly for high temperature
fuel cells maybe required for start-up. Heat exchangers are required to ensure the
reactants enter the cells at appropriate temperatures for operation, again a particularly
important requirement for high temperature cells. The flow rate of the oxidant generally
controls the stack temperature.
8.3.4 Plant Conditioning Equipment
Finally the power conditioning equipment converts the generated electricity, which is in
the form of direct current, into the form required for use, usually alternating current at
specified voltage and frequency. Figure 8.2 illustrates the structure of a fuel cell plant
with heat reformer to convert fossil fuel such as natural gas or methanol into hydrogen, or
a hydrogen rich gas for supply to the cells.

Fig. 8.2: Fuel cell power-generation system.

Fuel cell systems incorporating the collection of the water exhaust, its dissociation by
electrolysis using an external source of electricity with storage and subsequent use of the
hydrogen and oxygen produced, form a regenerative system. Such systems could be
independent of established fuel/energy infrastructures. The pure forms of the gases would
be a further benefit in cells susceptible to carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide.
Applications are seen initially in uninterruptible power supplies and in remote power
requirements. A different type of regenerative fuel cell has been developed known as the
Regenysis system which could also be considered as a flow cell type of battery using fuel
cell technology. Its chemistry is not based on combining hydrogen and oxygen into water
and converting chemical energy into electricity and heat, but instead stores or releases
energy by means of a reversible electrochemical reaction between two electrolyte
solutions.
One design comprising one hundred 100 kW stacks or modules provides 120 MWh of
energy storage capable of being released at a rate of 12 MW for 10 h with a peak output
of 14.75 MW. In common with all electrochemical systems, maximum efficiency is
achieved below the maximum power rating. Power response is fast with zero to full
discharge being achieved in 10 15 ms, being limited by the performance of the power
conversion unit.
8.3 SMALL-SCALE HYDRO PLANTS
A small-scale hydroelectric facility requires that a sizable flow of water and an adequate
head of water are available without building elaborate and expensive facilities. Small
hydroelectric plants can be developed at existing dams and have been constructed in
connection with water level control of rivers, lakes and irrigation schemes. By using
existing structures, only minor new civil engineering works are required, which reduces
the cost of this component of a development. In other, more rugged regions of the
country, it is possible to develop relatively higher heads without elaborate or expensive

civil engineering works so that relatively smaller flows are required to develop the
desired power.
In these cases, it may be possible to construct a relatively simple diversion structure and
obtain the highest drop by diverting flows at the top of a waterfall or steeply falling water
course.
8.3.1 Types of Small-Scale Developments
Small-scale hydro stations are classified in the Table 8.2:
Table 8.2: Classification of small-scale hydro stations.
Size of hydroelectric
facility
Micro

Power output
100 kW or less typical supply for one or two houses

Mini

100 kW to 1 MW typical supply for a small factory or isolated

community

Small

1 MW to 30 MW typical NUG development and low end of

range for supply to a regional or provincial power grid

In large facilities, custom design detailed engineering is required. Small-scale

hydroelectric developments have to be approached quite differently to achieve
economical feasibility. Over the last twenty-five years, efforts have been made to reduce
development costs by improving all phases of project development. Some of the
innovations produced by these efforts are:
- improved methodologies for hydro resource assessment and project identification,
- improved methods of hydrologic assessment,
- standardized designs of turbines and generators,
- standardized requirements for connection to grid,
- new contracting methods turnkey,
- improvements in computational technology,
- standardized civil designs and partial development.
8.3.2 Benefits of Small Hydroelectric Energy
The benefits of small hydroelectric energy are the followings:
Environmental benefits
Small-scale hydroelectric developments do not take up much space and they rarely cause
significant shoreline flooding or required river diversions. Large-scale projects, however,
can create adverse environmental impacts such as shoreline flooding. Most of the
negative environmental impacts of small-scale hydroelectric developments can be
avoided in part or in whole by a good design and appropriate construction and operating
practices.
Reducing risk of transporting fuel supplies (fossil fuel generation)

