Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
MANUAL
on the Global Observing System
VOLUME I
(Annex V to the WMO Technical Regulations)
GLOBAL ASPECTS
2003 edition
WMO-No. 544
ISBN 92-63-13544-4
NOTE
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not
imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the World
Meteorological Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or
area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
TABLE FOR NOTING SUPPLEMENTS RECEIVED
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
EDITORIAL NOTE
The following typographical practice has been followed:
Standard practices and procedures have been printed in semi-bold roman.
Recommended practices and procedures have been printed in light face roman.
(Definitions appear in a bigger type.)
Notes have been printed in smaller type, light face roman, and preceded by the indication NOTE.
CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Page
10. In order to clarify the status of the 12. A number of specifications and formats of
various regulatory material, the standard practices observing practices and procedures are included in the
and procedures are distinguished from the recom- Manual. Taking into account the rapid development of
mended practices and procedures by a difference in observing techniques and the increasing requirements of
typographical practice, as indicated in the editorial the WWW and other WMO programmes, these specifica-
note. tions, etc., are given in “attachments” to the Manual and
do not have the status of the annexes to the WMO
Technical Regulations. This will enable the Commission
NOTES, ATTACHMENTS (VOLUME I) AND for Basic Systems to update them as necessary.
VOLUME II
13. The words “shall” and “should” in the
11. Certain notes are included in the Manual attachments, notes and Volume II have their dictionary
for explanatory purposes. They do not have the status meanings and do not have the regulatory character
of the annexes to the WMO Technical Regulations. mentioned in paragraph 7 above.
PART I
1. PURPOSE OF THE GLOBAL of the WMO Commission for Basic Systems (CBS)
OBSERVING SYSTEM and approved by the Executive Council, in consul-
tation and coordination with Members, regional
1.1 The purpose of the Global Observing associations and other technical commissions
System (GOS) shall be to provide, from all parts of concerned.
the globe and from outer space, high-quality stan-
dardized observations of the state of the 2.7 The GOS shall consist of two subsys-
atmosphere, land and ocean surface for the prepa- tems: the surface-based subsystem and the
ration of weather analyses, forecasts and warnings space-based subsystem.
and for other applications in support of WMO
programmes and related environmental 2.8 The GOS surface-based subsystem shall
programmes of other organizations. be composed of surface synoptic land and sea
stations, upper-air stations, climatological stations,
1.2 The GOS should provide supplementary agricultural meteorological stations, aircraft mete-
observations required internationally for special orological stations, aeronautical meteorological
purposes, provided this would not be detrimental to stations, research and special-purpose vessel
achieving the primary purposes of the World stations and special stations as detailed in Part III,
Weather Watch (WWW). paragraph 1 (a) to (h) of this Manual.
2.6 The planning and coordination of the (a) The WMO Voluntary Cooperation Programme
GOS shall be realized through recommendations (VCP);
I–2 MANUAL ON THE GLOBAL OBSERVING SYSTEM
(b) Other bilateral or multilateral arrangements facilities (within the Automated Shipboard
including the United Nations Development Aerological Programme (ASAP)) will increase and the
Programme (UNDP) which should be used to the deployment of more cost-effective systems will be
maximum extent possible. accelerated. Drifting buoys, deployed outside the
main shipping routes, will continue to supply
3.3 Implementation of the GOS in regions surface atmospheric and oceanographic parameters
outside the territories of individual countries (e.g. from the data-void ocean areas. It is also expected
outer space, oceans, the Antarctic) should be based that the operational space-based subsystem will
on the principle of voluntary participation of coun- include a new generation of polar-orbiters and
tries that desire and are able to contribute by geostationary satellites with improved and new
providing facilities and services, either individually sensing systems.
or jointly from their national resources, or by having (b) Coordination, integration and sustainability of
recourse to collective financing. The assistance composite surface- and space-based systems and
sources described in 3.2 above may also be used. development of observing networks that are adapt-
able to changing requirements. This will include the
3.4 In the implementation of the GOS, maxi- planning for a new composite upper-air observing
mum use should be made of existing arrangements, system making the most effective use of new and
facilities and personnel. emerging technology, in order to develop a cost-
effective, truly global system with the density of in
NOTES: situ observations required for operational purposes
(1) The setting up and operation of the new and improved as well as to complement and calibrate observations
facilities and services require a considerable amount of from satellites. The new composite system will
scientific research, development engineering, coordi- utilize a range of technologies and techniques some
nation of procedures, standardization of methods and of which could become operational only after a
implementation coordination. long-term development effort. The introduction of
(2) The further development of the GOS is an important new technology should be as and when proven and
feature of the WWW plan that provides for: must be consistent with existing systems and
(a) Continued development of the GOS as a cost-effec- supporting structures.
tive composite system comprising operationally (c) Development of new strategies to facilitate closer
reliable surface-based and space-based (satellite) cooperation between Meteorological Services and
subsystems. It is expected that, within the surface- research programmes so that the available observ-
based subsystem, new systems measuring both large ing systems and programmes can be of use to
and local scales of atmospheric phenomena will be operational meteorology and the research
deployed operationally on a wider scale. Increasing community.
use will be made of the rapidly growing fleet of (d) Exploring new ways for Members to contribute to
aircraft with automated observing and reporting the GOS, including joint funding and innovative
systems to supply observation of data at cruising arrangements to ensure adequate observations in
levels and during ascent and descent. Mobile sea remote and data-sparse areas.
stations will continue to be the main source for
surface synoptic observations over the oceans. 3.5 Existing elements of the GOS, as defined in
Through increased use of automatic observing and Part III, shall not be removed before the reliability of a
(satellite) transmission equipment, the quality and new element has been proven, and relative accuracy
quantity of the data will increase. The number of and representativeness of the observational data have
ships equipped with automated upper-air sounding been examined and found acceptable.
PART II
about users’ needs are available. If a statement on require- system requirements and submits them (in case of
ments/goals is addressed to the World Weather Watch, regulatory publications) to the Executive Council.
and in particular to its Global Observing System, it
should be presented to the Commission for Basic Systems NOTE: The primary responsibility for the evaluation of the
(CBS) for consideration. feasibility of meeting stated observational data
requirements related to the Global Atmosphere
2.4 The Commission for Basic Systems: Watch, and for the development of associated guid-
ance material, rests with the Commission for
(a) Evaluates the feasibility of stated requirements/ Atmospheric Sciences.
goals. The evaluation of technical and instrumental
feasibility should be conducted in collaboration 2.5 The Executive Council approves the
with the Commission for Instruments and Methods amendments and requests the Secretary-General to
of Observation (CIMO), the WMO body responsible incorporate them in appropriate WMO Manuals.
for the Instruments and Methods of Observation
Programme (IMOP). The evaluation process will 2.6 The Members will be advised on the
result in the formulation (in the form of tables) of performance of observing systems and programmes
what portion of the statement of requirements/goals through updated WMO Manuals and Guides to meet
is feasible and can be achieved. As part of the RRR users’ needs for observational data.
Process, a Statement of Guidance will be prepared to
indicate the feasibility of achieving the stated
requirements; 3. SYSTEMS FOR MEETING
(b) Formulates system requirements to provide REQUIREMENTS
observational data to meet the requirements/
goals defined by the technical commissions; The surface-based subsystem and the space-based
(c) Develops any amendments to the WMO regula- subsystem shall complement each other in provid-
tory and guidance publications on the basis of ing the observational data required.
2 5
Review Space and in situ
Description of proposed systems New
and observing system
“System specifications” initiatives
update operators
2
Summary of Plan and
Description of present/planned Other
present/planned/proposed implement
systems inputs
system capabilities systems
3 4
Statement of conformance Review 4
3
of present/planned/proposed and update Statement of Guidance
Critical
system capabilities to Guidance on on feasibility of meeting
review
maximum/minimum feasibility requirements
requirements
1
User requirements
(technology free)
5
For each application:
Statement of maximum
and minimum
Users
1 OPAG IOS*
Review Feedback to users and
and Expertise on each application technical commissions
update
The scales of meteorological phenomena are as NOTE: The requirements for observational data shall be deter-
follows: mined in part by these scales of meteorological
(a) Small scale (less than 100 km; for example, phenomena. Many phenomena overlap between two
thunderstorm, local winds, tornadoes); of the classes indicated, and there is also dynamic inter-
(b) Mesoscale (100–1 000 km; for example, fronts action between the phenomena in different scales.
and cloud clusters);
(c) Large scale (1 000–5 000 km; for example, Scales (b) and (c) should be considered as roughly
depressions and anticyclones); corresponding to the regional level within the World
(d) Planetary scale (more than 5 000 km; for Weather Watch (WWW), and (c) and (d) can be
example, long upper-troposphere waves). combined within the global level.
ATTACHMENT II. 2
Points (a) and (b) are necessary information for Services (NMSs) should encourage the provision of
running transport models, while (c), (d) and (e) are these data by non-meteorological agencies/operators
desirable additional information. to National Meteorological Centres (NMCs) for
onward transmission to their associated RSMCs.
2. In order to calibrate and validate the atmo-
spheric transport model forecasts processed, radiological 2. For the exchange of relevant meteorolog-
data from potentially affected areas are needed. The ical and non-meteorological (radiological) data, a
most suitable radiological data required are: complete list of abbreviated heading bulletins,
including all the regional meteorological and radio-
(a) Time-integrated air pollutant concentration; logical observations, should be sent by Members to
(b) Total deposition. the WMO Secretariat for insertion into Weather
Reporting (WMO-No. 9), Volume C1 – Catalogue of
3. The required data from the accident site Meteorological Bulletins.
and potentially-affected area may be obtained by the
following means: 3. Radiological data available in the early
phase of a nuclear accident (containment radiation
(a) Fixed radiological monitoring stations; reading, on-site radiation levels, etc.) which assist in
(b) Mobile surface units; characterizing the nuclear accident, should be provided
(c) Radiological sounding/or; by national authorities to the International Atomic
(d) Instrumental aircraft. Energy Agency (IAEA) as soon as practicable via the
most reliable communication means. The IAEA will
The frequency of observations should be increased verify and assess the information and then provide
from one hour to ten minutes during the accident these data to the appropriate RSMC, which should
(routine frequency of observations varies from one to distribute them to NMCs via the Global
six hours). Telecommunication System (GTS). In case of environ-
mental emergencies, all relevant observational (meteo-
rological and non-meteorological) data should be
C. EXCHANGE OF METEOROLOGICAL transmitted to both RSMCs and NMSs through the GTS
AND NON-METEOROLOGICAL DATA as quickly as possible.
