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Ground water provides drinking water for more than one-half of the Nations population
(Solley and others, 1993), and is the sole source of drinking water for many rural
communities and some large cities. In 1990, ground water accounted for 39 percent of
water withdrawn for public supply for cities and towns and 96 percent of water
withdrawn by self-supplied systems for domestic use.
A variety of chemicals, including nitrate, can pass through the soil and potentially
contaminate ground water. Nitrate comes from nitrogen, a plant nutrient supplied by
inorganic fertilizer and animal manure. Additionally, airborne nitrogen compounds given
off by industry and automobiles are deposited on the land in precipitation and dry
particles. Other nonagricultural sources of nitrate include lawn fertilizers, septic systems,
and domestic animals in residential areas.
Beneath agricultural lands, nitrate is the primary form of nitrogen. It is soluble in water
and can easily pass through soil to the ground-water table. Nitrate can persist in ground
water for decades and accumulate to high levels as more nitrogen is applied to the land
surface every year.
Knowing where and what type of risks to ground water exist can alert water-resource
managers and private users of the need to protect water supplies. Although nitrate
generally is not an adult public-health threat, ingestion in drinking water by infants can
cause low oxygen levels in the blood, a potentially fatal condition (Spalding and Exner,
1993). For this reason, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has established
a drinking-water standard of 10 milligrams per liter (mg/L) nitrate as nitrogen (U.S.
Magnitude
of Risk
Nitrogen-Input Factors
Aquifer-Vulnerability Factors
High (red
areas on
map--fig. 1)
Moderately
High nitrogen loadinga or high
High (orange population densityb
areas)
Moderately
Low (yellow
areas)
Low (green
areas)
Nitrate concentration in ground water generally increases with higher nitrogen input and
higher aquifer vulnerability. People who live in areas shown in red on the national map
and who consume shallow ground water are more likely to drink high-nitrate water. The
bar chart in figure 2 shows the median concentration of nitrate in water from shallow
wells and the percent of wells in which the concentration of nitrate exceeds the EPA
drinking-water standard (10 mg/L) for each of the four risk groups. Each bar in figure 2
represents a risk group with the same color on the national map. Median nitrate
concentration and percent of wells from which water exceeds the EPA drinking-water
standard for nitrate are highest in areas with high nitrogen input and high aquifer
vulnerability (red areas).
Data for specific locations give examples of the difference in risk. Ground water in areas
shown in red in southeastern Washington State has a median nitrate concentration of 9.3
mg/L. In contrast, ground water in areas shown in green and yellow in western New
Mexico, where nitrogen input is low, has a median nitrate concentration of 0.17 mg/L.
Poorly drained soils can reduce the risk of ground-water contamination, even in areas
with high nitrogen input. For example, ground water in areas shown in orange in southern
Indiana has a median nitrate concentration of < 0.05 mg/L. Although nitrogen input is
high, most soils in the area are poorly drained, which restricts the movement of nitrate to
the water table (Mueller and others, 1995). Additionally, drains and ditches carry water
off to streams rather than letting it seep to ground water.
Large amounts of woodland interspersed among cropland can decrease the likelihood of
ground-water contamination, even in areas with high nitrogen input and, in some cases,
well-drained soils. Ground water in areas shown in orange in southern Georgia and
northern Florida has a median nitrate concentration of only 1.2 mg/L, despite the
extensive use of fertilizers in these areas. Proposed explanations for low nitrate in
shallow ground waters of the Southeast include dilution, denitrification, and uptake by
plants (Hubbard and Sheridan, 1989).
Ground-water nitrate data in some areas did not conform to risk patterns shown in figure
1. For example, median nitrate concentration in ground-water samples from eastern North
Dakota (shown in red on the national map) was < 0.05 mg/L, even though the map
indicates high contamination potential. The undulating, hilly landscape might be a factor.
Although soils in the area are fine-textured, they are classified as well-drained because of
their position and slope on the landscape. Water quickly runs off the hills and collects in
low-lying areas, where denitrification can occur. Other factors not used to create the
national map but which can affect nitrate concentration in ground water include land use,
aquifer type, and rainfall and irrigation amounts.
Who is most likely to drink high-nitrate ground water?
Where people live and the depth of their ground-water supply determine the quality of the
water they drink. In figure 3, four ranges of depth to ground water are shown for the
high-risk (red) areas on the national map. Nitrate contamination generally decreases with
increasing depth to ground water. Median nitrate concentration and percent of wells from
which water exceeds the EPA drinking-water standard for nitrate (10 mg/L) are highest
for shallow ground water (up to 100 feet deep). The water table in shallow wells is closer
to the land surface and to potential sources of contamination, such as fertilizers and septic
systems. In contrast, contamination is less likely to occur in deeper ground-water
reservoirs because contaminants have farther to travel (Mueller and others, 1995).
Conclusion
By determining the characteristics that influence ground-water contamination by nitrate,
USGS scientists have been able to map high- and low-risk areas of the Nation. Areas with
the highest risk have high nitrogen input, well-drained soils, and less extensive forested
areas relative to cropland. Although local variations from regional patterns of
contamination risk occur, data generally support the risk patterns shown on the national
map. Continued development of this predictive tool, both nationally and locally, will help
water resource managers develop more effective and economical approaches to protect
the quality of the Nation's ground waters.
References
1. Hubbard, R.K., and J.M. Sheridan, "Nitrate Movement to Groundwater
in the Southeastern Coastal Plain," Journal of Soil and Water
Conservation, 44, January-February 1989, pp. 20-27.
2. Lowrance, Richard, "Groundwater Nitrate and Denitrification in a
Coastal Plain Riparian Forest," Journal of Environmental Quality, 21, JulySeptember 1992, pp. 401-405.
3. Mueller, David K., Hamilton, Pixie A., Helsel, Dennis R., Hitt, Kerie J.,
and Barbara C. Ruddy, "Nutrients in Ground Water and Surface Water of
the United States--An Analysis of Data Through 1992," U.S. Geological
Survey Water Resources Investigations Report 95-4031, 1995.
4. Nolan, Bernard T., Ruddy, Barbara C., Hitt, Kerie J., and Dennis R.
Helsel, "Risk of Nitrate in Groundwaters of the United StatesA National
Perspective," Environmental Science and Technology, 31, August 1997,
pp. 2229-2236.
5. Solley, Wayne B., Pierce, Robert R., and Howard A. Perlman,
"Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 1990," U.S. Geological
Survey Circular 1081, 1993.