Fuel supplies must be transported over long distances. The risk of fuel spills is
significant, especially in remote areas where the roads can be ice covered and the
environment is ecologically fragile.
In urban areas, the risks to public safety from collisions or derailments in crowded road
or rail corridors are also significant.
Socio-economic benefits
The most obvious social benefit of small hydroelectric developments is the supply of
reliable low-cost electric energy to provide the comforts of modern living. Small-scale
hydroelectric developments can provide a competitive source of reliable and inflationproof energy. Small-scale hydroelectric energy is an especially attractive alternative to
traditional high-cost diesel generation that currently provides electric energy in most
remote communities. Compared with diesel generation, small-scale hydroelectric
developments offer other interesting advantages such as:
- using a local resource and therefore produce electricity at a stable price that is not
subject to the fluctuations of the international oil market,
- providing more economic benefits to the region by way of construction employment
and use of local services, 10% to 25% of capital cost,
- providing greater opportunities for local residents to learn and upgrade their
construction skills.
Business benefits
creation of new economic opportunities (equipment manufacturers and
engineering firms employing working people),
important contributions in manufacturing and services,
new opportunities for consultants and financiers, also export to overseas
customers.
8.3.3 Constraints imposed on Small-Hydro Developments
Constraints that challenge small-scale hydroelectric development include the following
issues:
Cold climate requirements
Small hydroelectric design must provide for control of frazil ice and pipeline freezing
factors that add to capital expenses and operating costs
Fish protection
At sites where fish migration is a concern, small hydroelectric developers may have to
provide expensive preventative measures such as fish guidance or habitat compensation.
Institutional
Often, small-scale hydroelectric developers sell the output of their plants to regional or
provincial grids. Because purchase contracts and interconnection requirements are not
standardized, project preparation and design costs are higher.
Regulation(norme, directive)
The regulations focus more on large-scale hydroelectric issues than on small-scale
hydroelectric issues that sometimes impose disproportionate demands on small
hydroelectric developers.
8.3.4 Understanding the Types of Hydroelectric Facilities

To generate electricity, hydroelectric facilities must have adequate river flow and a
sufficient head (height for the water to fall). The best locations are waterfalls, rapids,
canyons, deep valleys or river bends. Often these locations make it easier to build
compact and economic plant layouts. Its also an advantage if the site is close to a
location where the electricity is consumed and there is good accessibility for construction
activities.
Run-of-river facilities use low dams to provide limited storage of water - at most daily
pondage. Run-of-river facilities produce minimal reservoir flooding and cause few
alterations to the natural river. Because run-of-river facilities have limited storage, water
must either be turbined or spilled.
A partial development places an intake on a riverbank instead of on a dam. These types of
development can only use a portion of the available river flow. This is a special type of
run-of-river plant.
Natural river flows vary significantly from season to season. Usually, rivers have the
highest flows in spring, or early summer, and the lowest toward the end of
winter. During the high periods, surplus water can be stored in a reservoir that is part of
the hydroelectric facility. The water in the reservoir is used during low flow periods. The
surplus water can be stored in the forebay/reservoir or at a remote, upstream
location. This control of flow is called flow regulation. Depending on the volume of
storage, flow regulation can be used on a seasonal, annual or multiple-year basis.
In systems where hydroelectric facilities and thermal facilities are used together, the two
types complement each other. During periods when the water flow is low, thermal
facilities can boost the low hydroelectric production. Hydroelectric facilities can be used
when demand is high because hydro units can respond to rapid load changes, which is not
possible with steam-powered thermal facilities.
A water resource project may have multiple purposes, such as electricity generation,
irrigation, flood control, recreation or environmental sites. These types of facilities must
find an optimal balance between competing uses of water.
8.4 SOLAR PLANTS
Solar plants are based on solar energy and are designed to provide electrical power on the
same scale as plants that rely on nuclear or fossil fuel.
8.4.1 Solar Energy
Solar energy is generally emitted by a star (the sun). Energy from the sun travels

to the earth in the form of electromagnetic radiation similar to radio waves, but in a
different frequency range. Figure 8.3 shows the anatomy of the star. The energy
emitted by it is generated by nuclear fusion.

Fig. 8.3: Anatomy of a star.