The International Airways Volcano Watch (IAVW) is (a) Be multi-spectral covering visible and infrared
coordinated and developed by the International Civil wavelengths;
Aviation Organization (ICAO) Secretariat with the (b) Have adequate spatial resolution to detect small
assistance of the Volcanic Ash Warnings Study volcanic ash clouds [5 km or less];
Group. The Handbook on the International Airways (c) Have global coverage to provide data for all the
Volcano Watch (IAVW) describes the operational VAACs;
procedures and the contact list for the implementa- (d) Have a frequent repeat cycle (30 minutes or less for
tion of the IAVW in the event of the occurrence of the detection of volcanic ash and at least every six
pre-eruption volcanic activity1, volcanic eruptions hours for tracking volcanic ash for transport model
and volcanic ash clouds. validation) [Reference: The Handbook on the IAVW,
Section 4.4.1 (c), Section 4.5.1 (d) and (e)];
(e) Be processed and delivered to the VAAC with a
A. METEOROLOGICAL DATA minimal delay.
REQUIREMENTS
3. Additional satellite data that can assist in
The data needed to run transport models are the same the detection of pre-eruption volcanic activity, a
as specified for the production of weather forecasts volcanic eruption, or a volcanic ash cloud should be
based on numerical weather prediction (NWP) for made available to the designated VAAC. This may
models and are given in the Manual on the Global Data- include satellite data that can be used to detect
Processing System (WMO-No.485), Volume I – Global volcanic hot-spots or sulphur dioxide emissions.
Aspects, Appendix II.2 and the Guide on the Global
Observing System (WMO-No.488), Attachment II.I. 4. Data obtained from surface-based radar
within range of the volcano should be made available to
1. Additional data2 are desirable from the the designated VAAC. These data can be used to detect the
area in the vicinity of the volcano and should be presence of a volcanic ash cloud and measure its height.
made available to the designated Meteorological
Watch Offices and Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre
(VAAC)3 to improve the quality of information about B. NON-METEOROLOGICAL DATA
the transport of volcanic ash. These data are the same REQUIREMENTS
as specified for the special observation requirements
for environmental emergency response activities and 1. The occurrence of pre-eruption volcanic
are given in Attachment II.2 of this Manual. activity, volcanic eruptions and volcanic ash clouds,
because of the potential hazard to aviation, should be
2. Imagery data from geostationary and reported without delay to the designated Area Control
polar-orbiting satellites are required by the desig- Centres, Meteorological Watch Offices and VAAC as
nated VAAC to ascertain whether a volcanic ash described in the Handbook on the IAVW. The report in
cloud is identifiable and to determine its extent plain language should be made in the form of a volcanic
(vertical and horizontal) [Reference: The Handbook activity report comprising the following information, if
on the IAVW, Section 4.1.1 (c) and Section 4.5.1(b)]. available, in the order indicated:
These data are also required to validate the transport
model trajectory forecast and to determine when the (a) Message type, VOLCANIC ACTIVITY REPORT;
volcanic ash has dissipated. The imagery data (b) Station identifier, location indicator or name of
should: station;
(c) Date/time of message;
(d) Location of volcano and name if known;
(e) Concise description of event including, as
1
Pre-eruption volcanic activity in this context means appropriate, level of intensity of volcanic activ-
unusual and/or increasing volcanic activity, which could ity, occurrence of an eruption and its date and
presage an eruption. time, the existence of a volcanic ash cloud in the
area with the direction of ash cloud movement
2
The words “additional data” are used with their usual
and height as best estimated.
meaning and not as in Resolution 40 (Cg-XII).
3
Volcanic Ash Advisory Centres (VAACs) are designated by 2. Available geological data that indicates
the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the occurrence of pre-eruptive volcanic activity or a
WMO to issue advisories on the presence and forecasted volcanic eruption should be passed immediately to
trajectory of volcanic ash. the designated Area Control Centres, Meteorological
II.3–2 MANUAL ON THE GLOBAL OBSERVING SYSTEM
Watch Offices and VAAC [Reference: The Handbook and VAAC [Reference: The Handbook on the IAVW,
on the IAVW, Section 4.1.1 (a)]. These data include: Section 4.1.1 (a)].
SURFACE-BASED SUBSYSTEM
(GSN) – the global reference network of some 1 000 implementing these national networks, Members
selected surface observation stations established to shall take into account the needs to complete the
monitor daily global and large-scale climate variability. global and regional networks.
2.1.2.5 Members should implement the GCOS NOTE: A complete list of all surface and upper-air stations
Upper-air Network (GUAN) – the global baseline in operation which are used for synoptic purposes
network of about 150 selected upper-air stations is given in Weather Reporting (WMO-No. 9),
established with relatively homogenous distribution Volume A – Observing Stations.
to meet requirements of GCOS.
NOTE: Regional associations are responsible for the deter- 2.2.2 In implementing the Global Observing
mination and coordination of the composition of System (GOS) surface-based subsystem, Members
these networks within the general framework should ensure that the observing system meets the
established by the Commission for Basic Systems requirements placed on the subsystem.
(CBS).
2.2.3 In implementing the surface-based
2.1.3.2 Regional Basic Synoptic Networks of subsystem, Members should strive to meet the provi-
both surface and upper-air stations shall be estab- sions indicated in 2.2.1 above as closely as possible,
lished to meet the requirements laid down by the in particular as regards the main elements of the
regional associations. surface-based subsystem.
2.1.3.3 Together, the RBSNs shall form the main 2.2.4 Each station should be located at a site
part of the surface-based global synoptic network. that permits correct exposure of the instruments and
satisfactory non-instrumental observations.
NOTES:
(1) The regional associations will continue to examine their 2.2.5 In general, observing stations shall be
plans to meet any new international requirements. spaced at an interval and with observations taken
(2) Details of known regional requirements are given in frequently enough to permit an accurate descrip-
Volume II of this Manual. tion of the atmosphere for users of the
observations for the purpose intended.
2.1.3.4 Members shall implement the RBSNs.
2.2.6 If in certain desert and other sparsely
2.1.3.5 The horizontal spacing of observing populated areas it is not possible to establish
stations and the frequency of their reporting should networks with the recommended densities, networks
be in accordance with the requirements laid down in with densities as near as possible to those recom-
Volume I, Part II, and Volume II of this Manual. mended should be established. Special efforts should
be made to establish an adequate network in such an
area when it borders a populated area or is traversed
2.1.4 National networks by a regularly used air route.
synoptic networks and in a manner which increases Member concerned within the allocations made to
their spatial or temporal frequency. that Member, in compliance with the scheme
prescribed in the Manual on Codes (WMO-No. 306).
2.2.8 Observations should be taken in areas
where special phenomena are occurring or expected 2.3.2.2 When a Member establishes a synoptic
to develop. As many elements of standard observa- station on land (or a fixed weather station at sea)
tions as possible should be reported. Information the Member shall send the following information
should be communicated in real time. to the Secretariat at least two months before the
station becomes operational:
NOTE: Drifting buoys and aircraft may also report at
asynoptic times. (a) Name, and where appropriate, station index
number (stating whether the station is auto-
2.2.9 Members shall ensure that a record of all matic or manned and, if both, the time of
surface and upper-air observations is made and each);
preserved. (b) Geographical coordinates in degrees and
minutes of arc and elevation of the station in
whole metres above mean sea level;
2.3 Surface synoptic stations (c) Geopotential of the datum level in whole
metres to which the pressure is reduced, or
2.3.1 General the reference isobaric surface the geopotential
of which is reported;
2.3.1.1 Surface synoptic stations may be (d) Times at which synoptic observations are
manned or partly or fully automated and shall made and reported;
include land stations and fixed and mobile sea (e) Topographical situation;
stations. (f) Any other information required for comple-
tion of the entries in Weather Reporting
2.3.1.2 Each synoptic station shall be located (WMO-No. 9), Volume A – Observing Stations.
so as to give meteorological data representative of
the area in which it is situated. 2.3.2.3 Members shall send the necessary
amendments to the information supplied under
2.3.1.3 The main standard times for surface 2.3.2.2 (a) – (f) above to the Secretariat as soon as
synoptic observations shall be 0000, 0600, 1200 possible.
and 1800 UTC.
2.3.2.4 Any change in index number of synoptic
2.3.1.4 The intermediate standard times for stations included in the international exchanges
surface synoptic observations shall be 0300, 0900, should be notified to the Secretariat at least six
1500 and 2100 UTC. months before becoming effective.
2.3.1.5 Atmospheric pressure observations 2.3.2.5 Each Member should publish a descrip-
should be made at exactly the standard time while tion, in sufficient detail to enable departures from the
the observation of other elements should be made representativeness of observations to be assessed, of
within the ten minutes preceding the standard time. each of its synoptic stations whose reports are
included in international exchanges.
2.3.1.6 Every effort should be made to obtain surface
synoptic observations four times daily at the main stan- 2.3.2.6 All changes in the station index
dard times, with priority being given to the 0000 and 1200 number of a synoptic station shall be effective
UTC observations required for global exchanges. from 1 January or 1 July each year.
