FIRESTOP - For Students

Foam
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Sea foam on the beach
Foamed aluminium
Soap foam bubbles

The most general definition of foam is a substance that is formed by trapping many gas bubbles in a liquid
or solid. It can also refer to anything that is analogous to such a phenomenon, such as quantum foam. Often
people mean polyurethane foam (foam rubber), Styrofoam or some other manufactured foam when they are
using the term. It can be considered a type of colloid.
From the early 20th century, various types of specially manufactured solid foams came into use. The low
density of these foams made them excellent as thermal insulators and flotation devices, and their lightness
and compressibility made them ideal as packing materials and stuffings. Some liquid foams, called fire
retardant foams, found use in extinguishing fires, especially oil fires.
Foam, in this case meaning "bubbly liquid", is also produced as an often unwanted by-product in the
manufacture of various substances. For example, foam is a serious problem in the chemical industry,
especially for biochemical processes. Many biological substances, for example proteins, easily create foam
on agitation and/or aeration. Foam is a problem because it alters the liquid flow and blocks oxygen transfer
from air (therefore preventing microbial respiration in fermentation processes). For this reason, antifoaming agent compounds, like silicone oils, are added to prevent these problems.
If foaming is desired, a foaming agent may help.
Foaming around the mouth can be a symptom of rabies in animals. The term sea foam is used to describe
the foam that forms on top of seawater from the action of waves. In some ways, leavened bread is a foam, as
the yeast causes the bread to rise by producing tiny bubbles of gas in the dough.
[edit] Structure of foams
Real-life foams are typically disordered and have a variety of bubble sizes. The study of idealised foams is
closely linked to the mathematical problems of space-filling and minimal surfaces. The Weaire-Phelan
structure is believed to be the best possible (optimal) unit cell of a perfectly ordered foam, while Plateau's
laws describe how the soap-films form structures in foams.
Solid foams form an important class of lightweight cellular engineering materials. These foams can be
classified into two types based on their pore structure. The first type of foams are called open cell structured
foams. These foams contain pores that are connected to each other and form an interconnected network. The
second type of foams do not have interconnected pores and are called closed cell foams. Normally the
closed cell foams have higher compressive strength due to their structures. A special class of closed cell
foams is known as syntactic foam, which contains hollow particles embedded in a matrix material.
The closed cell structure foams have higher dimensional stability, low moisture absorption coefficient and
higher strength compared to open cell structured foams. All types of foams are widely used as core material
in sandwich structured composite materials.
[edit] See also
Great Stuff
Great Stuff is a brand of polyurethane based insulating foam sealant. It is marketed by Dow Chemical. It
comes in an aerosol can and works by being sprayed into a gap or crack and expanding to fill it tighlty. It
cures to a firm, sponge like substance. Its main purpose is to reduce drafts and heat loss/entry in buildings.
Contents1 Family of products 2 How to use 3 Where to use Great Stuff 3.1 Ponds and Landscaping 3.2 Outdoor Sports 3.3
Outdoor Recreation 3.4 Maintenance and Repairs 3.5 Automotive 3.6 Pest Control
4 Differences between latex and polyurethane foam sealant 5 External links
[edit] Family of products

Great Stuff comes in four varieties: 1. Gaps & Cracks (red can) - Fills, seals and insulates gaps, cracks and
holes up to 1/2 inch. Cures rigid. Cream color foam. 2. Big Gap Filler (black can) - Fills, seals and insulates
gaps, cracks and holes greater than 1/2 inch. Cures rigid. Cream color foam. 3. Windows & Doors (blue can)
- Minimal expanding, low-pressure formulation. Perfect for sealing window and door frame openings. Also
ideal for sealing areas where low-pressure flexible foam is desirable. Cures flexible. Yellow color foam. 4.
Pond & Stone (green can) Can be shaped and molded to create exquisite water features that help direct
water flow over and around rocks in a waterfall, rather than under and in between. The black color allows it
to blend among rocks and shadows and can fill, seal and adhere to other pieces. The product is fish safe.
[edit] How to use
When properly applied, Great Stuff expands to take the shape and size of a void, forming a permanent,
airtight and water-resistant seal that protects homes from the outside elements and provides insulation.
Before using, read the directions and all the precautions on the can carefully. Great Stuff is extremely sticky;
wear gloves and eye protection. Ensure adequate ventilation or wear proper respiratory protection. Plan
ahead for safety and best results. To begin, you should familiarize yourself with the foam by practicing on
newspaper. Once you are comfortable with the can, return to the areas where air is infiltrating your home.
Fill openings less than half full because the product expands. Overfilling the gap is common but easy to
remedy. Once dry, you can trim excess foam with any sharp knife or serrated blade. Once cured, Great Stuff
can be trimmed, shaped, sanded, painted or stained to give the project a finishing touch.
[edit] Where to use Great Stuff
Here are some ideas on how to use Great Stuff:
[edit] Ponds and Landscaping
Secure stones used to edge ponds, landscaping and/or a garden. Fill voids in water features to direct
water flow. Fill a tree cavity or a hollow area to prevent further damage (consult with arborist). Secure
the top stone in a landscape wall. Insulate with a layer of foam inside a tree or shrub planter to protect
roots through a winter freeze. Mold a temporary insulation shed to cover plants on nights when freezing
temperatures are expected.
[edit] Outdoor Sports
Fill any hollow-handled item, such as a landing net, making it buoyant while adding strength. Fill a
tackle box lid to keep it afloat. Make fishing floats and lures. Create a fishing bobber. Repair targets.
Make a wildlife footprint cast.
[edit] Outdoor Recreation
Make soda can holders for use in a swimming pool. Fill an inner tube for permanent flotation. Air-seal
ice fishing shanty, a hunting/summer cabin. Make your own cooler or ice chest. Packaging
[edit] Maintenance and Repairs
Fill cracks or holes in a foundation wall, a driveway, front porch flooring, a deck or a bench. Fill holes,
seams and rusty areas in gutters. Fill holes in an above-ground pool or a childs swimming pool. Repair
or patch a cooler. Stabilize, secure and insulate the outside water tap where it exits the building envelope.
Air-seal greenhouse cracks. Encapsulate the underground pipes of your sprinkler system to prevent
freezing during the winter.
[edit] Automotive
Fill gaps and cracks in an old camper (in non-structural or load-bearing areas). Fill holes in a tractor cab
to minimize dirt infiltration (in non-structural or load-bearing areas).
[edit] Pest Control
Seal any outside gaps and cracks in house siding to keep insects out. Foam over chicken wire and/or steel
wool to seal larger openings to keep animals out. Repair woodpecker holes in house siding.
[edit] Differences between latex and polyurethane foam sealant
There are two key differences between latex foam and polyurethane foam sealant: 1. Latex foams are
typically "open cell" and, as a result, can take on water. In fact the same properties that allow you to wash
latex foam off your hands with water also mean that the cured foam can absorb water. This can cause wood
rot or deterioration in areas where wet latex foam is next to wood, such as a window frame. In contrast,
polyurethane is closed-cell foam. It forms a water-resistant outer skin when cured. 2. Latex foam does not
expand. polyurethane expands to thoroughly fill all voids and cavities making it an ideal air-sealant.
[edit] External links
Passive fire protection