The fusion process occurs in the core (center), of the star. Energy released by the fusion
process propagates away from the core by radiating from one atom to another in the
radiation zone of the star. As the energy moves away from the core and passes through
the radiation zone, it reaches the part of the star where energy continues its journey
toward the surface of the star as heat associated with thermal gradients. This part of the
star is called the convection zone. The surface of the star, called the photosphere,
emits light in the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The star is engulfed in a
stellar atmosphere called the chromosphere. The chromosphere is a layer of hot gases
surrounding the photosphere. The luminosity of a star is the total energy radiated per
second by the star. The luminosity of the sun is approximately 3.8 1026 W. Radiation
from the sun is comparable to the radiation emitted by a black body at 6000 oK. The
amount of radiation from the sun that reaches the earths atmosphere is called the solar
constant and is approximately equal to 1370 W/m2. The solar constant varies with time
because the earths axis is inclined and the earth follows an elliptical orbit around the sun.
The distance between a point on the surface of the earth and the sun varies throughout the
year. To account for the time dependence, we write the solar constant as a function of
time S(t). The amount of solar radiation that reaches the surface of the earth depends on
the factors illustrated in Fig.8.4.

Fig. 8.4: Solar radiation and the earth-atmosphere system.

The flux of solar radiation incident on a surface placed at the edge of the earths
atmosphere depends on the time of day and year, and the geographical location of the
surface. The geographical location of the surface can be identified by its latitude lat and
longitude long. The incident flux of solar radiation (Einc) at the edge of the atmosphere is:
(8.1)
where the angle (t, lat, long) is the angle between the incident solar flux at time t and the
normal to the surface at latitude lat and longitude long. Some incident solar radiation is
reflected by the earths atmosphere. The fraction of solar radiation that is reflected back
into space by the earth atmosphere system is called the albedo. The albedo (a) is
approximately 0.35, which is due to clouds (0.2), atmospheric particles (0.1), and
reflection by the earths surface (0.05). The flux that enters the atmosphere is reduced by
the albedo, thus
.

(8.2)

Once in the atmosphere, solar radiation can be absorbed in the atmosphere or scattered
away from the earths surface by atmospheric particulates such as air, water vapor, dust
particles, and aerosols. Some of the scattered light eventually reaches the surface of the
earth as diffused light. Solar radiation that reaches the earths surface from the disk of the
sun is called direct solar radiation if it has experienced negligible change in its original
direction of propagation.
As a result, on a clear day the amount of solar energy available at the Earths surface in
the direction of the sun is typically 1000 W/m2. At any particular time, the available solar
energy is primarily dependent upon how high the sun is in the sky and current cloud

conditions. On a monthly or annual basis, the amount of solar energy available also
depends upon the location. Furthermore, useable solar energy is depends upon available
solar energy, other weather conditions, the technology used and the application.
Solar energy has the following advantages over conventional energy:
- the energy from the sun is virtually free after the initial cost has been recovered;
- depending on the utilization of energy, paybacks can be very short when compared to
the cost of common energy sources used;
- solar and other renewable energy systems can be stand-alone; thereby not requiring
connection to a power or natural gas grid;
- the sun provides a virtually unlimited supply of solar energy;
- the use of solar energy displaces conventional energy; which usually results in a
proportional decrease in green house gas emissions.
- the use of solar energy is an untapped market.
8.4.2 Global Warming
Solar radiation heats the earth. The average temperature at the earths surface is
approximately 287oK, and typically varies from 220oK to 320oK. Daily variations in
temperature are due to the rotation of the earth around its axis. Seasonal variations in
temperature are due to the rotation of the earth around the sun and the angle of inclination
of the earths axis relative to the ecliptic plane.
The global warming effect consists in increasing of the average temperature of the earths
atmosphere. The increase in atmospheric temperature can be traced to the beginning of
the twentieth century and is associated with the combustion of fossil fuels. When a
carbon-based fuel burns, carbon can react with oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere to
produce carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides (often abbreviated as
NOx). The combustion by-products, including water vapor, are emitted into the
atmosphere in gaseous form. Some of the gaseous by-products are called greenhouse
gases because they capture the energy in sunlight that is reflected by the earths surface
and re-radiate the energy in the form of infrared radiation. Greenhouse gases include
carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, as well as other gases such as volatile
organic compounds and hydro-fluorocarbons. Global warming due to the absorption of
reflected sunlight and subsequent emission of infrared radiation is called the greenhouse
effect because greenhouse walls allow sunlight to enter the greenhouse and then trap
reradiated infrared radiation. Some of the incident solar radiation from the sun is
absorbed by the earth, some is reflected into space, and some is captured by chemicals in
the atmosphere and re-radiated as infrared radiation (heat). The re-radiated energy would
have escaped the earth as reflected sunlight if greenhouse gases were not present in the
atmosphere.
The concentration of CO2 that would establish an acceptable energy balance is considered
to be 550 parts per million. To achieve the acceptable concentration of CO2 through the
next century, society would have to reduce the volume of greenhouse gases entering the
atmosphere. The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty that was negotiated in Kyoto,
Japan in 1997 to establish limits on the amount of greenhouse gases a country can emit
into the atmosphere. The Kyoto Protocol has not been accepted worldwide. Some
countries believe the greenhouse gas emission limits are too low, and would adversely
affect national and world economies without solving the problem of global warming.