2.3.1.7 When it is difficult for any reason to 2.3.2.7 Each Member of WMO shall designate a
provide sufficient staff for 24-hour operations, national focal point to communicate with the
partially or fully automated stations should supple- WMO Secretariat on matters regarding the contents
ment or replace manned surface stations including of Weather Reporting (WMO-No. 9), Volume A –
those in the basic synoptic network to provide obser- Observing Stations. The national focal point shall be
vations at least at the main standard times. authorized to act in these matters on behalf of the
Permanent Representative concerned.
applications areas supported by the network and as reported eight times per day at the main and
described in the Rolling Review of Requirements intermediate standard times in extratropical areas and
Process. During the first decade of the twenty-first four times per day at the main standard times in the
century, the interval, in general, should not exceed tropics.
250 km (or 300 km in sparsely populated areas).
2.3.2.12 At a (manned or automatic) land
2.3.2.9 Surface synoptic observations recorded station, surface synoptic observations shall be
at a manned synoptic land station shall consist of made and reported at least at the main standard
observations of the following elements: times.
Frequency and timing of observations 2.3.3.5 Members should consider using fixed or
mobile automatic sea stations or drifting buoy
2.3.2.11 At synoptic land stations the frequency of stations in the data-sparse areas of persistent cloudi-
surface synoptic observations should be made and ness, where remote sounding by satellite is
hampered.
* Height of cloud base and cloud extent could be derived NOTE: These stations are located on fixed or mobile
directly from the optical extinction profile without ships, fixed or anchored platforms and on drifting
further measurement, using one-minute time series. platforms and ice floes.
PART III III–5
2.3.3.6 Environmental data buoy stations shall 2.3.3.12 At a selected ship station, a surface
be identified by the International Identifier System. synoptic observation should consist of observations
of elements (a) to (r) in 2.3.3.11 above.
NOTE: This identifier system is used by the
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission 2.3.3.13 At a supplementary ship station, a surface
and WMO universally. synoptic observation should consist of observations
of elements (a) to (h), (i) and (r) in 2.3.3.11 above.
(a) Present weather; NOTE: The position of the drifting buoy shall also have to
(b) Past weather; be determined.
(c) Wind direction and speed;
(d) Cloud amount; 2.3.3.18 Members should endeavour to equip
(e) Type of cloud; mobile ships to make subsurface observations and
(f) Height of cloud base; report them in the BATHY/TESAC code form.
(g) Visibility;
(h) Air temperature NOTE: Guidance on steps to be taken while recruiting a
(i) Humidity; selected, supplementary or auxiliary observing
(j) Atmospheric pressure; ship, on the organization needed to collect ships’
(k) Pressure tendency; weather reports and on the use of marine meteo-
(l) Characteristic of pressure tendency; rological logs on board ships, is contained in the
(m) Ship’s course and speed; Guide to Marine Meteorological Services (WM0-
(n) Sea surface temperature; No. 471).
(o) Direction of movement of waves;
(p) Wave period;
(q) Wave height; Frequency and timing of observations
(r) Sea ice and/or icing of ship superstructure,
when appropriate; 2.3.3.19 At an ocean weather station, surface
(s) Special phenomena. synoptic observations shall be made and reported
III–6 MANUAL ON THE GLOBAL OBSERVING SYSTEM
at least four times per day and preferably hourly at 2.4.4 In the tropics priority should be given to
the main and intermediate standard times. upper-wind observations.
2.3.3.20 At lightship stations, fixed and 2.4.5 Upper-air stations making observations
anchored platform stations, and at automatic sea of pressure, temperature, humidity and wind should
stations, surface synoptic observations shall be be spaced at intervals not exceeding the minimum
made and reported at least four times per day at horizontal resolution required by applications areas
the main standard times. supported by the network and as described in the
Rolling Review of Requirements Process. During the
2.3.3.21 At a mobile sea station, surface synoptic first decade of the twenty-first century, the interval,
observations should be made and reported at least in general, should not exceed 250 km or 1 000 km in
four times per day at the main standard times. sparsely populated and ocean areas.
NOTE: Details of observing and reporting programmes are 2.4.9 At ocean weather stations, upper-air
described in the Guide to Marine Meteorological synoptic observations should comprise rawinsonde
Services (WM0-No. 471), Chapter 5. In case of diffi- observations at 0000 and 1200 UTC and/or
culties resulting from fixed radiowatch hours on radiowind observations at 0600 and 1800 UTC.
board single-operator ships, the procedures given
in the Manual on the Global Telecommunication 2.4.10 The actual time of regular upper-air
System (WMO-No. 386), Volume I – Global Aspects, synoptic observations should be as close as possible
Part I, Attachment I-1, should be followed. to (H-30) and should not fall outside the time range
(H-45) to H.
2.4 Upper-air synoptic stations NOTE: The actual time of a pilot-balloon observation
may deviate from the range indicated above if, by
General doing so, wind observations to considerably
greater heights can be expected.
2.4.1 Upper-air synoptic stations shall be iden-
tified as provided under 2.3.2.1 to 2.3.2.7 above. 2.4.11 In areas where it is not possible to meet
the frequency requirements mentioned above, every
2.4.2 The standard times of upper-air synop- effort should be made to obtain at least the following
tic observations shall be 0000, 0600, 1200 and observations:
1800 UTC.
(a) Upper-air observations from the RBSNs and
2.4.3 As upper-air data from the ocean areas other networks of stations on land and at sea,
are particularly sparse, Members should give consid- twice daily, at 0000 and 1200 UTC;
eration to equipping suitable ships to make (b) In the tropics, at stations where two complete
soundings and, if possible, to measure upper winds. radiosonde/radiowind observations are not
PART III III–7
2.5.4 Aircraft reports shall, at a minimum, 2.5.9 When automated observing and report-
satisfy the requirements of International Air ing systems are available, routine observations
Navigation (for details see the Technical should be made every 15 minutes during the en-route
Regulations (WMO-No. 49), Volume II – phase and every 30 seconds during the climb-out
Meteorological Service for International Air phase for the first ten minutes of the flight.
Navigation, [C.3.1.] 5).
2.5.10 When voice communications are used,
routine observations shall be made during the en-
Location and composition route phase in relation to those air traffic services
reporting points or intervals:
2.5.5 The following aircraft observations
shall be made: (a) At which the applicable air traffic services
procedures require routine position reports;
(a) Routine aircraft observations during en-route and
and climb-out phases of the flight; and (b) Which are those separated by distances corre-
(b) Special and other non-routine aircraft obser- sponding most closely to intervals of one
vations during any phase of the flight. hour of flying time.
2.5.6 Routine air reports shall contain the 2.5.11 Observations shall be made by all
following meteorological elements: aircraft of meteorological conditions encountered
during the climb out or approach phases of flight,
(a) Air temperature; not previously reported to the pilot-in-command,
(b) Wind direction and speed; which in his opinion are likely to affect the safety
(c) Turbulence; of other aircraft operations.
(d) Aircraft icing;
(e) Humidity (if available). 2.5.12 Observations shall also be made by
aircraft:
In addition, reports of any volcanic activity
observed by the flight crew shall be included. (a) If a meteorological office providing meteoro-
logical service for a flight makes a request for
2.5.7 Special aircraft reports shall be made specific data; or
whenever any of the following conditions are (b) By agreement between a Meteorological
observed: Authority and an operator.
III–8 MANUAL ON THE GLOBAL OBSERVING SYSTEM
2.6.7 Routine observations shall be made at (a) Name and geographical coordinates;
intervals of one hour or, if so determined by (b) Elevation of station;
PART III III–9
(c) A brief description of the local topography; 2.8.10 At an ordinary climatological station,
(d) Category of station and details of observing observations shall be made of extreme tempera-
programmes; tures and amount of precipitation and, if possible,
(e) Exposure of instruments, including height of some of the other elements listed in 2.8.8 above.
above ground of thermometers, raingauges
and anemometers; 2.8.11 At an automatic climatological station,
(f) A station history (date of beginning of records should be made of elements selected from
records, changes of site, closure or interrup- those in 2.8.8 above.
tion of records, changes in the name of the
station and important changes in the observ-
ing programme); Frequency and timing of observations
(g) The name of the supervising organization or
institution; 2.8.12 Each Member should arrange that obser-
(h) The datum level to which atmospheric pres- vations at any climatological station are made at
sure data of the station refer. fixed hours, according to either UTC or Local Mean
Time, which remain unchanged throughout the year.