Fire-resistance rated wall assembly with fire door, cable tray penetration and intumescent [1] cable coating.
Passive fire protection (PFP) is an integral component of the three components of structural fire protection
and fire safety in a building. PFP attempts to contain fires or slow the spread, through use of fire resistant
walls, floors, and doors (amongst other examples). PFP systems must comply with the associated Listing
and approval use and compliance in order to provide the effectiveness expected by building codes.
Contents:1 Structural fire protection 2 Main characteristics 3 Examples 4 Regulations 5 Common, accredited product certification and testing
organisations 6 "Old" versus "New" 7 Countries where certification is optional 8 See also
[edit]
Structural fire protection

Fire protection in a building, offshore facility or a ship, is a system with equally important components,
including:
Active fire protection, which is detection and suppression by automatic or manual means (See FSSA and
NFSA),
Passive fire protection, which is compartmentalisation of the fire through the use of walls and floors, and
their components, that are proven to bear a prescribed fire-resistance rating on the basis of fire testing and
product certification, organised into fire compartments, which may consist of one or more rooms or floors,
allowing emergency evacuations and protection of critical building components, such as an area of refuge
(See critical components here.), and
Fire protection education, to ensure that occupants and operators of the facility, ship or structure know
how to operate and/or maintain applicable systems, how to evacuate or where to seek refuge and how to be
sure that they do not inadvertently disable any of the active or passive fire protection systems. Example on
courses.
[edit] Main characteristics
The aim for passive fire protection systems is typically demonstrate in fire testing the ability to maintain the
item or the side to be protected at or below either 140C (for walls, floors and electrical circuits required to
have a fire-resistance rating) or ca. 540C, which is considered the critical temperature for structural steel,
above which, it is in jeopardy of losing its strength, leading to collapse. This is based, in most countries, on
the basic test standards for walls and floors, such as ASTM E119. Smaller components, such as fire
dampers, fire doors, etc., follow suit in the main intentions of the basic standard for walls and floors. Fire
testing involves live fire exposures upwards of 1100C, depending on the fire-resistance rating and duration
one is after. More items than just fire exposures are typically required to be tested to ensure the survivability
of the system under realistic conditions.
To accomplish these aims, many different types of materials are employed in the design and construction of
systems. For instance, common endothermic building materials include concrete and gypsum wallboard.
During fire testing of concrete floor slabs, water can be seen to boil out of a slab. Gypsum wall board
typically loses all its strength during a fire. The use of endothermic materials is established and proven to be
sound engineering practice. The chemically bound water inside these materials sublimes. During this
process, the unexposed side cannot exceed the boiling point of water. Once the hydrates are spent, the
temperature on the unexposed side of an endothermic fire barrier tends to rise rapidly. Too much water can
be a problem, however. Concrete slabs that are too wet, will literally explode in a fire, which is why test
laboratories insist on measuring water content of concrete and mortar in fire test specimens, before running
any fire tests. PFP measures can also include intumescents and ablative materials. The point is, however,
that whatever the nature of the materials, they on their own bear no rating. They must be organised into
systems, which bear a rating when installed in accordance with certification listings or established
catalogues, such as DIN 4102 Part 4 or the Canadian National Building Code.
Passive Fire Protection measures are intended to contain a fire in the fire compartment of origin, thus
limiting the spread of fire and smoke for a limited period of time, as determined the local building code and
fire code. Passive fire protection measures, such as firestops, fire walls, and fire doors, are tested to
determine the fire resistance rating of the final assembly, usually expressed in terms of hours of fire
resistance (e.g., 1/3, 3/4, 1, 1 1/2, 2, 3, 4 hr.). A certification listing provides the limitations of the rating.
Contrary to active fire protection measures, passive fire protection means do not typically require electric or
electronic activation or a degree of motion. Exceptions to that particular rule of thumb are fire dampers
(fire-resistive closures within air ducts, excluding grease ducts) and fire door closers, which must move,
open and shut in order to work, as well as all intumescent[2] products, which swell, thus move, in order to
function.
PFP in a building can be described as a group of systems within systems. An installed firestop, for instance,
is a system that is based upon a product certification listing. It forms part of a fire-resistance rated wall or
floor and this wall or floor forms part of a fire compartment, which forms an integral part of the overall fire
safety plan of the building, which, as a whole, can also be seen as a system.
[edit] Examples
This I beam has a fireproofing material sprayed onto it as a form of passive fire protection.
fire-resistance rated walls
Firewalls not only have a rating, they are also designed to sub-divide buildings such that if collapse occurs
on one side, this will not affect the other side. They can also be used to eliminate the need for sprinklers, as
a trade-off. fire-resistance rated floors
occupancy separations (barriers designated as occupancy separations are intended to segregate parts of
buildings, where different uses are on each side; For instance, apartments on one side and stores on the other
side of the occupancy separation.
closures (fire dampers, fire-resistance rated windows and fire doors. Sometimes firestops are treated in
building codes identically to closures. Canada de-rates closures, where, for instance a 2 h closure is
acceptable for use in a 3 h fire separation, so long as the fire separation is not an occupancy separation or
firewall. The lowered rating is then referred to as a fire protection rating, both for firestops, unless they
contain plastic pipes and regular closures.)
firestops
grease ducts (These refer to ducts that lead from commercial cooking equipment such as ranges, deep
fryers and double decker and conveyor equipped pizza ovens to grease duct fans. In North America, grease
ducts are made of minimum 16 gauge sheet metal, all welded, and certified openings for cleaning, whereby
the ducting is either inherently manufactured to have a specific fire-resistance rating, OR it is ordinary 16
gauge ductwork with an exterior layer of purpose-made and certified fireproofing. Either way, North
American grease ducts must comply with NFPA96 requirements.)
cable coating (application of fire-retardants, which are either endothermic or intumescent, to reduce
flamespread and smoke development of combustible cable-jacketing)
spray fireproofing (application of intumescent or endothermic paints, or fibrous or cementitious plasters to
keep substrates such as structural steel, electrical or mechanical services, valves, liquified petroleum gas
(LPG) vessels, vessel skirts, bulkheads or decks below either 140 C for electrical items or ca. 500 C for
structural steel elements to maintain operability of the item to be protected)
fireproofing cladding (boards used for the same purpose and in the same applications as spray
fireproofing) Materials for such cladding include perlite, vermiculite, calcium silicate, gypsum, intumescent
epoxy, DuraSteel (cellulose-fibre reinforced concrete and punched sheet-metal bonded composite panels),
MicroTherm
enclosures (boxes or wraps made of fireproofing materials, including fire-resistive wraps and tapes to
protect speciality valves and other items deemed to require protection against fire and heat - an analogy for
this would be a safe) or the provision of circuit integrity measures to keep electrical cables operational
during an accidental fire.
[edit] Regulations
The most important goal of PFP is identical to that of all fire protection: life safety. This is mainly
accomplished by maintaining structural integrity for a time during the fire, and limiting the spread of fire