Research is underway to develop the technology needed to capture and store greenhouse
gases in geologic formations as an economically viable means of mitigating the increase
in greenhouse gas concentration in the atmosphere. The storage of greenhouse gases in an
environmentally acceptable manner is called sequestration.
8.4.3 Active Solar Systems
Active solar energy refers to the design and construction of systems that collect and
convert solar energy into other forms of energy such as heat and electrical energy. Active
solar energy technologies are typically mechanical systems that are used to collect and
concentrate solar energy.
8.4.3.1 Solar heat collectors and systems
Solar heat collectors capture sunlight and transform radiant energy into heat energy.
Figure 8.5 is a diagram of a solar heat collector.

Fig.8.5: Solar heat collector.

Sunlight enters the collector through a window made of a material like glass or plastic.
The window is designed to take advantage of the observation that sunlight is
electromagnetic radiation with a distribution of frequencies. The window in a solar heat
collector is transparent to incident solar radiation and opaque to infrared radiation. The
heat absorber plate in the solar heat collector is a dark surface, such as a blackened
copper surface, that can be heated by the absorption of solar energy. The surface of the
heat absorber plate emits infrared radiation as it heats up. Sunlight enters through the
window, is absorbed by the heat absorber plate, and is reradiated in the form of infrared
radiation. Greenhouses work on the same principle: the walls of a greenhouse allow
sunlight to enter and then trap reradiated infrared radiation. The window of the solar heat
collector is not transparent to infrared radiation, so the infrared radiation is trapped in the
collector. The solar heat collector must have a means of transferring collected energy to
useful energy. A heat transfer fluid such as water is circulated through the solar heat
collector in Fig.8.5 and carries heat away from the solar heat collector for use elsewhere.
Figure 8.6 illustrates a solar heating system for residential or commercial use.

Fig. 8.6: Solar heating system.

The solar heating system sketched in Fig.8.6 uses solar energy to heat a liquid coolant
such as water or anti-freeze. The heat exchanger uses heat from the liquid coolant in the
primary circulation system to heat water in the secondary circulation system. The control
valve in the lower right of the figure allows water to be added to the secondary
circulation system. An auxiliary heater in the upper right of the figure is included in the
system to supplement the supply of heat from the solar collector. It is a reminder that
solar energy collection is not a continuous process. A supplemental energy supply or a
solar energy storage system must be included in the design of the heating system to
assure continuous availability of heat from the solar heating system.
8.4.3.2 Energy conversion efficiency
The temperature of a solar heat collector does not increase indefinitely because the
window and walls of the solar heat collector cannot prevent energy from escaping by
conduction and radiation. The collector will emit thermal radiation according to the
StefanBoltzmann law when its temperature is greater than ambient temperature. This
law says that the net energy Qrad radiated through a surface area A by an object at
absolute temperature T with surroundings at absolute temperature Te during a time
interval t is

(8.3)

where is the Boltzmann constant, and e is the thermal emissivity of the object at
absolute temperature T. Thermal emissivity is a dimensionless quantity, and the thermal
emissivity of a black body is 1.

The temperature of the solar heat collector will increase until thermal equilibrium is
established. The energy balance for thermal equilibrium must include energy output as
well as energy loss, thus
(8.4)

The energy conversion efficiency shc of the solar heat collector is then given by:

(8.5)
The efficiency shc depends on the increase in temperature relative to ambient
temperature, the intensity of solar radiation, and the quality of thermal insulation.
An example of an expression for the efficiency shc for a solar heat collector with
commercial insulation is