2.8.7 The data relating to the elevation of a In implementing the observing programme at GCOS
climatological station should be specified at least to Surface Network (GSN) stations, Members should
the nearest five metres, except that for a station with comply with the following best practices:
a barometer the elevation should be specified to the
nearest metre. (a) Long-term continuity should be provided for
each GSN station: this requires the provision of
2.8.8 At a principal climatological station, the necessary resources, including well-trained
observations shall be made of all or most of the staff, and keeping changes of location to a mini-
following elements: mum. In the case of significant changes in
sensor-devices or station location, Members
(a) Weather; should provide for a sufficiently long period of
(b) Wind; overlap (at least one but preferably two years)
(c) Cloud amount; with dual operation of old and new systems to
(d) Type of cloud; enable comparisons to be made and the identifi-
(e) Height of cloud base; cation of inhomogeneities and other measure-
(f) Visibility; ment characteristics;
(g) Air temperature (including extreme (b) CLIMAT data should be provided in an accurate
temperatures); and timely manner: CLIMAT reports should be
(h) Humidity; transmitted by the fifth day of the month but
(i) Atmospheric pressure; not later than the eighth day of the month;
(j) Precipitation; (c) Rigorous quality control should be exercised on the
(k) Snow cover; measurements and their message encoding: CLIMAT
(l) Sunshine duration and/or solar radiation; reports require quality control of the measurements
(m) Soil temperature. themselves and their message encoding to ensure
their accurate transmission to national, regional and
2.8.9 At a principal climatological station, soil world centres for their use. Quality-control checks
temperature should be measured at some or all of the should be made on site and at a central location
following depths: 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 150 and 300 cm. designed to detect equipment faults at the earliest
III–10 MANUAL ON THE GLOBAL OBSERVING SYSTEM
stage possible. The Guide to Meteorological Instruments stratospheric circulation, composition and chem-
and Methods of Observation (WMO-No. 8) provides istry, every effort should be made to maintain
the appropriate recommendations; soundings regularly up to a level as high as possible
(d) The site layout should follow the recommended noting the above GCOS requirement;
form: the layout of the site should follow the (c) CLIMAT TEMP data should be provided in an
recommendations in the Guide on the Global accurate and timely manner: CLIMAT TEMP
Observing System (WMO-No. 488); reports should be transmitted by the fifth day of
(e) The site and instruments should be inspected each month, but not later than the eighth day of
regularly and maintained according to WMO the month;
recommended practices: to obtain homoge- (d) Rigorous quality control should be exercised
neous datasets, maintenance should be carried at each GUAN site: periodic calibration, valida-
out as is documented in the Guide to tion and maintenance of the equipment should
Meteorological Instruments and Methods of be carried out to maintain the quality of the
Observation (WMO-No. 8). The quality of the observations;
measured variables should be guaranteed by (e) Basic checks should be made before each
appropriate inspection of sites, instruments and sounding to ensure accurate data: the accuracy of
exposure to be based on the procedures given in a radiosonde’s sensors should be checked in a
the Guide. As part of the maintenance, the controlled environment immediately before the
necessary calibration practices should be trace- flight. Checks should also be made during and/or
able to the standards provided by the Guide; at the end of each sounding to assure that
(f) A national plan should be developed to archive incomplete soundings or soundings containing
daily data from GSN stations for climate and errors are corrected before transmission;
climate research purposes: the archive should (f) Back-up radiosondes should be released in cases
include both observational data and metadata of failure: in the event of failure of a sounding
pertaining to each climate station. Metadata instrument or incomplete sounding resulting
should include data concerning a station’s estab- from difficult weather conditions, a second
lishment, subsequent maintenance and changes release should be made to maintain the record
in exposure, instrumentation and staff. The data from the GUAN station;
and metadata should be in its original form as (g) Detailed metadata for each GUAN station
well as in digital format; should be provided: the batch identifier on the
(g) Detailed metadata and historical climate data for radiosondes should be logged for each flight, so
each GSN station should be provided: a GSN that faulty batches can be identified and the
Data Centre should have an up-to-date digital data amended or eliminated from the climate
copy of the historical climate data and all types records, if necessary. Up-to-date records of meta-
of metadata for GSN stations. A current copy of data in a standard format should be provided to
the long-term series of data and metadata from the GUAN Data Centre so that shifts in the data
GSN stations should be made available. will not be mistaken for climate change. The
metadata should include detailed information
about the station, such as location, elevation,
2.10 Global Climate Observing System operating instruments and their changes over
Upper-air Network (GUAN) stations time. Changes to operating and correction
procedures should also be recorded. Both the
In implementing observing programmes at GCOS corrected and uncorrected upper-air observation
Upper-air Network (GUAN) stations, Members should should be archived. Climate change studies
comply with the following best practices: require extremely high stability in the system-
atic errors of the radiosonde measurements.
(a) Long-term continuity should be provided for
each GUAN station: this requires the provision
of the necessary resources, including well- 2.11 Agricultural meteorological
trained staff, and keeping changes of location to stations
a minimum. Changes of bias caused by changes
in instrumentation should be evaluated by a General
sufficient overlapping period of observation
(perhaps as much as a year) or by making use of 2.11.1 Each Member should establish in its terri-
the results of instrument intercomparisons made tory a network of agricultural meteorological stations.
at designated test sites;
(b) Soundings should preferably be made twice per day 2.11.2 The desirable density of the network of
and should reach as high as possible, noting the each category of agricultural meteorological stations
GCOS requirements for ascents up to a height of should be adequate to delineate weather parameters
5hPa. Since climate data are needed in the strato- on the scale required for agrometeorological plan-
sphere to monitor changes in the atmospheric ning and operation, taking into account the
circulation and to study the interaction between agricultural features of the country.
PART III III–11
2.11.3 Each Member should maintain an (v) Hydrometeors and water-balance compo-
up-to-date directory of the agricultural meteorological nents (including hail, dew, fog, evaporation
stations in its territory, giving the following information, from soil and from open water, transpiration
often referred to as metadata, for each station: from crops or plants, rainfall interception,
runoff and water table);
(a) Name and geographical coordinates; (vi) Sunshine, global and net radiation as well as
(b) Elevation of station; the radiation balance over natural vegeta-
(c) A brief description of the local topography; tion, and crops and soils (over 24 hours);
(d) Natural biomass, main agrosystems and crops of (vii) Observations of weather conditions
the area; producing direct damage to crops, such
(e) Types of soil, physical constants and profile of as frost, hail, drought, floods, gales and
soil; extremely hot dry winds;
(f) Category of station, details of observing pro- (viii) Observations of damage caused by sand-
gramme and reporting schedule; storms and duststorms, atmospheric
(g) Exposure of instruments, including height above pollution and acid deposition as well as
ground of thermometers, raingauges and forest, bush and grassland fires.
anemometers;
(h) A station history (date of beginning of records, (b) Observations of a biological nature:
changes of site, closure or interruption of records, (i) Phenological observations;
changes in the name of the station and important (ii) Observations on growth (as required for the
changes in the observing programme); establishment of bioclimatic relationships);
(i) The name of the supervising organization or (iii) Observations on qualitative and quanti-
institution. tative yield of plant and animal products;
(iv) Observations of direct weather damage
on crops and animals (adverse effects of
Location and composition frost, hail, drought, floods, gales);
(v) Observations of damage caused by
2.11.4 Each agricultural meteorological station diseases and pests;
should be located at a place that is representative of (vi) Observations of damage caused by sand-
agricultural and natural conditions in the area storms and duststorms and atmospheric
concerned, preferably: pollution, as well as forest, bush and
grassland fires.
(a) At experimental stations or research institutes
for agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry,
forestry, hydrobiology and soil sciences; Frequency and timing of observations
(b) At agricultural and allied colleges;
(c) In areas of present or future importance for agri- 2.11.6 Observations of a physical nature should
cultural and animal husbandry; be made at the main synoptic times. Observations of
(d) In forest areas; a biological nature should be made regularly or as
(e) In national parks and reserves. frequently as significant changes occur and should be
accompanied by meteorological observations.
2.11.5 At an agricultural meteorological station,
the observing programme should, in addition to the
standard climatological observations, include some 2.12 Special stations
or all of the following:
2.12.1 General
(a) Observations of physical environment:
(i) Temperature and humidity of the air at 2.12.1.1 In addition to the stations discussed
different levels in the layer adjacent to previously, Members should establish special
the ground (from ground level up to stations.
about ten metres above the upper limit of
prevailing vegetation), including extreme NOTE: In some cases, these special stations are co-located
values of these elements; with surface or upper-air stations of the RBSNs.
(ii) Soil temperature at depths of 5, 10, 20, 50
and 100 cm and at additional depths for 2.12.1.2 Members should cooperate in the estab-
special purposes and in forest areas; lishment of special stations for particular purposes.
(iii) Soil water (volumetric content) at various
depths, with at least three replications 2.12.1.3 Special stations shall include:
when the gravimetric method is used;
(iv) Turbulence and mixing of air in the lower (a) Weather radar stations;
layer (including wind measurements at (b) Radiation stations;
different levels); (c) Wind profiler stations;
III–12 MANUAL ON THE GLOBAL OBSERVING SYSTEM
Location and composition NOTE: The exposure and surroundings of the stations should
not alter in time to such an extent as to affect the
2.12.2.2 Weather radars shall be located in such homogeneity of the series of observations.
a manner as to minimize interference from
surrounding hills, buildings and electromagnetic 2.12.3.5 At principal radiation stations, the
sources, so as to provide good coverage of popula- observing programme should include:
tion centres and geographic features affecting
stream and river flows, major thoroughfares and (a) Continuous recording of global solar radiation
other facilities of importance. and sky radiation, using pyranometers of the
first or second class;
(b) Regular measurements of direct solar radiation;
Frequency and timing of observations (c) Regular measurements of net radiation (radia-
tion balance) over natural and crop soil cover
2.12.2.3 As a minimum, observations should be (throughout 24 hours);
taken and reported at hourly intervals. Observations (d) Recording of duration of sunshine.
should be more frequent when heavy convective activity
or heavy widespread precipitation is occurring. NOTE: The terminology of radiation qualities and measuring
instruments and the classification of pyranometers is
given in the Guide to Meteorological Instruments and
2.12.3 Radiation stations Methods of Observation (WMO-No. 8).
NOTES:
Location and composition (1) For detailed guidance regarding observations made
during meteorological reconnaissance flights, see the
2.12.5.2 Atmospherics (spherics) detection Guide to Meteorological Instruments and Methods of
stations should be located so as to measure this Observation (WMO-No. 8).
phenomenon in areas of frequent convective activity. (2) Type of wind refers to how the wind was determined
The spacing and number of ground stations should and whether it was a mean or a spot wind.
be in keeping with the technique used, coverage and
accuracy of location desired.