and the effects thereof (e.g., heat and smoke). Property protection and continuity of operations are
usually secondary objectives in codes. Exceptions include nuclear facilities and marine applications, as
evacuation may be more complex or impossible. Nuclear facilities, both buildings and ships, must also
ensure the nuclear reactor does not experience a nuclear meltdown. In this case, fixing the reactor may be
more important than evacuation for key safety personnel.
Examples of testing that underlies certification listing:Netherlands: NEN 6068 Germany: DIN 4102
United Kingdom: BS 476 Canada: ULC-S101 United States: ASTM E119
Each of these test procedures have very similar fire endurance regimes and heat transfer limitations.
Differences include the hose-stream tests, which are unique to Canada and the United States, whereas
Germany includes a very rigorous impact test during the fire for firewalls. Germany is unique in including
heat induced expansion and collapse of ferrous cable trays into account for firestops, resulting in the
favouring of firestop mortars, which tend to hold the penetrating cable tray in place, whereas "softseals",
typically made of rockwool and elastomeric toppings, have been demonstrated in testing by OttoGraf_institut to be torn open and rendered inoperable when the cable tray expands, pushes in and then
collapses. Spin-offs from these basic tests cover closures, firestops and more. Furnace operations,
thermocoupling and reporting requirements remain uniform within each country.
In exterior applications for the offshore and the petroleum sectors, the fire endurance testing uses a higher
temperature and faster heat rise, whereas in interior applications, such as office buildings, factories and
residential, the fire endurance is based upon experiences gained from burning wood. The interior fire
time/temperature curve is referred to as "ETK" (Einheitstemperaturkurve = Standard time/temperature
curve) or the "building elements" curve, whereas the high temperature variety is called the hydrocarbon
curve as it is based on burning oil and gas products, which burn hotter and faster. The most severe, and most
rarely used, of all fire exposure tests is the British "jetfire" test, which has been used to some extent in the
UK and Norway but is not typically found in common regulations.
Typically, during the construction of buildings, fire protective systems must conform to the requirements of
building code that was in effect on the day that the building permit was applied for. Enforcement for
compliance with building codes is typically the responsibility of municipal building departments. Once
construction is complete, the building must maintain its design basis by remaining in compliance with the
current fire code, which is enforced by the fire prevention officers of the municipal fire department. An up
to date fire protection plan, containing a complete inventory and maintenance details of all fire protection
components, including firestops, fireproofing, fire sprinklers, fire detectors, fire alarm systems, fire
extinguishers, etc. are typical requirements for demonstration of compliance with applicable laws and
regulations. In order to know whether or not one's building is in compliance with fire safety regulations, it is
helpful to know what systems one has in place and what their installation and maintenance are based upon.
Changes to fire protection systems or items affecting the structural or fire-integrity or use (occupancy) of a
building is subject to regulatory scrutiny. A contemplated change to a facility requires a building permit, or,
if the change is very minor, a review by the local fire prevention officer. Such reviews by the Authority
Having Jurisdiction (AHJ) also help to prevent potential problems that may not be apparent to a building
owner or contractors. Large and very common deficiencies in existing buildings include the disabling of fire
door closers through propping the doors open and running rugs through them and perforating fire-resistance
rated walls and floors without proper firestopping. Example pictures of code violations can be seen here.
[edit] Common, accredited product certification and testing organisations
Europe:
-Testing: Efectis, Netherlands: -Testing: Efectis Nederland, Germany: -Testing: iBMB/ TU Braunschweig
-Testing: BAM Berlin -Testing: MPA Dortmund -Certification: Deutsches Institut fr Bautechnik (DIBt)
Canada: Underwriters' Laboratories of Canada (ULC) , United States: Underwriters Laboratories, FM
Global
[edit] "Old" versus "New"
Generally, one differentiates between "old" and "new" barrier systems. "Old" systems have been tested and
verified by governmental authorities including DIBt [3], the British Standards Institute (BSI) and the
National Research Council's Institute for Research in Construction [4]. These organisations each publish in
codes and standards, wall and floor assemby details that can be used with generic, standardised components,
to achieve quantified fire-resistance ratings. Architects routinely refer to these details in drawings to enable
contractors to build passive fire protection barriers of certain ratings. The "old" systems are sometimes
added to, through testing performed in governmental laboratories such as those maintained by Canada's
Institute for Research in Construction, which then publishes the results in Canada's National Building Code
(NBC). Germany [5] and the UK, by comparison, publish their "old" systems in respective standards,
DIN4102 Part 4 (Germany) and BS476 (United Kingdom). "New" systems are typically based on
certification listings, whereby the installed configuration must comply with the tolerances set out in the
certification listing. The United Kingdom is an exception to this, whereby certification, although not testing,
is optional.
[edit] Countries where certification is optional
Fire tests in the UK are reported in the form of test results, but contrary to North America and Germany,
building authorities do not require written proof that the materials that have been installed on site are
actually identical to the materials and products that were used in the test. The test report is also often
interpreted by engineers, as the test results are not communicated in the form of uniformly structured
listings. In the UK, and other countries which do not require certification, the proof that the manufacturer
has not substituted other materials apart from those used in the original testing is based on trust in the ethics
or the culpability of the manufacturer. While in North America and in Germany, product certification is the
key to the success and legal defensibility of passive fire protection barriers, alternate quality control
certifications of specific installation companies and their work is available, though not a legislative or
regulatory requirement. Still, the question of how one can be sure, apart from faith in the vendor, that what
was tested is identical to that which has been bought and installed is a matter of personal judgment. The
most highly publicised example of PFP systems which were not subject of certification and were declared
inoperable by the Authority Having Jurisdiction is the Thermo-Lag scandal, which was brought to light by
whistleblower Gerald W. Brown, who notified the Nuclear Regulatory Commission of the inadequacy of
fire testing for circuit integrity measures in use in licensed nuclear power plants. This led to a congressional
enquiry, significant press coverage and a large amount of remedial work on the part of the industry to
mitigate the problem. There is no known case a similar instance for PFP systems which were under the
follow-up regime of organisations holding national accreditation for product certification, such as DIBt or
Underwriters Laboratories.
[edit] See also
Penetrant
A penetrant is a substance that penetrates or assists some other material to penetrate another substance or
object.
Penetrant can refer to:
Penetrant - biochemical, a chemical that helps another chemical to invade a living organism in order to
deliver a desired effect.
Penetrant - mechanical, electrical or structural, penetrating items, or services that pass through an opening
in a fire-resistance rated wall or floor assembly, creating the need for a firestop.
Penetrant - anti-rust, a chemical that attacks rust and corrosion to free frozen parts
Dye penetrant, a chemical used with an inspection method to locate surface-breaking defects in non-porous
materials.
Liquid penetrant , see Dye penetrant
Penetrant - mechanical, electrical or structural
Silicone
Not to be confused with the element silicon.