(8.6)

where a0, b0 are empirical constants, Tamb is ambient temperature in degrees Celsius, T is
the temperature in degrees Celsius of the solar heat collector at a given time, Is is incident
solar intensity at a given time, and Ismax is the maximum solar intensity observed at the
location of the solar heat collector.
The incident solar intensity Is can decrease by more than 50% in cloudy (or smoggy)
conditions relative to Ismax. The efficiency of converting solar energy to heat decreases
because there is less solar energy impinging on the collector. An increase in solar heat
collector temperature T relative to ambient temperature Tamb causes a decrease in intensity
because of energy losses associated with convection and thermal radiation. The loss of
energy by convection and radiation causes a decrease in energy conversion efficiency.
8.4.3.3 Solar power plant
Society is beginning to experiment with solar power plants, and a few are in
commercial operation. They use reflective materials like mirrors to concentrate solar
energy.
As solar power plant applications we mention the followings two ones:
- the Solar Power Tower (SPT),
- the Solar Electric Generating Station (SEGS).

Solar Power Tower

Figure 8.7 presents a solar power tower with a heliostat field. The heliostat field is a field
of large, sun-tracking mirrors called heliostats arranged in rings around a central receiver
tower. The heliostats concentrate sunlight on a receiver at the top of the tower. The solar
energy heats a fluid inside the receiver.

Fig. 8.7: Solar power tower schematic.

Figure 8.8 is a sketch of the geometry of the sun-tracking mirrors relative to the central
receiving station.

Fig. 8.8: Sketch of the solar tower (sun-tracking mirrors geometry).

The heliostats must be able to rotate to optimize the collection of light at the central
receiving station. Computers control heliostat orientation. As a ring of heliostats gets
farther away from the tower, the separation between the ring and adjacent, concentric
rings must increase to avoid shading one ring of mirrors by an adjacent ring.
Example: the first solar power plant based on the solar power tower concept was
built in the Mojave Desert near Barstow, California, in the 1980s. The solar-thermal
power plant at Barstow used 1900 heliostats to reflect sunlight to the receiver at the
top of a 300-foot tall tower. The sunlight generates heat to create steam. The steam
is used to drive a turbine or it can be stored for later use. The first solar power tower,
Solar One, demonstrated the feasibility of collecting solar energy and converting it to
electrical energy. Solar One was a 10-MWe plant.

Solar Electric Generating System

A Solar Electric Generating System (SEGS) consists of a large field of solar heat
collectors and a conventional power plant. The SEGS plants usually use rows of
parabolic trough solar heat collectors. The collectors are sun-tracking reflector panels, or
mirrors. The sunlight reflected by the panels is concentrated on tubes carrying heat
transfer fluid. The fluid is heated and pumped through a series of heat exchangers to
produce superheated steam. The steam turns a turbine in a generator to produce
electricity.
For extended periods of poor weather, solar power plants must use auxiliary fuels in place
of sunlight.
A prototype SEGS plant used natural gas as an auxiliary fuel. Is reported that, on average,
75% of the energy used by the plant was provided by sunlight, and the remaining 25%
was provided by natural gas.
In this case solar collection efficiencies ranged from 40% to 50%, electrical conversion
efficiency was on the order of 40%, and the overall efficiency for solar to electrical
conversion was approximately 15%. The overall efficiency SEGS of a solar electric
generating system is the product of optical efficiency o, thermal conversion efficiency c,
and thermodynamic efficiency t:
.

(8.7)

The optical efficiency is a measure of how much sunlight is reflected into the system. The
thermal conversion efficiency is a measure of how much sunlight entering the system is
converted to heat in the system. The thermodynamic efficiency is a measure of how much
heat in the system is converted to the generation of electricity.
SEGS plants are designed to supply electrical power to local utilities during peak demand
periods. For example, a peak demand period would be a hot summer afternoon when the
demand for air conditioning is high.
This is a good match for a SEGS plant because solar intensity is high. Peak demand
periods also correspond to periods of high pollution.
One benefit of a SEGS plant is its ability to provide electrical power without emitting
fossil fuel pollutants such as nitrous oxide (a component of smog) and carbon dioxide (a
greenhouse gas).
8.4.4 Synthesis of Solar Applications
A Synthesis of Solar Applications is presented in the Table 8.3, as follows:
Table 8.3: Solar system applications.
What is solar
energy used
for?

Where is it used?

Which solar technologies are

used?