Frequency and timing of observations
NOTE: When establishing and operating these stations, (a) Greenhouse gases (concentration near the
appropriate safety precautions are considered surface, total column density and vertical
necessary and need to be coordinated with the profile): carbon dioxide; chlorofluorocarbons,
relevant air traffic control authorities. their substitutes, intermediates and final prod-
ucts; methane; nitrous oxide; tropospheric
ozone;
Location and composition (b) Ozone (concentration near the surface, total
column density and vertical profile) and related
2.12.7.2 Members establishing rocket stations precursor gases, e.g. volatile organic compounds
should coordinate their locations through WMO so ((VOCs) NOx);
that continuous networks can be maintained. (c) Radiation and the optical depth or transparency
Elements to be measured include: of the atmosphere: turbidity, solar radiation,
ultraviolet B radiation, visibility, total aerosol
(a) Wind direction and speed; load (concentration near the surface, in a marine
(b) Air temperature; or continental background and, where possible,
(c) Solar radiation; vertical profile up to the tropopause);
(d) Electrical variables; (d) Chemical composition of precipitation;
(e) Minor chemical constituents. (e) Reactive gas species (concentration near the
surface, total column density and vertical profile):
sulphur dioxide, reduced sulphur species, oxides
Frequency and timing of observations of nitrogen, reduced nitrogen species, carbon
monoxide, VOCs, peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN),
2.12.7.3 The frequency and timing of launches hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and others;
should be coordinated, because of cost, among (f) Physical and chemical characteristics of atmo-
Members concerned to allow simultaneous spheric particles, including mineral aerosols and
sampling at rocket network stations. Information their vertical distribution;
on launches should be communicated to the WMO (g) Radionuclides, krypton-85, radon, tritium,
Secretariat. isotopes of selected substances;
(h) Routine measurements of the classical meteoro-
logical elements (in particular wind direction
2.12.8 Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) and speed, wet- and dry-bulb air temperature,
stations relative humidity, atmospheric pressure, present
weather, aerological soundings);
General (i) Chemical composition of water in the soil and
plants, in collaboration with other interested
2.12.8.1 Members should cooperate in the estab- organizations;
lishment of a minimum of 30 global GAW stations (j) Integrated air samples for archiving.
and at least 300 regional GAW stations.
2.12.8.5 At regional GAW stations, measurements
should be made of as many of the variables listed in
Location and composition 2.12.8.4 (a) to (j) above as possible and others as the
needs of the region or country dictate. However, the
2.12.8.2 Global Atmosphere Watch stations following variables should constitute the core
should be established only at sites where direct pollu- measurement programme at GAW regional stations,
tion effects can be avoided. with the highest priority given to the first five:
2.12.8.3 Global Atmosphere Watch stations (a) Ozone concentration near the surface;
should be co-located with or located near a surface (b) Precipitation chemistry;
and/or an upper-air synoptic station. (c) Carbon black (in precipitation and in aerosols);
(d) Meteorological parameters;
NOTE: For further information on the location of GAW (e) Solar radiation (visible, ultraviolet B);
stations, see the Technical Regulations (WMO- (f) Methane;
No. 49), Volume I – General Meteorological (g) Carbon monoxide;
Standards and Recommended Practices, Chapter (h) Total ozone;
B.2, as well as the appropriate Global (i) Aerosol composition.
Atmosphere Watch technical publications and
the Guide on the Global Observing System (WMO-
No. 488). Frequency and timing of observations
2.12.8.4 At each global GAW station, measure- 2.12.8.6 At GAW stations, observations of most
ments should be carried out on all or most of the parameters should be continuous with reports
following variables: prepared on an hourly basis.
PART III III–15
3.1.10 Automatic stations should be inspected (c) All synoptic-scale discontinuities (e.g. fronts)
not less than once every six months. can be identified as soon as possible after the
observation is made.
3.1.11 At sea stations, barometers should be
checked at least twice a year with reference to a stan- 3.3.1.2 To satisfy these requirements, observa-
dard barometer. tional methods should be selected so as to achieve:
3.2.2 Instruments in operational use shall be 3.3.1.3 To avoid the effect of small-scale fluctua-
periodically compared directly or indirectly with tions, the meteorological variable should be sampled
the relevant national standards. continuously or repeatedly over a suitable time for
the purpose of observing representative mean and
3.2.3 Where automated instrument systems extreme values. Alternatively, instruments with a
are employed, reference (or check) values of vari- suitable lag or damping effect should be used to elim-
ables shall also be measured taking into inate or substantially reduce high-frequency noise.
consideration criteria for the allowed difference
between the reference and compared instruments 3.3.1.4 The averaging time should be short
as well as the appropriate minimum time interval compared with the temporal scale of such disconti-
between comparisons. nuities as fronts or squall lines, which usually
delineate air masses of different characteristics whilst
3.2.4 At reference climatological stations, any removing the effects of small-scale disturbance. For
change in instrumentation should be such as not to example, for synoptic purposes an average taken over
decrease the degree of accuracy of any observations one to ten minutes will suffice for the measurement
as compared with the earlier observations, and any of atmospheric pressure, air temperature, air humid-
such change should be preceded by an adequate ity, wind, sea surface temperature and visibility.
overlap (at least two years) with the earlier
instrumentation. 3.3.1.5 Instrumental readings shall be
corrected and reduced as appropriate.
3.2.5 Unless otherwise specified, instruments
designated as regional and national standards should 3.3.2 Atmospheric pressure
be compared by means of travelling standards at least
once every five years. 3.3.2.1 Barometric readings shall be reduced
from local acceleration of gravity to standard
3.2.6 In order to control effectively the stan- (normal) gravity. The value of standard (normal)
dardization of meteorological instruments on a gravity (symbol gn) shall be regarded as a conven-
national and international scale, a system of tional constant.
national and regional standards, as adopted by the
World Meteorological Organization, shall be gn = 9.806 65 m/s
applied in the GOS. (See Guide to Meteorological
Instruments and Methods of Observation (WMO- 3.3.2.2 The hectopascal (hPa), equal to 100
No. 8), Part I, Chapter 2.) pascals (Pa), shall be the unit in which pressures
are reported for meteorological purposes.
3.3.2.6 Atmospheric pressure at a station shall 3.3.3.5 For psychrometric purposes ther-
be reduced to mean sea level, except at those mometers shall be read to at least 0.1°C.
stations where regional association resolutions
prescribe otherwise.
3.3.4 Humidity
3.3.2.7 The results of comparisons of national
and regional reference standard barometers shall NOTE: Definitions and specifications of water vapour in the
be reported to the Secretariat for communication atmosphere are given in the Guide to Meteorological
to all Members concerned. Instruments and Methods of Observation (WMO-No. 8),
Part I, Chapter 4, Annex 4.A.
3.3.2.8 Regional comparisons of national stan-
dard barometers with a regional standard 3.3.4.1 In surface observations, at temperatures
barometer shall be arranged at least once every ten above 0°C values of humidity should be derived from
years. the readings of a psychrometer or other instrument
of equal or greater accuracy.
3.3.2.9 Reference standards for comparison
purposes may be provided by mercury barometers 3.3.4.2 If forced ventilation of psychrometers is
or by reference pressure sources of equivalent or used the airflow past the thermometer bulbs should
better accuracy. Using such comparisons, the cali- be between 2.5 m/s and 10 m/s.
bration of the station barometer shall be directly
traceable to a national or regional primary stan- 3.3.4.3 In surface observations the height
dard for atmospheric pressure. requirements for humidity measurements shall be
the same as for air temperature measurements.
3.3.2.10 In calibration against a standard barome-
ter whose index errors are known and allowed for,
tolerances for a station barometer stated in the Guide 3.3.5 Surface wind
to Meteorological Instruments and Methods of
Observation (WMO-No. 8) should not be exceeded. 3.3.5.1 The exposure of wind instruments over
level, open terrain shall be ten metres above the ground.
3.3.3 Air temperature NOTE: Open terrain is defined as an area where the
distance between the anemometer and any
3.3.3.1 One of the following three main types obstruction is at least ten times but preferably
of thermometer shall be used: 20 times the height of the obstruction.
3.3.5.4 Wind direction should be measured in NOTE: In general, objects should not be closer to the
degrees and reported to the nearest ten degrees and gauge than a distance twice their height above the
should represent a scalar average over ten minutes or, gauge orifice.
if the wind changes significantly in the ten-minute
period, an average over the period after the change.
3.3.9 Sea temperature
3.3.5.5 “Calm” should be indicated when the
average wind speed is less than 0.5 m/s. The direction The method used at manned sea stations for
in this case is not measured for synoptic purposes. measuring sea surface temperature shall be
entered in the relevant meteorological logbook.
3.3.5.6 In the absence of an anemometer, the
wind speed may be estimated using the Beaufort
scale. 3.3.10 Waves
NOTE: The Beaufort scale is given in the Guide to When separate wave systems are clearly distinguish-
Meteorological Instruments and Methods of able, each of them should be recorded.
Observation (WMO-No. 8), Part I, Chapter 5.
3.3.6.1 For all cloud observations, the tables of NOTE: For details of calibration of other radiation
classification, definitions and descriptions of sensors, refer to the Guide to Meteorological
general species and varieties of clouds as given in Instruments and Methods of Observation (WMO-
the International Cloud Atlas (WMO-No. 407), No. 8), Part I, Chapter 7.
Volume I – Manual on the Observation of Clouds
and other Meteors – (Annex I to the WMO
Technical Regulations), shall be used. 3.3.12 Soil temperature
3.3.6.2 Height of cloud base should preferably be 3.3.12.1 Measurements should be made to detect
determined by measurement. diurnal variations of soil temperature at depths of 5,
10, 20 and, in some cases, 50 cm.
The threshold value for bright sunshine should be 3.4.5 Each synoptic upper-air station shall
120 W/m2 of direct solar irradiance. promptly report on any changes of the types of
radiosonde and windfinding systems in opera-
tional use to the Secretariat for communication to
3.4 Upper-air observations all Members at least on a quarterly basis.
SPACE-BASED SUBSYSTEM
1. COMPOSITION OF THE SUBSYSTEM (a) Visible infrared and microwave imagery missions;
(b) Infrared sounding missions;
The space-based subsystem shall be composed of a (c) Data-collection missions;
ground segment in addition to the space segment (d) Dissemination missions;
consisting of operational geostationary and polar- (e) Other missions as appropriate, e.g. Earth radia-
orbiting satellites and research and development tion budget, etc.
(R&D) satellites.