Silicones are largely inert compounds with a wide variety of forms and uses. Typically heat-resistant,
nonstick and rubberlike, they are frequently used in cookware, medical applications, sealants, lubricants and
insulation.
1/2" thickness of silicone firestop sealant being successfully tested to hold a 6-foot head of water to prove
water-resistance in new construction applications.
Contents:1 Properties 2 Technical details 2.1 Synthesis 2.2 Chemical terminology 3 Uses 3.1 Aquarium joints 3.2 Automotive 3.3 Cookware
3.4 Dry cleaning 3.5 Electronic 3.6 Firestops 3.7 Haircare products
3.8 Juggling 3.9 Medicine 3.10 Menstrual cups 3.11 Moldmaking 3.12 Plumbing and building construction
3.13 Sex toys 3.14 Versatile applications 4 Silicone Industry Trade Organizations 5 See also 6 References
7 External links
[edit] Properties
Some of the most useful properties of silicone include: Thermal stability (constancy of properties over a
wide operating range of 100 to 250 C). Though not lipophilic, the ability to repel water and form
watertight seals. Excellent resistance to oxygen, ozone and sunlight. Flexibility. Good electrical insulation.
Nonstick. Low chemical reactivity. Low toxicity.
High gas permeability: at room temperature (25 C) the permeability of silicone rubber for gases like
oxygen is approximately 400 times that of butyl rubber, making silicone useful for medical applications
(though precluding it from applications where gas-tight seals are necessary).
[edit] Technical details
More precisely called polymerized siloxanes or polysiloxanes, silicones are mixed inorganic-organic
polymers with the chemical formula [R2SiO]n, where R = organic groups such as methyl, ethyl, and phenyl.
These materials consist of an inorganic silicon-oxygen backbone (-Si-O-Si-O-Si-O-) with organic side
groups attached to the silicon atoms, which are four-coordinate.
In some cases organic side groups can be used to link two or more of these -Si-O- backbones together. By
varying the -Si-O- chain lengths, side groups, and crosslinking, silicones can be synthesized with a wide
variety of properties and compositions. They can vary in consistency from liquid to gel to rubber to hard
plastic. The most common siloxane is linear polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), a silicone oil. The second
largest group of silicone materials is based on silicone resins, which are formed by branched and cage-like
oligosiloxanes.
[edit] Synthesis
Silicones are synthesized from chlorosilanes, tetraethoxysilane, and related compounds. In the case of
PDMS, the starting material is dimethylchlorosilane, which reacts with water as follows:
n [Si(CH3)2Cl2] + n [H2O] [Si(CH3)2O]n + 2n HCl
During polymerization, this reaction evolves potentially hazardous hydrogen chloride gas. For medical uses,
a process was developed where the chlorine atoms in the silane precursor were replaced with acetate groups,
so that the reaction product of the final curing process is nontoxic acetic acid (vinegar). As a side effect, the
curing process is also much slower in this case. This is the chemistry used in many consumer applications,
such as silicone caulk and adhesives.
Silane precursors with more acid-forming groups and fewer methyl groups, such as methyltrichlorosilane,
can be used to introduce branches or cross-links in the polymer chain. Ideally, each molecule of such a
compound becomes a branch point. This can be used to produce hard silicone resins. Similarly, precursors
with three methyl groups can be used to limit molecular weight, since each such molecule has only one
reactive site and so forms the end of a siloxane chain.
Modern silicone resins are made with tetraethoxysilane, which reacts in a more mild and controllable
manner than chlorosilanes.
[edit] Chemical terminology
Silicone is often mistakenly referred to as "silicon." Although silicones contain silicon atoms, they are not
made up exclusively of silicon, and have completely different physical characteristics from elemental
silicon.
The word "silicone" is derived from ketone. Dimethylsilicone and dimethyl ketone (a.k.a. acetone) have
analogous formulas, thus it was surmised (incorrectly) that they have analogous structures. The same
terminology is used for compounds such as silane (an analogue of methane).
A true silicone group with a double bond between oxygen and silicon (see figure) does not exist in nature;
chemists find that the silicon atom forms a single bond with each of two oxygen atoms, rather than a double
bond to a single atom. Polysiloxanes are called "silicone" due to early mistaken assumptions about their
structure.
[edit] Uses
[edit] Aquarium joints
Aquarium manufacturers have used silicone sealant exclusively from its inception in order to join glass
plates, making aquariums of every size and shape.
Glass joints made with silicone sealant can withstand hundreds of metric tons of pressure, making obsolete
the original aquarium construction method using angle-iron and putty.
[edit] Automotive
In the automotive field, silicone grease is typically used as a lubricant for brake components since it is stable
at high temperatures, is not water-soluble and is far less likely than other lubricants to foul.
Automotive spark plug wires are often insulated by multiple layers of silicone to prevent sparks from
jumping to adjacent wires, causing misfires. The insulation also minimizes RFI, which can interfere with an
engine management computer.
Sheet silicone is used to manufacture gaskets used in automotive engines, transmissions and other
applications.
Automotive body manufacturing plants and paint shops must avoid the presence of all silicones, as they may
cause "fish eyes," small, circular craters that appear in the finish.
[edit] Cookware
Silicone is becoming an important product in the cookware industry, particularly bakeware.
[edit] Dry cleaning
Liquid silicone can be used as a dry cleaning solvent. Touted as an "environmentally friendly" alternative to
the traditional perchloroethylene (or perc) solvent, the decamethylpentacyclosiloxane (D5) process has been
patented by the company GreenEarth Cleaning.
The solvent degrades into silica and trace amounts of water and CO2, and waste produced from the D5
drycleaning process is nontoxic and nonhazardous. This significantly reduces the environmental impact of a
typically high-polluting industry.
Additionally, liquid silicone is chemically inert, meaning it does not react with fabrics or dyes during the
cleaning process. This reduces the amount of fading and shrinking that most dry-cleaned garments
experience.
[edit] Electronic
Electronic components are sometimes protected by enclosing them in silicone to increase stability against
mechanical and electrical shock, radiation and vibration. This is often called "potting".
Silicones are used when durability and high performance are demanded of components under hard
conditions, as in space (satellite technology). They are selected over polyurethane or epoxy encapsulation
when a wide operating temperature range is required (65 to 315 C). Silicones also have the advantage of
little exothermic heat rise during cure, low toxicity, good electrical properties and high purity.
The use of silicones in electronics is not without problems, however. Silicones are relatively expensive and
can be attacked by solvents.[1] Silicone easily migrates as either a liquid or vapor onto other components.
Silicone contamination of electrical switch contacts can lead to failures by causing an increase in contact
resistance, often late in the life of the contact, well after any testing is completed.[2] Use of silicone-based
spray products in electronic devices during maintenance or repairs can cause later failures.
[edit] Firestops
Silicone foams have been used usually in North American buildings in an attempt to firestop openings
within fire-resistance-rated wall and floor assemblies to prevent the spread of flames and smoke from one
room to another.
The Israeli installation subsequently switched to an "elastomer" version of this product, which avoids most
safety concerns associated with the foamed version.
Silicone foam firestops have been the subject of controversy and press attention due to smoke development
from pyrolysis of combustible components within the foam, hydrogen gas escape, shrinkage and cracking.
These problems have been exposed by whistleblower Gerald W. Brown and have led to a large number or
reportable events among licensees (operators of nuclear power plants) of the Nuclear Regulatory
Commission (NRC).
When properly installed, silicone-foam firestops can be fabricated for building code compliance.
Advantages include flexibility and high dielectric strength. Disadvantages include combustibility (hard to
extinguish) and significant smoke development.
[edit] Haircare products
Silicones are ingredients in some leave-in hair conditioner products. These lessen frizz by using silicone's
water resistance to prevent humidity from entering a dry hair shaft.
[edit] Juggling
Silicone balls have become a juggler's favorite due to the high bounce back, which allows for easier bounce
juggling. Silicone balls also have what many jugglers consider to be a good weight.
[edit] Medicine
Silicone, particularly the gel form, is used in bandages and dressings, in breast implants and a variety of
other medical uses.
Silicone is a common material for use in molds for behind-the-ear style hearing aids.
[edit] Menstrual cups
Menstrual cups are often made of silicone for its durability and reusability.
[edit] Moldmaking
Two-part silicone systems are used to create rubber molds which can be used for production casting of
resins, foams, rubber and low-temp alloys.
A mold made of silicone generally requires little or no mold release or surface preparation as most materials
do not adhere to moldmaking silicone.
[edit] Plumbing and building construction
The strength and reliability of silicone rubber is widely acknowledged in the construction industry.
One-part silicone sealants and caulks are in common use to seal gaps, joints and crevices in buildings. Onepart silicones cure by absorbing atmospheric moisture, which helps in the professional installation.
In plumbing, silicone grease is typically applied to O-rings in faucets and valves.
[edit] Sex toys
Silicone is a material of choice for soft sex toys, primarily due to its durability and the fact that it is nonporous and thus can be easily cleaned and even sterilized through boiling. Silicone-based personal lubricants
can damage silicone sex toys, but such toys are safe for use with both water-based and oil-based lubricants.
Silicone sex toys are also safer than rubber ones in that they do not contain pthalates, chemicals used to
soften rubber that have been shown to be carcinogenic.
[edit] Versatile applications
Silicone caulk can be