Which secondary technologies

are used? (where applicable)

Glazed flat plate collectors

Heat exchanger

Heating - Water
Homes

Batch collectors
Hot water tank
Vacuum tube collectors
Heat exchanger

Commercial

Liquid-based collectors
Medium-large water tank

Glazed flat plate collectors

Heat exchanger

Unglazed flat plate collectors

Medium-large water tank

Aquaculture

Unglazed flat plate collectors

Medium-large water tank

Outdoor pools

Unglazed flat plate collectors

Indoor pools

Glazed flat plate collectors

Agriculture

Heating - Swimming
Pools

Heat exchanger
By-pass dampers

Heating - Ventilation
Air

All building types

all Air-based collectors

Make-up air handling units

Advanced windows

Appropriate building materials

Transparent insulation

Building design

Heating - Buildings

Homes / Commercial

Trombe wall
Heat exchanger
Liquid-based collectors with home heating
system

Community-wide

Greenhouses

Advanced thermal storage

Liquid-based collectors

Seasonal thermal storage

large-scale arrays

District heating network

Transparent insulation
Vacuum tube collectors

Cooling - Buildings

Commercial

Glazed flat plate collectors

Cooling cycles - various

Advanced windows
Daylighting
-Buildings
Crop Drying

Homes & Commercial

Agricultural

Transparent insulation

Building design

all Air-based collectors

Batteries

Electricity Generation
- Off Grid

Cottages / Seasonal homes

Photovoltaics small arrays

Power Invertors
Small wind turbines or microhydro

Power for remote

equipment

Photovoltaics small-medium arrays

All building types

Photovoltaics building integrated mediumscale arrays

Power Invertors

Remote communities

Photovoltaics medium-scale arrays in a hybrid

system

combined with diesel generators on local grid

Electricity Generation
-Distributed Power

Power Invertors
Photovoltaics - large-scale arrays
Electric Utilities

Detoxifying - Water

Industrial / Municipal

Sun trackers

Power tower

Steam turbine

Parabolic trough

High temperature thermal storage

Photocatalysts for oxidation

UV lamps for backup

Thermal catalysts for oxidation with

concentrating collectors
Detoxifying - Air
Cooking food & H2O
treatment

Commercial / Homes

Photocatalysts for oxidation

Homes

Solar cookers

UV lamps for backup

8.5 WIND POWER PLANTS

Wind energy converts kinetic energy that is present in the wind into more useful forms of
energy such as mechanical energy or electricity. Wind energy is a pollution-free,
infinitely sustainable form of energy. It doesnt use fuel; it doesnt produce greenhouse
gasses, and it doesnt produce toxic or radioactive waste.
Modern uses of wind energy include generation of electricity and pumping water. Current
wind energy machines are called wind turbine generators, wind pumps, or more
generally, wind turbines.
The amount of energy depends mainly on wind speed, but is also affected slightly by the
density of the air, which is determined by the air temperature, barometric pressure, and
altitude. Wind speed is affected by the local terrain and increases with height above the
ground, so wind turbines are usually mounted on tall towers.
Any wind turbine that is installed in a very windy area generates less expensive
electricity than the same unit installed in a less windy area. So its important to assess the
wind at the potential site. Modern wind turbine generators cost between $1500 and $2000
per kilowatt for wind farms that use multiple-units of large machines. Smaller individual
units cost up to $3000 per kilowatt. In good wind areas, the costs of generating electricity
range between five and ten cents per kilowatt hour. Wind energy costs are decreasing
every year, whereas most conventional generation costs continue to increase.
When compared to the money that is charged by electrical companies, wind energy costs
are nearly competitive. And that is without accounting for the environmental and health
benefits of using a non-polluting source of energy.
8.5.1 Wind Turbines
Modern wind turbines are classified as either horizontal axis turbines or vertical axis
turbines (see Fig.8.9). A vertical axis turbine has blades that rotate around a vertical axis,
and its visual appearance has been likened to an eggbeater. A horizontal axis turbine has
blades that rotate around a horizontal axis.

a) horizontal axis turbine

b) vertical axis turbine

Fig. 8.9: Modern wind turbines.