NOTE: Information on the characteristics, capabilities and 1.1.3 Research and development satellites
uses of the current system of operational meteorolog-
ical satellites is contained in the Coordination Group Missions
for Meteorological Satellites (CGMS) Directory of
Meteorological Satellite Applications. Additional up- The following missions, to the extent possible,
to-date information can be found via the WMO should be performed:
Satellite Activities home page: http://www.wmo.ch/
hinsman/satsun.html. Information on Meteorological (a) Visible infrared and microwave imagery missions;
and Other Environmental Satellites contains further (b) Infrared and/or microwave sounding missions;
relevant information and is available on the WMO (c) Dissemination missions;
Satellite Activities publications web pages: (d) Missions capable of measuring parameters stated
http://www.wmo.ch/hinsman/Publications.html. as WMO observational requirements.
The space segment shall provide for a global Receiving and processing stations should provide for
coverage. the reception of signals and data collection platform
(DCP) data from operational satellites and/or the
NOTES: processing, formatting and display of meaningful
(1) The different capabilities of operational and R&D satel- environmental observation information, with a view
lites complement each other and are necessary parts of to further distributing it in a convenient form to local
the space-based subsystem of the Global Observing users, or over the Global Telecommunication System
System (GOS). (GTS), as required.
(2) Operational and, to the extent possible, R&D satellites
are also capable of accomplishing data-collection and
data-dissemination missions. 2. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE
SUBSYSTEM
(a) Visible infrared and microwave imagery missions; 2.1 Space segment
(b) Infrared and microwave sounding missions;
(c) Data-collection missions; Members operating environmental observation satel-
(d) Direct broadcast missions; lites should meet, to the extent possible, the
(e) Other missions as appropriate, e.g. scattero- accuracy, timeliness, and time and space resolution
meter, altimetric, etc. requirements of the GOS.
least eight times per day for instruments with hori- only at one or two levels in the vertical and only when
zon-to-horizon scanning. Typically this will require suitable tracers exist.
two satellites in ante-meridian (a.m.) orbit and two in (2) Operational environmental satellites have made useful
post-meridian (p.m.) orbit. contributions to many of the information types listed
in 2.1.4.
2.1.1.2 The number of satellites in geostationary
orbit should be sufficient to obtain observations, (b) Direct broadcast, data-dissemination missions
typically at 30 or 15 minute intervals and throughout and alternative dissemination methods (ADM):
a field of view between 60°S and 60°N. This implies All operational environmental observation satel-
the availability of at least six satellites, near-equally lites should be equipped to provide direct
spaced around the equator. broadcast or near-real-time data dissemination
of the cloud imagery and, to the extent possible,
2.1.1.3 Data from polar satellites should be of other real-time data of interest to Members.
acquired on a global basis, without gaps (blind Additionally:
orbits), and delivered to users to meet timeliness (i) Members responsible for satellites with
requirements. Imagery and sounding data should be these facilities should ensure the greatest
available from at least four polar-orbiting satellites, possible compatibility between their
two in a.m. and two in p.m. orbit, on not less than different systems, and publish details of
99 per cent of occasions. The system design should the technical characteristics of their
provide for ground segment, instrument and satellite instrumentation, data processing and
redundancy, and rapid call up of replacement transmissions, as well as the dissemina-
launches or a.m. and p.m. spares, to achieve this. tion schedules;
(ii) Frequencies, modulations, formats and
2.1.1.4 Imagery from at least six equi-spaced orbital de-phasing between the a.m. and
geostationary satellites should be accessible on not p.m. satellites should be such as to allow
less than 90 per cent of occasions and from four such a particular user to acquire data from the
satellites on 99 per cent of occasions. Contingency satellite by a single antenna and signal
plans, involving the use of in-orbit standby flight processing hardware. To the extent possi-
models and rapid call up of replacement systems and ble, the existing frequency bands should
launches, should be in place to maximize the utility continue to be used;
of the available data. (iii) Direct broadcast should be provided in
two data streams as follows:
– a high data rate stream, such as the
2.1.2 Missions present high-resolution picture
transmission (HRPT) and its planned
2.1.2.1 The satellites should be equipped at a evolution, to provide large and
minimum to provide the following missions: medium-sized meteorological
centres with all the data required for
(a) Imagery and sounding missions: satellites nowcasting and numerical weather
should be equipped to provide characteristics prediction (NWP), when required,
(including spatial and temporal resolution, accu- and other real-time applications;
racy and timeliness) meeting user requirements – a low data rate stream, such as in the
to the greatest extent possible, independently or present automatic picture transmis-
in conjunction with surface-based observations, sion (APT) and WEFAX services and
quantitative data and qualitative information to their planned evolution to low rate
enable determination of: picture transmission (LRPT) and low
(i) Fields of atmospheric temperature and rate information transmission (LRIT)
humidity; services, to convey an essential
(ii) Temperatures of sea and land surfaces; volume of data for nowcasting and
(iii) Wind fields at the surface and aloft; short-period forecasting to low-cost
(iv) Cloud amount, cloud type, cloud top height receiving stations;
and temperature, and cloud water content; (iv) Alternative dissemination methods
(v) Precipitation; should complement and supplement
(vi) Snow and ice cover; direct broadcast services with the ulti-
(vii) Total column ozone; mate goal for transition to the full use of
(viii) Vegetation cover; the ADM broadcast services.
(ix) Radiation balance data. (c) Data-collection missions: All operational envi-
ronmental observation satellites should be
NOTES: equipped to provide for the collection and relay
(1) The movements of clouds and water vapour features of data from various kinds of observing and data
provide a useful determination of the wind field but collection platforms:
PART IV IV–3
(i) Members responsible for satellites with Although neither long-term continuity of service nor
this capability should establish and a reliable replacement policy is assured, these satel-
maintain the necessary technical and lites provide such information as:
operational coordination, in order to
ensure compatibility. A number of chan- (a) Improved information on atmospheric tempera-
nels should be identical on all ture and humidity fields;
geostationary satellites to allow move- (b) Improved information on wind fields, including
ment of mobile platforms between their at the ocean surface;
individual footprints; (c) Soil moisture distribution;
(ii) The satellite operators should publish (d) Improved information on sea ice type and
details of the technical characteristics and extent;
operational procedures of their data (e) Improved information on snow cover and on
collection missions, including the snow water content;
admission and certification procedures. (f) Wave heights, directions and spectra;
(g) Improved accuracy and frequency in rainfall
NOTE: ARGOS, based on polar-orbiting satellites, monitoring;
provides an operational system for locating low (h) Three-dimensional cloud water/ice fields;
power transmitters and relaying small amounts of (i) Height of cloud base;
data from them. (j) Improved monitoring of the Earth radiation
budget;
2.1.2.2 Global data coverage should be provided (k) Sea surface temperatures of improved accuracy;
for the benefit of the WMO World Meteorological (l) Distribution of particulate matter in the atmo-
Centres and a number of Regional Specialized sphere, including volcanic ash;
Meteorological Centres engaged in global NWP. (m) Ocean surface height;
Availability of global data is required without gaps in (n) Ocean surface salinity;
coverage or time. For global NWP applications, data (o) Ocean colour, related to marine pollution and
are required no later than four hours, and with a goal biological properties;
of one hour, after the instrument has made the obser- (p) Sea and land ice topography;
vation. This may be achieved by on-board storage (q) Improved information on ozone distribution;
and successive transmission when in view of (r) Improved information on land cover and vege-
command and data acquisition stations, or by using tation mapping;
data relay satellites, or by a combination of the two (s) Flood and forest fire monitoring;
systems. (t) Information on fields of chemically-active atmo-
spheric constituents;
2.1.2.3 The above missions make a useful contri- (u) Information on carbon dioxide and other green-
bution to the monitoring of climate, but to maximize house gases.
their effectiveness for this purpose data records
possessing long-term consistency are essential.
Members responsible for operational environmental 2.2 Ground segment
satellites should consider this requirement when
planning their launch, calibration, validation, 2.2.1 Central stations
processing and archival strategies.
2.2.1.1 In order to guarantee that comparable
meteorological parameters or information are
2.1.3 Contingency arrangements obtained, all Members operating central stations
should do their utmost in coordinating the extrac-
The satellite operators, working together under the tion of meteorological information.
auspices of CGMS or otherwise, should ensure the
continuity of operation, and the data dissemination 2.2.1.2 The satellite operators should establish
and distribution services of the satellites comprising dissemination schedules that take into account the
the Baseline Space Segment. requirements of users.
station for receiving data from a geosta- users to develop new products by refining current or
tionary satellite; developing new algorithms or products.
(ii) When real-time use is planned of the
high-resolution imagery transmission, or
the high-resolution digital data from the 2.2.4 Education and training strategy
sounding instruments, Members should
install a station capable of receiving data The highest priority should be given to the education
in the appropriate direct broadcast and training of instructors in the use of satellite data
frequency; and capabilities at a subset of Regional Meteorological
(iii) Members requiring access to data from Training Centres (RMTCs), in order to build up expertise
the direct broadcast service on R&D and facilities at a number of regional growth points. In
satellites will need to install an order to help bring this about, individual environmen-
appropriate user station which may be tal satellite operators should focus their assistance, to
different from the user station for the the extent possible, on one or more of these RMTCs
operational satellites. within their service areas.
(b) Data-collection platforms: In order to extend the
GOS by the use of the data-collection and relay NOTES:
capability of the environmental observation (1) The aim of this strategy is to systematically improve
satellites, Members should establish fixed or the use of satellite data for meteorology and opera-
moving DP/ARGOS systems, in particular to tional hydrology, with a focus on meeting the needs of
cover data-sparse areas. developing countries.
(2) It is designed to focus the participation of all organiza-
tions that have a vested interest in improving the use
2.2.3 Archiving strategy of satellite data and recognizes that the satellite opera-
tor is one such organization, with ready access to much
Satellite data should be archived at CEOS Level 1B, of the necessary infrastructure and expertise.
together with all relevant metadata pertaining to the (3) Implementation requires access to appropriate receiv-
location, orbit and calibration procedures used. The ing and processing facilities at the RMTCs but training
archiving system should be capable of providing a can be carried out through seminars and/or Internet-
browse facility, generating summaries and allowing based communication.