used as a basic sealant
against water and air
penetration.
Self-levelling silicone
firestop installation in
mechanical service
penetration in 2 hour
rated concrete floor.
A hypothetical
silicone group.
Chemical structure of
Such species do Self-leveling silicone firestop
polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS).
system used around copper pipe
not exist, see
through-penetrations in a twotext.
hour fire-resistance rated
concrete floor assembly.
Faulty Sakno Silicone Foam

Firestop Installation in Calgary
Sewage Treatment Plant in the
1980s, to seal opening above a
fire door in a cast concrete fire
separation.
Silicone
"foamfixer"
pump used to
apply silicone
foam firestop
materials.
Silicon dioxide (silica) used in

the manufacture of all silicones.
This is what remains when one
burns silicone; burning silicone
caulking or foam produces silica
(as well as char) as a white
powder silica fume.
[edit] Silicone Industry Trade Organizations

The leading global manufacturers of silicone base materials belong to three regional organizations: the
European Silicone Center(CES) in Brussels, Belgium; the Silicone Environment Health and Safety
Council(SEHSC) in Washington, USA; and the Silicone Industry Association of Japan (SIAJ) in Tokyo,
Japan. A fourth organization, the Global Silicone Council (GSC) acts as an umbrella structure over the
regional organizations. All four are nonprofit making and have no commercial role. Their primary mission is
to promote the safety of silicones from a health, safety and environmental perspective. As the European
chemical industry is getting prepared to implement the REACH legislation, CES is leading the formation of
a consortium[3] of silicones, silanes and siloxanes producers and importers to facilitate data and cost sharing.
[edit] See also
[edit] References
Flame retardant
Socks made from flame retardant cotton.

Flame retardants are materials that inhibit or resist the spread of fire. Naturally occurring substances such
as asbestos as well as synthetic materials, usually halocarbons such as polybrominated diphenyl ether
(PBDEs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and chlorendic acid derivates, most often dibutyl chlorendate
and dimethyl chlorendate, have been used in this capacity. Generally, these classes of flame retardant
compounds are the most common: aluminium hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, and various hydrates;
organobromines and organochlorines; phosphorus, in the form of organophosphates, halogenated
phosphorus compounds, and red phosphorus; antimony trioxide; and boron compounds, mostly borates.
Tetrakis (hydroxymethyl) phosphonium salts, made by passing phosphine gas through a solution of
formaldehyde and a mineral acid such as hydrochloric acid, are used as flame retardants for textiles.
Other flame retardants include chlorinated paraffins, polybrominated biphenyls (PBB), pentabromodiphenyl
ether (pentaBDE), octabromodiphenyl ether (octaBDE), decabromodiphenyl ether (decaBDE),
hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), tri-o-cresyl phosphate, tris(2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate (TRIS),

bis(2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate, tris(1-aziridinyl)-phosphine oxide (TEPA), and others.
Contents1 Mechanisms of function 1.1 Endothermic degradation 1.2 Dilution of fuel 1.3 Thermal shielding
1.4 Dilution of gas phase 1.5 Gas phase radical quenching 2 See also 3 External links
[edit] Mechanisms of function