A wind turbine consists of six major components (Fig. 8.9):
- a rotor that aerodynamically converts the wind energy into mechanical energy on a
slowly turning shaft;
- a gearbox that increases the rotor-shaft speed for the generator. Some specially designed
generators run at rotor-shaft speed and do not need a gearbox.
- a generator that produces electricity;
- a control and protection system that optimizes performance and keeps the machinery
operating within safe limits;
- a tower that raises the rotor high off the ground where the wind speed is greater and the
effects of local obstructions are less;
- a foundation that supports the wind turbine system, sometimes with the aid of guy
wires.
Wind turbine generators produce a range of electricity. Rotors that have diameters of
about 1m produce a few hundred watts of electricity. Rotors that have diameters that
approach 75m can produce over one megawatt.
The angle between the rotor blade and the plane of rotation of the rotor blade is the pitch
angle. The pitch angle of the rotor blade can be used to control the rotation rate of the
rotor blade.
Horizontal axis turbines are the most common turbines in use today. A detailed view of
such turbine is presented in the Fig. 8.10.

Fig.8.10: View of a horizontal wind turbine.

Figure 8.11 illustrates a cylinder of air approaching a rotating horizontal axis wind
turbine.

Fig. 8.11: Schematic horizontal wind turbine.

The cylinder of air shown in has the volume:
,

(8.8)

where A is the cross-sectional area and L is the length of the cylinder of air. Let us
assume that the density of air air is approximately constant. The air mass of the cylinder
is:
.

(8.9)

Suppose the cylinder of air is moving with speed vair directly at the turbine. The air speed
vair is the speed of the wind. The kinetic energy of the moving air is:

(8.10)

The length L of the air cylinder that reaches the wind turbine in a time interval t is:
.

(8.11)

Substituting eq. (8.11) into eq. (8.10) gives:

.
The rate of arrival of air is the wind power, or

(8.12)

(8.13)
Wind power is proportional to the cube of wind speed. The area A is the surface area of
the circle formed by the rotating tip of the rotor blade. If the rotor blade has radius R, the
area is:
.

(8.14)

We can use eq. (8.14) to write wind power in the form:

.
(8.15)
Equation (8.15) shows that wind power is proportional to the square of the radius of the
fan created by the rotating rotor blade. We have assumed that the wind direction is
perpendicular to the plane of rotation of the rotor blade, and that the wind speed is
constant. Wind power is at maximum if the wind direction is perpendicular to the plane
of rotation of the rotor blade, otherwise the wind power will be less than maximum. If the
wind direction is parallel to the plane of rotation of the rotor blade for an infinitesimally
thin rotor blade, the wind turbine will not provide any wind power. A change in wind
direction can put stress on wind turbines because of the gyroscope effect. A gyroscope is
a symmetrical rigid body that is free to turn about a fixed point and is subjected to an
external torque. The wind turbine is a symmetrical rigid body that is free to turn about the
fixed post. The change in wind direction subjects the wind turbine to a torque that causes
the wind turbine to behave like a gyroscope. In addition, wind speed is seldom constant;
it can vary from still to tornado or hurricane speed. The speed of rotation of the tip of the
wind turbine is:
,

(8.16)

where is the angular frequency of the turbine. If vtip is sufficiently large, it can be lethal
to animals entering the fan area of the rotor blade. This creates an environmental hazard
that must be considered when selecting locations for wind turbines. Electrical power
output from a wind turbine is a product of the efficiency wind times the input wind power.
The optimum power output is approximately:

(8.17)

The efficiency wind depends on several factors. One factor that affects the efficiency of a
wind turbine is the efficiency of converting mechanical energy of the rotor blade into
electrical energy. Another factor is the reliability of the wind turbine. The rate of rotation
of the rotor blade depends on wind speed. If the wind speed is too large, the rotor blade
can turn too fast and damage the system. To avoid this problem, wind turbines may have
to be taken off-line in high wind conditions.

The analysis of wind power above presented assumes that all of the kinetic energy of the
wind incident on the turbine is converted to rotational energy of the rotor blades. In
reality, the wind speed vupwind upwind of the turbine is reduced to a wind speed vdownwind
downwind of the turbine. According of Shepherd analysis (1998), we can estimate wind
power for a more realistic system. In this aim, we again consider the cylinder of air in
Fig. 8.11 and the eq. 8.10. The kinetic energy of the moving air that is extracted for
power production is:

(8.18)

The mass of the air that is needed to move the rotor blade in a time interval t, is:
,

(8.19)

where vactuate is the wind velocity that actuates the rotor and A is the cross sectional
area shown in Fig.8.11. If we assume that the reduction in kinetic energy in the upwind
air stream is transferred to the wind turbine, conservation of energy and the continuity of
the wind flow, vactuate results as a mean value, given by:

(8.20)

Substituting eqs. (8.19) and (8.20) into eq. (8.18), gives

(8.21)

The extracted wind power is:

(8.22)

This last equation, it can be written in a simplified form, as follows:

(8.23)
where wind = vdownwind/vupwind is the ratio of downwind velocity to upwind velocity, and Cp
is the dimensionless power coefficient

.
(8.24)
The power coefficient is typically in the range 0 Cp 0.4 for actual wind turbines. If we
compare eq. (8.23) to eq. (8.17), we see that the power coefficient Cp serves as an

efficiency factor to convert the input wind power to output rotor blade power. A
theoretical maximum power coefficient is obtained by solving the extremum condition:

(8.25)
for wind. The physically meaningful solution to Equation (8.25) is

(8.26)

Substituting eq. (8.26) into eq. (8.24) gives the power coefficient

(8.27)

Equation (8.27) is the theoretical maximum power coefficient and is called Betz limit,
after Albert Betz, the person who first made the calculation in 1928. Betz limit says that
approximately 59.3% of the wind power is the maximum percentage that can be extracted
of it. It is obtained when the downwind velocity is one third of the upwind velocity, as
shown in eq. (8.26).
8.5.2 Applications of Wind Energy
Some applications of the wind energy, are shown in the Table 8.4.
Table 8.4: Applications of the wind energy.
What is wind
energy used for?
Using wind to
generate electricity

Using wind to
pump water

Who uses wind energy?

National and
Provincial networks
Communities
Homes and farms
Process industries

Remote communities

Farms

How is wind energy

obtained?
The wind powers a wind
turbine that produces
electricity.

The wind powers a wind

pump that pumps water.

Wind farms
A wind farm or wind park is a collection of wind turbines. The areal extent of the wind
farm depends on the radius R of the rotor blades (see Fig. 8.12). A wind turbine must
have enough space around the post to allow the fan of the rotor blade to face in any
direction. If we neglect the finite extent of the machine cabin and assume the rotor blade
with radius R is horizontal, the blade will sweep out a surface area R2 if the rotor blade
is directly above the post of the wind turbine and the machine cabin is rotated through

360. If we include the finite extent of the machine cabin, the surface area will be
R2.

R2eff

Fig. 8.12: Wind turbine spacing.

The minimum spacing between the posts of two equivalent wind turbines must be 2Reff to
avoid collisions between rotor blades. If we consider the aerodynamics of wind flow,
which is the factor that controls turbine spacing, the turbine spacing in a wind farm
increases to at least 5 to 10 times rotor diameter 2R behind the plane of the rotor blade.
The additional distance between posts is designed to minimize turbulence between wind
turbines and enable the restoration of the wind stream to its original undisturbed state
after it passes by one turbine on its way to the next turbine. Wind turbine spacing is an
important factor in determining the surface area, or footprint, needed by a wind farm.
8.5.3 Wind Energy Benefits
1. Wind energy is an ideal renewable energy because:
- it is a pollution-free, infinitely sustainable form of energy,
- it doesnt require fuel,
- it doesnt create greenhouse gasses,
- it doesnt produce toxic or radioactive waste.
2. Wind energy is quiet and does not present any significant hazard to birds or other
wildlife.
3. When large arrays of wind turbines are installed on farmland, only about 2% of the
land area is required for the wind turbines. The rest is available for farming, livestock,
and other uses.
4. Landowners often receive payment for the use of their land, which enhances their
income and increases the value of the land.
5. Ownership of wind turbine generators by individuals and the community allows people
to participate directly in the preservation of our environment.
Each megawatt-hour of electricity that is generated by wind energy helps to reduce the
0.8 to 0.9 tons of greenhouse gas emissions that are produced by coal or diesel fuel
generation each year.

THERMINOLOGY

stack: system de stocare

noteworthy: demn de reinut, important
wide array of uses: gam larg de utilizri
dwelling: cas, locuin
hydrologic assessment: aprecierea (potenialului) hidrologic()
turnkey: livrare la cheie
trap: a capta
anti-freeze: antigel
daily pondage: acumulare zilnic de ap
scattered away: mprtiat
to trap: a capta
to impinge: a avea influen
seldom: rareori