PART V
QUALITY CONTROL
NOTE: The Guide on the Global Data-processing System NOTE: Members should pay due attention to the quality
(WMO-No. 305) is the authoritative reference on all control of observational data at the national level,
matters related to quality control issues. It should be aiming at the prevention of errors at the observa-
consulted for more detailed descriptions. tional site, as well as the National Meteorological
Centres (NMCs).
1.1 The purpose of quality control of observa-
tional data is error detection, possible error correction 2.1.2 Members shall inform the Secretary-
and, therefore, error prevention, in order to ensure the General (for general dissemination) of any special
highest possible standard of accuracy for the optimum features of their observing systems which may be
use of these data by all possible users. important in the correct interpretation of the data
provided.
1.1.1 Within the framework of the Global
Observing System (GOS), quality control shall be a
real-time activity which has to be performed prior to
the transmission of the observational data on the 2.2 Relay of data
Global Telecommunication System (GTS).
Quality control of observational data needed for
NOTE: See the Guide to Meteorological Instruments and operational use shall not cause any significant
Methods of Observations (WMO-No. 8), Part III. delay in onward transmission on the GTS.
DEFINITIONS
The following terms, when used in this Manual, have logically from the meaning of the terms “synoptic
the meanings given below. Composite terms have not station” and “land station”. Other definitions can be
been defined in this section when their meanings can found in the Manual on Codes (WMO-No. 306),
easily be deduced from those of the elements Manual on the Global Data-processing System (WMO-
constituting them. For example, the meaning of the No. 485), Manual on the Global Telecommunication
term “synoptic land station” can be constructed System (WMO-No. 386) and other WMO publications.
Aeronautical meteorological station: A station desig- Aircraft Meteorological Data Relay (AMDAR): The
nated to make observations and meteorological collective name for the automated aviation mete-
reports for use in international air navigation. orological data collection systems called ASDAR
Agricultural meteorological station: A station that and ACARS from aircraft fitted with appropriate
provides meteorological and biological informa- software packages.
tion for agricultural and/or biological applications. Aircraft meteorological station: A meteorological
Agricultural meteorological stations are classified station situated on an aircraft.
as follows: Aircraft to Satellite Data Relay (ASDAR):
– Principal agricultural meteorological station: A Automated aviation meteorological data collection
station that provides detailed simultaneous system from aircraft fitted with appropriate soft-
meteorological and biological information and ware packages. Similar in function to ACARS.
where research in agricultural meteorology is Alternative dissemination method (ADM):
carried out. The instrumental facilities, the Dissemination services other than through direct
range and frequency of observations in both broadcast for satellite sensor, data and products.
meteorological and biological fields, and the These alternatives include: the use of data relay
professional personnel are such that between satellite systems; the use of commercially
fundamental investigations into agricultural provided higher data rate services; and the use of
meteorological questions of interest to the services such as the Internet. ADM should comple-
countries or Regions concerned can be carried ment and supplement direct broadcast services.
out. Anchored platform station: An observing station on
– Ordinary agricultural meteorological station: a platform anchored in deep water.
A station that provides, on a routine basis, Atmospherics detection station: A station contribut-
simultaneous meteorological and biological ing observations to an atmospheric detection
information and may be equipped to assist in system.
research into specific problems; in general the Atmospherics detection system: An instrumental
programme of biological or phenological obser- system consisting of a number of stations for the
vations for research will be related to the local detection and location of atmospherics.
climatic regime of the station. Automated aircraft meteorological system: A series
– Auxiliary agricultural meteorological station: of devices integrated into the instrumentation of
A station that provides meteorological and an aircraft, which records and/or transmits obser-
biological information. The meteorological vations automatically.
information may include such items as soil Automatic station: A station at which instruments
temperature, soil moisture, potential evapo- make and either transmit or record observations
transpiration, detailed information on the very automaticalIy, the conversion to code form, if
lowest layer of the atmosphere; the biological required, being made either directly or at an edit-
information may cover phenology, onset and ing station.
spread of plant diseases, etc. Auxiliary ship station: A mobile ship station,
– Agricultural meteorological station for specific normally without certified meteorological instru-
purposes: A station set up temporarily or ments, that transmits reports in code form or in
permanently that provides meteorological data plain language, either as routine or on request, in
for specific agricultural purposes. certain areas or under certain conditions.
Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting Climatological station: A station whose observations
System (ACARS): Automated aviation meteoro- are used for climatological purposes. Clim-
logical data collection system from aircraft fitted atological stations are classified as follows:
with appropriate software packages. Similar in – Reference climatological station: A climatolog-
function to ASDAR. ical station the data of which are intended for
App.–2 MANUAL ON THE GLOBAL OBSERVING SYSTEM
the purpose of determining climatic trends. specially selected network of stations to monitor
This requires long periods (not less than 30 daily and large-scale climate variability on a global
years) of homogeneous records, where human- basis.
induced environmental changes have been Global Climate Observing System Upper-air
and/or are expected to remain at a minimum. Network (GUAN) station: An upper-air station
Ideally, the records should be of sufficient included in the specially selected global baseline
length to make possible the identification of network of upper-air stations to meet the require-
secular changes of climate. ments of the Global Climate Observing System.
– Principal climatological station: A climatolog- Global Data-processing System (GDPS): The coordi-
ical station at which hourly readings are taken, nated global system of meteorological centres and
or at which observations are made at least three arrangements for the processing, storage and
times daily in addition to hourly tabulation retrieval of meteorological information within the
from autographic records. framework of the World Weather Watch.
– Ordinary climatological station: A climatological Global Observing System (GOS): The coordinated
station at which observations are made at least system of methods and facilities for making mete-
once daily, including daily readings of extreme orological and other environmental observations
temperature and of amount of precipitation. on a global scale in support of all WMO
– Climatological station for specific purposes: A Programmes, particularly the World Weather
climatological station established for the obser- Watch and the World Climate Programme; the
vation of a specific element or elements. system is comprised of operationally reliable
Coastal station: A station on a coast that may be able surface-based and space-based subsystems. The
to make some observations of conditions at sea. objective is to assure continuity of service.
Data collection platform (DCP): A fixed or moving Global Telecommunication System (GTS): The
platform on land, sea or in the air that transmits coordinated global system of telecommunication
data via satellite to a collection centre. facilities and arrangements for the rapid collec-
Direct broadcast service: A broadcast service, provided by tion, exchange and distribution of observational
some operational environmental observation satel- and processed information within the framework
lites, that transmits satellite sensor data and products of the World Weather Watch.
in real-time for reception by ground stations within Ice-floe station: An observing station on an ice floe.
radio range of the satellite. Island station: A station on a small island on which
Drifting automatic sea (drifting buoy) station: A conditions are similar to those in the marine envi-
floating automatic surface synoptic station that is ronment and from which some observations of
free to drift under the influence of wind and conditions at sea can be made.
current. Land station: An observing station situated on land.
Environmental data buoy station: A fixed or drifting Lightship station: A surface synoptic station situated
buoy which records or transmits environmental aboard a lightship.
and/or marine data. Meteorological element: One of the atmospheric vari-
Environmental observation satellite: An artificial ables or phenomena which characterize the
Earth satellite providing data on the Earth system physical state of the atmosphere at a specific place
which are of benefit to WMO Programmes. at a given time. (See Section B.)
NOTE: These data support a variety of disciplines includ- Meteorological observation (Observation): The eval-
ing, but not limited to, meteorology, hydrology, uation or measurement of one or more
climatology, oceanography, climate and global change meteorological elements.
related disciplines. Meteorological observing network: A group of
Fixed platform station: An observing station on a observing stations spread over a given area for a
platform at a fixed site in shallow water. specific purpose.
Fixed sea station: An ocean weather ship or a station Meteorological observing station (Station): A place
situated on a lightship, a fixed or anchored plat- where meteorological observations are made with
form, or a small island, or in certain coastal areas. the approval of the Member or Members
Geostationary satellite: A type of environmental concerned.
observation satellite orbiting in the Earth’s equato- Meteorological reconnaissance aircraft station: A
rial plane at an altitude of approximately 36 000 meteorological station on an aircraft equipped and
km and with the angular velocity of Earth, thus assigned for the specific purpose of making mete-
providing nearly continuous environmental infor- orological observations.
mation in an area within a range of about 65° Meteorological reconnaissance flight: An aircraft
from the subsatellite point at the Equator. flight for the specific purpose of making meteoro-
Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) station: A station logical observations.
that provides observational data and other infor- Meteorological report (Report): A statement of
mation on the chemical composition and physical observed meteorological conditions related to a
characteristics of the background atmosphere. specified time and location.
Global Climate Observing System Surface Network Meteorological rocket station: A station equipped to
(GSN) station: A land station including the make atmospheric soundings by rockets.
APPENDIX App.–3
Meteorological satellite: An artificial Earth satellite Meteorological Instruments and Methods of Observation
making meteorological observations and transmit- (WMO-No. 8).
ting these observations to Earth. Radiosonde observation: An observation of meteoro-
Mobile sea station: A station aboard a mobile ship or logical elements in the upper air, usually
an ice floe. atmospheric pressure, temperature and humidity,
National Meteorological Centre (NMC): A centre by means of a radiosonde.
responsible for carrying out national functions NOTE: The radiosonde may be attached to a balloon, or
including those under the World Weather Watch. it may be dropped (dropsonde) from an aircraft or a
Near-polar-orbiting satellite: A type of environmen- rocket.
tal observation satellite with nearly circular, nearly Radiosonde station: A station at which observations
polar orbit. The combination of satellite motion of atmospheric pressure, temperature and humid-
and the Earth’s rotation beneath the orbit enables ity in the upper air are made by electronic means.
the collection of overlapping strips of satellite data Radiowind observation: A determination of upper
(swaths up to 3 000 km wide) from pole to pole. winds by tracking of a free balloon by electronic
The satellite’s altitude or inclination defining the means.
orbit may be selected in such a way to be sun- Radiowind station: A station at which upper winds
synchronous and provide global coverage. are determined by the tracking of a free balloon by
Sun-synchronous implies that the satellite will electronic means.
pass over a given geographic position at the same Rawinsonde observation: A combined radiosonde
local sun-time each day. and radiowind observation.