[edit] Endothermic degradation
Some compounds break down endothermically when subjected to high temperatures. Magnesium and
aluminium hydroxides are an example, together with various hydrates. The reaction removes heat from the
surrounding, thus cooling the material. The use of hydroxides and hydrates is limited by their relatively low
decomposition temperature, which limits the maximum processing temperature of the polymers.
[edit] Dilution of fuel
Inert fillers, eg. talc or calcium carbonate, act as diluents, lowering the combustible portion of the material,
thus lowering the amount of heat per volume of material it can produce while burning.
[edit] Thermal shielding
A way to stop spreading of the flame over the material is to create a thermal insulation barrier between the
burning and unburned parts. Intumescent additives are often employed; their role is to turn the polymer into
a carbonized foam, which separates the flame from the material and slows the heat transfer to the unburned
fuel.
[edit] Dilution of gas phase
Inert gases (most often carbon dioxide and water) produced by thermal degradation of some materials act as
diluents of the combustible gases, lowering their partial pressures and the partial pressure of oxygen, and
slowing the reaction rate.
[edit] Gas phase radical quenching
Chlorinated and brominated materials undergo thermal degradation and release hydrogen chloride and
hydrogen bromide. These react with the highly reactive H* and OH* radicals in the flame, resulting in an
inactive molecule and a Cl* or Br* radical. The halogen radical has much lower energy than H* or OH*,
and therefore has much lower potential to propagate the radical oxidation reactions of combustion.
Antimony compounds tend to act in synergy with halogenated flame retardants. The HCl and HBr released
during burning are highly corrosive, which has reliability implications for objects (especially fine
electronics) subjected to the released smoke.
[edit] See also
Brominated flame retardant

Brominated flame retardants are a group of flame retardants that consist of organic compounds containing
bromine.
Contents.1 History.2 Types of compounds 3 Contents in plastics 4 Testing for BFR in plastics 5 References 6 External links
[edit] History
Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) replaced PCB as the major chemical flame retardant in 1978 and are an
effective flame-retardant. They are applied to prevent electronics, clothes and furniture from taking fire.
Some brominated flame-retardants are considered Persistent Organic Pollutants known to bioaccumulate
and their consequences are not well-known, although the environmental consequences of some, e.g. PBDEs,
are known.
Brominated flame retardants is the designated name for a group of brominated organic substances that have
an inhibitory effect on the ignition of combustible organic materials. BFRs are commonly used in electronic
products as a means of reducing the flammability of the product. Bromine based flame retardants are
applied to 2.5 million tons of polymers annually, with the annual consumption of PBDEs alone being in
excess of 40,000 metric tons. North American industry used about 34,000 metric tons of PBDEs in 1999,
making it the largest user of these additives globally[1]; however, a significant proportion of the flameretarded products manufactured in North America is destined for international markets. The electronics
industry accounts for the greatest consumption of BFRs. In computers, BFRs are used in four main
applications: in printed circuit boards, in components such as connectors, in plastic covers, and in cables.
BFRs are also used in a multitude of products, including, but not exclusively, plastic covers of television
sets, carpets, paints, upholstery, and domestic kitchen appliances. BFRs have such a widespread number of
applications because they are incredibly effective at fire prevention. In addition to reducing the likelihood
that an item will ignite, brominated flame retardants hinder the spread of the fire, and provide valuable extra
time in the early stages of a fire when it is much easier to escape. A room fire can very quickly escalate to
the point where enough heat is generated that all combustible material in the room bursts into flames. This
situation is known as flashover and can occur in a matter of minutes from ignition. Brominated flame
retardants slow down the initial burn rate and thereby can help increase the time to flashover, giving the
occupants more time to escape.
[edit] Types of compounds
They are produced synthetically in 70 variants with very varying chemical properties. There are several
groups:
polybrominated diphenyl ether or PBDE (DecaBDE, OctaBDE, PentaBDE),
polybrominated biphenyl, or PBB
brominated cyclohydrocarbons
Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD or HBCDD) is a ring consisting of twelve carbon atoms with six
bromine atoms tied to the ring. The commercially used HBCD is in fact a mixuture of different isomers.
HBCD is very poisonous to water-living organisms and can cause harmful long-term effects in water
environments. Studies carried out on a HBCD product that is no longer manufactured indicate that Humans
can develop allergy at skin contact.[citation needed] This is not the case with current HBCD.
Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA or TBBP-A) is regarded very poisonous to water-living organisms and very
persistent.[citation needed] This flame retardant is mainly used in printed circuit boards. Since TBBPA is
chemically bound to the resin of the printed circuit board, it cannot get into the aquatic environment from
there and therefore poses no actual risk. However, there is also a use of TBBPA in acrylonitrile butadiene
styrene, where it is an additive. EU risk assessment concluded in 2005 that TBBPA poses no risk to human
health.[citation needed]
[edit] Contents in plastics
Content of brominated flame retardants in different polymers[2]:
Polymer
Content [%] Substances
Polystyrene foam
0,84
HBCD
High impact polystyrene 1115
DecaBDE, brominated polystyrene
Epoxy resin
1933
TBBPA
Polyamides
1316
DecaBDE, brominated polystyrene
Polyolefins
58
DecaBDE, propylene dibromo styrene
Polyurethanes
1018
esters of TBBPA
Polyterephthalate
811
Brominated polystyrene, TBBPA derivative
Unsaturated polyesters
1328
TBBPA
Polycarbonate
46
Brominated polystyrene, TBBPA derivative
Styrene copolymers
1215
OctaBDE, brominated polystyrene
[edit] Testing for BFR in plastics
Until recently testing for BFR has been cumbersome. Cycle time, cost and level of expertise required for the
test engineer has precluded the implementation of any screening of plastic component in a manufacturing or
in a product qualification/validation environment.
Recently, with the introduction of a new analytical instrument IA-Mass, screening of plastic material
alongside manufacturing line becomes possible. A 5 min. detection cycle and a 20 min. quantification cycle
is available to test and to qualify plastic parts as they reach the assembly line.
[edit] References
Fire retardant
A fire retardant is a substance that helps to delay or prevent combustion. Fire retardants are commonly
used in fire fighting. Water is the most commonly used fire retardant, but the phrase typically refers to
chemical retardants. It can also refer to a coating over an object, such as a spray retardant to prevent
Christmas trees from burning.
Home fires damage over 390,500 homes, and cause just under 6 billion US dollars in damage annually in
the United States.[1] Because of the importance of prevention, fire retardation has become a very important
industry.
Contents:1 How retardants work 1.1 Physical 1.2 Chemical action 2 Uses 2.1 Fire extinguishers 2.2 Surface coating 2.3 Forest-fire fighting 2.4
Textiles 2.5 Home furniture 3 Materials 3.1 Wildfire retardants 4 See also 5 References 6 External links
[edit] How retardants work

In general, fire retardants reduce the flammability of materials by either blocking the fire physically or by
initiating a chemical reaction that stops the fire.
[edit] Physical
There are several ways in which the combustion process can be retarded by physical action:
By cooling: Some chemical reactions actually cool the material down.
By forming a protective layer: This protects the remaining material.
By dilution: Some retardants release water and/or carbon dioxide while burning. This may dilute the radicals
in the flame enough for it to go out.
One example commonly used is the fire retardant, aluminium hydroxide. Not only does it break down to
give off water vapor, but it also absorbs a vast amount of heat as it does so, cooling the material, and the
residue of alumina (Al2O3) forms a protective layer. It provides protection in three ways at once.
[edit] Chemical action
Reactions in the gas phase: chemical reactions in the flame (i.e. gas phase) can be interrupted by fire
retardants. However, there are situations where the released gas might be more dangerous when this type of
retardant is involved. Generally, this class of retardents uses halogens such as bromine or chlorine.
Reaction in the solid phase: This kind of flame retardant works by breaking down the plastics polymer so it
melts and flows away from the flame. Although this allows materials to pass certain flammability tests,
there is argument over if the fire safety is truly improved by the production of flammable plastic droplets.
Char Formation: Solid phase flame retardants are those which cause a layer of carbon char to form on the
polymer surface. This carbon char layer is much harder to burn and prevents further burning.
Intumescents: These types of retardant materials add chemicals which cause swelling up behind the
protective char layer, providing much better insulation behind the protective barrier. In additions to being
added to plastics, these are available as paints for protecting wooden buildings or steel structures.
[edit] Uses
A Fire extinguisher
[edit] Fire extinguishers
Class A foam is used as a fire retardant in 2.5 gallon APW and CAFS extinguishers to contain incipient
brush fires and grass fires by creating a fire break. Other chemical retardants such as FireAde and Arctic
Fire are capable of rendering class A material and Class B fuels non-flammable and extinguishing class A,B,
and some D fires. (Fire retardant,such as the slurry dropped from aircraft, is used to prevent ignition while
fire suppression agents are used to extinguish fires.)
[edit] Surface coating
It is possible to coat an object with a fire retardant. The classic example of this is the green Christmas tree.
As a tree dries out it can be accidentally lit on fire putting the home at risk. A coating of a specialised fire
retardant can prevent the starting of the fire and slow it down if it does start.
In addition many large sky-scrapers use a coating around main structural elements to prevent catastrophic
weakening during a fire. It is believed that one of the reasons why the twin towers collapsed on 9/11 was
due to the airplane impact removing portions of the fire-insulation layer.[citation needed]
[edit] Forest-fire fighting
A MAFFS-equipped Air National Guard C-130 Hercules drops fire retardant on wildfires in Southern
California
Red-dyed line of fire retardant stands out clearly on this Arizona hill. Drop was against the Alambre Fire.
One way that a chemical fire retardant would be used is at a wildfire to try and prevent its spread. A fire
retardant would not actually be put directly on the fire in an attempt to extinguish it. Generally, fire retardant
is dropped around a fire's edges to contain it, allowing crews time to work to put the fire out while the
retardant slowed or prevented further spread. However, when needed, retardant can also be dropped directly
onto flames when needed to cool the fire and reduce flame length.[2]
In a forest or wild fire situation in a remote area, a fire retardant would usually be dropped from a plane or
helicopter. For example, it would be used on fires up on mountains where there is limited or no ground
access. Fire retardants that are used are considered to be non-toxic. However there is little data on the longterms effects of fire retardant to people or the environment. One of the most-used commercial retardants is
Phos-Chek.
[edit] Textiles
Most clothing intended for children in the United States is required to pass fire-retardant tests for safety
reasons.
[edit] Home furniture
In many locations mattresses are now treated with fire retardant or built with fire-resistant material. Many
new foams self-extinguish. This is the most common use of fire retardancy in the chemical means.
[edit] Materials
[edit] Wildfire retardants
Fire retardants applied to wildfires is usually a mixture of water and chemicals designed to wet the area as
well as chemically retard fire progression through vegetation. Typically it is dyed red so that the application
area can be seen from the air. New gel-based retardants which meet NFPA Standard 1150 are being
introduced into use. These are dyed other colors to differentiate them from the traditional red retardant. The
gels and their dyes are designed to biodegrade naturally.[3]
[edit] See also:List of fire-retardant materials ,Flame retardant ,Aerial firefighting ,Wildland fire
suppression ,Modular Airborne FireFighting System
[edit] References
GRUPA 14: Neagu , Tara, Chea

Foaming agent
A foaming agent is a surfactant, which when present in small amounts, facilitates the formation of a foam,
or enhances its colloidal stability by inhibiting the coalescence of bubbles. "1972, 31, 612IUPAC
Compendium of Chemical Terminology 2nd Edition (1997)".
Sodium laureth sulfate, or sodium lauryl ether sulfate (SLES), is a detergent and surfactant found in many
personal care products (soaps, shampoos, toothpaste etc.). It is an inexpensive and very effective foamer.
Sodium lauryl sulfate (also known as sodium dodecyl sulfate or SLS) and ammonium lauryl sulfate (ALS)
are commonly used alternatives to SLES in consumer products.[1]
While SLS is a known irritant,[2][3] some evidence and research suggest that SLES can also cause irritation
after extended exposure.[4][5]
Also, a foaming agent is a material that will decompose to release a gas under certain conditions (typically
high temperature), which can be used to turn a liquid into a foam.
For example, powdered titanium hydride is used as a foaming agent in the production of metal foams, as it
decomposes to form titanium and hydrogen gas at elevated temperatures. Zirconium(II) hydride is used for
the same purpose.
[edit] See also:Anti-foaming agent , Carrageenan
Carbamic acid
Carbamic acid: IUPAC name: carbamic acid. Identifiers: CAS number: - ; PubChem: 277; MeSH:
Carbamic+acid; SMILES: C(=O)(N)O; InChI: - . Properties: Molecular formula: CH3NO2 , (
)
Molar mass: 61.0401 g/mol. Related compounds: Related compounds: glycine, alanine; Except where noted
otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state(at 25 C, 100 kPa). Infobox disclaimer and references
Carbamic acid is a compound that is unstable under normal circumstances. Its importance is due more to
its relevance in identifying the names of larger compounds.
The radical is called "carbamoyl". "Carbamoyltransferases" are transferase enzymes classified under EC
number 2.1.3.
Carbamate is an ester of carbamic acid. Methyl carbamate is the simplest ester of carbamic acid.
Some esters have use as muscle relaxants.
[edit] See also. Carbamoyl phosphate
Drying oil
A drying oil is an oil which hardens to a tough, solid film after a period of exposure to air. The term
"drying" is actually somewhat of a misnomer - the oil does not harden through the evaporation of water or
other solvents, but through a chemical reaction in which oxygen is absorbed from the environment
(autoxidation). Drying oils are a key component of oil paint and many varnishes. Some commonly used
drying oils include linseed oil, tung oil, poppy seed oil, perilla oil and walnut oil.
Contents 1 Drying oil composition 2 Drying process 3 Safety 4 References 5 See also 6 External links
[edit] Drying oil composition