Observing station: Any station making meteorologi- Rawinsonde station: A combined radiosonde and
cal and related environmental observations. radiowind station.
Ocean weather station: A station aboard a suitably Reference level data: Data for a specified level,
equipped and staffed ship that endeavours to normally 1 000 hPa, which enable absolute
remain at a fixed sea position and that makes and heights to be ascribed to satellite temperature-
reports surface and upper-air observations and sounding data.
may also make and report subsurface observations. Regional basic synoptic network (RBSN): A network
Operational satellite: One of a series of environmen- composed of synoptic stations with a specified
tal observation satellites with the primary purpose observational programme within a WMO Region,
to routinely provide observations and services of a which is a minimum regional requirement to
consistent standard over a long period. Resources permit Members to fulfil their responsibilities
are committed to ensure continuity of services within the World Weather Watch and in the appli-
thus permitting the establishment of a reliable cation of meteorology.
satellite replacement policy. Regional Meteorological Centre (RMC): A centre of
Ozone sounding station: A station at which observa- the Global Data-processing System which has the
tions of atmospheric ozone are made. primary purpose of issuing meteorological analy-
Pilot-balloon observation: A determination of upper ses and prognoses on a regional scale.
winds by optical tracking of a free balloon. Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre (RSMC):
Pilot-balloon station: A station at which upper winds are A centre of the Global Data-processing System that
determined by optical tracking of a free balloon. has the primary purpose of issuing meteorological
Planetary boundary layer: The lowest layer in the analyses and prognoses on a regional scale for a
atmosphere, usually taken to be up to 1 500 m, in specified geographical area or of providing prod-
which meteorological conditions are affected ucts and related information in a designated field
significantly by the Earth’s surface. of activity specialization.
Planetary boundary-layer station: A station Research and development satellite: An environ-
equipped to provide detailed meteorological data mental observation satellite with the primary
on the planetary boundary layer. purpose of acquiring a defined set of research data;
Precipitation station: A station at which observa- testing new instrumentation and/or improving
tions of precipitation only are made. existing sensors and satellite systems; and/or it
Radiation station: A station at which observations of may provide information for operational use, but
radiation are made. has limitations due to the lack of a commitment to
– Principal radiation station: A radiation station ensure continuity of service or a reliable satellite
the observing programme of which includes at replacement policy; and also due to non-consis-
least the continuous recording of global solar tent modes of operations.
radiation and of sky radiation and regular Research and special-purpose vessel station: A vessel
measurements of direct solar radiation. making voyages for research or other purposes and
– Ordinary radiation station: A radiation station which is recruited to make meteorological obser-
whose observing programme includes at least vations during the voyages.
the continuous recording of the global solar Satellite communication services requirements:
radiation. Requirements for services using environmental
NOTE: The terminology of radiation quantities and observation satellites including, but not limited
measuring instruments is given in the Guide to to, direct broadcast of data, radio relay of
App.–4 MANUAL ON THE GLOBAL OBSERVING SYSTEM
environmental data collected by automatic sensor Surface-based subsystem: One of the two major
platforms, and search and rescue transmissions. components of the Global Observing System
Satellite data requirements: Those data specified as composed of all non-spaced-based observing
performance goals for an operational environmen- stations.
tal observation satellite system. At a minimum, Surface observation: A meteorological observation,
environmental observation satellite data require- other than an upper-air observation, made on the
ments are defined in terms of spatial, spectral and Earth’s surface.
temporal resolution, geographic extent, timeli- Surface station: A surface location from which
ness, and measurement and location accuracy. surface observations are made.
NOTE: These data requirements are routinely reviewed Synoptic observation: A surface or upper-air observa-
to identify common needs in order to consolidate the tion made at a standard time.
design of the satellite’s instrument payload, and to iden- Synoptic station: A station at which synoptic obser-
tify requirements that could be met more effectively vations are made.
either by surface or space-based observing systems. Tide-gauge station: A station at which tidal measure-
Satellite operator: An entity (Member of WMO or ments are made.
international organization) that manages, and/or Upper-air observation: A meteorological observation
operates environmental observation satellites made in the free atmosphere either directly or
which are of benefit to WMO Programmes. indirectly.
Sea station: An observing station situated at sea. Upper-air report: A report of an upper-air observation.
Selected ship station: A mobile ship station that is Upper-air station: A surface location from which
equipped with sufficient certified meteorological upper-air observations are made.
instruments for making observations and that Upper-wind observation: An observation at a given
transmits the required observations in the appro- height or the result of a complete sounding of
priate code form for ships. wind direction and speed in the atmosphere.
Space-based subsystem: One of the two major Weather radar station: A station making observa-
components of the Global Observing System tions by weather radar.
composed primarily of environmental observation World Meteorological Centre (WMC): A centre of the
satellites in near-polar and geostationary orbits. Global Data-processing System which has the
Special report: A report made at a non-standard time primary purpose of issuing meteorological analy-
of observation when specified conditions or ses and prognoses on a global scale.
changes of conditions occur. World Weather Watch (WWW): The worldwide,
Special station: A station for a special purpose as coordinated, developing system of meteorological
specified in Part III, paragraph 1, of this Manual. facilities and services provided by Members for the
Standard time of observation: A time specified in this purpose of ensuring that all Members obtain the
Manual for making meteorological observations. meteorological and other environmental informa-
NOTE: The term Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is tion they require both for operational work and
used in this Manual. for research. The essential elements of the World
Supplementary ship station: A mobile ship station Weather Watch are the:
that is equipped with a limited number of certified – Global Observing System (GOS);
meteorological instruments for making observa- – Global Data-processing System (GDPS); and
tions and that transmits the required observations – Global Telecommunication System (GTS).
in an abbreviated code form for ships.
Aerosol: Substances, divided into solid particles or liquid – Characteristic of pressure tendency: Shape of
droplets, held in suspension in the atmosphere. the curve recorded by a barograph during the
Air temperature: The temperature indicated by a three-hour period preceding an observation.
thermometer exposed to the air in a place shel- Cloud: A hydrometeor consisting of minute particles
tered from direct solar radiation. of liquid water of ice, or of both, suspended in free
Aircraft icing: Formation of ice, rime or hoar frost on air and usually not touching the ground.
an aircraft. – Cloud amount: The fraction of the sky covered
Atmospheric pressure: Pressure (force per unit area) by the clouds of a certain genus, species, variety,
exerted by the atmosphere on any surface by virtue of layer, or combination of clouds.
its weight; it is equivalent to the weight of a vertical – Height of cloud base: Height above the Earth
column of air extending above a surface of unit area to surface of the base of the lower cloud layer
the outer limit of the atmosphere. whose amount exceeds a specific value.
– Pressure tendency: Character and amount of a – Direction and speed of cloud movement:
station pressure change over three hours (over Direction from which the cloud is coming and
24 hours in tropical regions). the horizontal component of its speed.
APPENDIX App.–5
– Cloud type (classification): Type or variety of and scattering by solid or liquid particles other
cloud as described and classified in the than clouds.
International Cloud Atlas. Turbulence: Random and continuously changing air
Contrail: Cloud which forms in a wake of an aircraft motions which are superposed on the mean
when the air at flight level is sufficiently cold and motion of the air.
moist. Upper wind: The wind speed and direction at various
Dew point: Temperature to which a volume of air levels in the atmosphere, above the domain of
must be cooled at constant pressure and constant surface weather.
moisture in order to reach saturation. Visibility: Greatest distance at which a black object of
Humidity: Water vapour content of the air. suitable dimensions can be seen and recognized
Precipitation: Hydrometeor consisting of a fall of an against the horizon sky during daylight or could
ensemble of particles. The forms of precipitation be seen and recognized during the night if the
are: rain, drizzle, snow, snow grains, snow pellets, general illumination were raised to the normal
diamond dust, hail and ice pellets. daylight level.
Precipitation chemistry: Nature and amount of the Wave height: The vertical distance between the
impurities dissolved or suspended in the precipitation. trough and crest of the wave.
Sea ice: Any form of ice found at sea which has orig- Wave period: Time between the passage of two
inated from the freezing of sea water. successive wave crests past a fixed point.
Sea surface temperature: Temperature of the surface Waves, direction of movement of: Direction from
layer of the sea. which the waves arrive at a given point.
Soil moisture: Moisture contained in that portion of Weather: State of the atmosphere at a particular
the soil which lies above the water table, including time, as defined by the various meteorological
the water vapour contained in the soil pores. elements.
Soil temperature: Temperature observed at different – Present weather: Weather existing at a station
depths in the soil. at a time of observation.
Solar radiation: Energy emitted by the sun consid- – Past weather: Predominant characteristic of
ered as short-wave radiation with wavelengths the weather which had existed at an observing
between 0.29 and 4µm. station during a given period of time.
State of ground: The characteristics of the surface of Wind direction: Direction from which the wind
the ground, especially resulting from the effect of blows.
rain, snow and temperatures near freezing point. Wind speed: Ratio of the distance covered by the air
Sunshine duration: The sum of the time, during a to the time taken to cover it.
given period, for which the direct solar irradiance NOTE: A more detailed list of geophysical parameters used to
exceeds 120 W/m2. state observational data requirements and their associated
Turbidity: Reduced transparency of the atmosphere to definitions is contained in the Guide on the Global Observing
radiation (especially visible) caused by absorption System (WMO-No. 488).
W O R L D M E T E O R O L O G I C A L O R G A N I Z AT I O N
MANUAL
on the Global Observing System
VOLUME II
REGIONAL ASPECTS
1995 edition