Drying oils are characterized by high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids. One common measure of the
siccative (drying) property of oils is iodine number. Oils with an iodine number greater than 130 are
considered drying, those with an iodine number of 115-130 are semi-drying, and those with an iodine
number of less than 115 are non-drying.
[edit] Drying process
The "drying", hardening, or, more properly, curing of oils is the result of an exothermic reaction in the form
of autoxidation and is chemically equivalent to slow, flameless combustion. In this process, oxygen
oxydizes the hydrocarbon chain, touching off a series of chemical reactions. As a result, the oil polymerizes,
forming long, chain-like molecules. Following the autoxidation stage, the oil polymers cross-link: bonds
form between neighboring molecules, resulting in a vast polymer network. Conceptually, this network
equates to a fusing of individual, randomly interlocking, strands into a cohesive mass or, in the case of
varnishes and paints, into a solid film. Over time, this network may undergo further change. Certain
functional groups in the networks become ionized, and the network transitions from a system held together
by nonpolar covalent bonds to one governed by the ionic forces between these functional groups and the
metal ions present in the pigment.
Vegetable oils consist of glycerol esters of fatty acids, long hydrocarbon chains with a terminal carboxyl
group. In oil autoxidation, oxygen attacks a hydrocarbon chain, often at the site of an allylic hydrogen (a
hydrogen on a carbon atom adjacent to a double bond). This produces a free radical, a substance with an
unpaired electron which makes it highly reactive. A series of addition reactions ensues. Each step produces
additional free radicals, which then engage in further polymerization. The process finally terminates when
free radicals collide, combining their unpaired electrons to form a new bond. The polymerization stage
occurs over a period of days to weeks, and renders the film dry to the touch.
Chemical changes in the paint film continue as time passes; the polymer chains begin to cross-link. Adjacent
molecules form covalent bonds resulting in a molecular network, called the stationary phase, that extends
throughout the oil. Molecules are no longer free to slide past each other or to move apart. In terms of paint
or varnish, the stationary phase is the equivalent to a stable film which, while somewhat elastic, does not
flow or deform under the pull of gravity.
During the drying process, a number of compounds are produced that do not contribute to the polymer
network. These include unstable hydroperoxides (ROOH), the major by-product of the reaction of oxygen
with unsaturated fatty acids. The hydroperoxides quickly decompose, forming carbon dioxide and water, as
well as a variety of aldehydes, acids, and hydrocarbons. Many of these compounds are volatile, and in an
unpigmented oil, they would be quickly lost to the environment. However, in paints, such volatiles may
react with lead, zinc, copper or iron compounds in the pigment, and remain in the paint film as coordination
complexes or salts. A large number of the original ester bonds in the oil molecules undergo hydrolysis,
releasing individual fatty acids. Some portion of the free fatty acids react with metals in the pigment,
producing metal carboxylates. Together, the various non-cross-linking substances associated with the
polymer network constitute the mobile phases. Unlike the molecules that are part of the network itself, they
are capable of moving and diffusing within the film, and can be removed using heat or a solvent. The
mobile phase may play a role in plasticizing the paint film, preventing it from becoming too brittle.
One simple technique for monitoring the early stages of the drying process is to measure weight change in
an oil film over time. Initially, the film becomes heavier, as it absorbs large amounts of oxygen. Then
oxygen uptake ceases, and the weight of the film declines as volatile compounds are lost to the environment.
As the oil ages, a further transition occurs. Carboxyl groups in the polymers of the stationary phase lose a
hydrogen ion, becoming negatively charged, and form complexes with metal cations present in the pigment.
The original network, with its nonpolar, covalent bonds is replaced by an ionomeric structure, held together
by ionic interactions. At present, the structure of these ionomeric networks is not well understood.
Prior to polymerization or curing, drying oils consist of medium length hydrocarbon chain molecules that
are joined at one end by a triglyceride and in shape are partially hooked or kinked. By contrast,
non-"drying" waxes, such as hard-film carnauba or paste wax, and resins, such as dammar, copal, and
shellac, consist of long, spaghetti-like strands of hydrocarbon molecules which interlace and compact but do
not form covalent bonds in the manner of drying oils. Thus, waxes and resins are re-dissoluble whereas a
cured oil varnish or paint is not.
[edit] Safety
Rags, cloth, and paper saturated with drying oils may combust spontaneously (catch on fire) due to heat
given off during the curing process. This is especially the case where oil-soaked materials are folded,
bunched, compressed, or piled together, which allows the heat to accumulate and even accelerate the
reaction. Precautions include: wetting the rags with water and spreading them to dry in a safe place away
from direct sunlight; closing them off completely in water inside air-tight metal containers designed for such
applications; or storing them immersed in solvents in suitable closed containers.
[edit] References Autoxidation. McGraw Hill Encyclopedia. 8th ed. 1997.
Wood glue
Wood glues are adhesives used to tightly bond pieces of wood together. Many substances have been used as
glues.
The most common wood glue is polyvinyl acetate (PVA), also known as "carpenter's glue" or "Yellow glue".
The white version of polyvinyl acetate is also used on wood. Traditionally, animal glues were ubiquitous,
especially hide glue, which is still used in lutherie and restoration. Polyurethane glue (trade names include
Gorilla Glue and Excel) is becoming increasingly popular, especially where water resistance is required,
although water-resistant PVAs are available .
Other substances used as wood glue include
Cyanoacrylate (Crazy glue or Superglue) used mainly for small repairs, especially by woodturners;
Contact Cement for veneers; hot melt for temporary uses; Epoxy mainly for exterior uses; other synthetic
resins including resorcinol, urea-formaldehyde, phenol formaldehyde resin, etc.
Wood glue bonds tightly to wood, but not to itself. Therefore, woodworkers commonly use surprisingly
little glue to hold large pieces of wood. Most wood glues need to be clamped while the glue dries.
[edit] See also. Glue , Clamp (tool)
Toxic metal, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Toxic metals are metals that form poisonous soluble compounds and have no biological role, i.e. are not
essential minerals, or are in the wrong form[1]. Often heavy metals are thought as synonymous, but lighter
metals also have toxicity, as exemplified by beryllium, and not all heavy metals are particularly toxic and
some are even essential (such as iron). The definition may also include trace elements when considered in
abnormally high, toxic doses. A difference is that there is no beneficial dose for a toxic metal with no
biological role.
Toxic metals imitate the action of an essential element in the body, distorting the metabolic process to cause
illness. Many metals, particularly heavy metals are toxic, but some heavy metals are essential, have a low
toxicity, and bismuth is even non-toxic. Most often the definition includes at least cadmium, lead, mercury
and the radioactive metals. Metalloids (arsenic, polonium) may be included in the definition. Radioactive
metals have both radiation toxicity and chemical toxicity. Metals in an oxidation state abnormal to the body
may also become toxic: chromium(III) is an essential trace element, but chromium(VI) is a carcinogen.
The toxicity is a function of solubility, so that as insoluble salts or even in the metallic form, toxic metals
may have negligible toxicity. On the other hand, organometallic forms, such as dimethyl mercury and
tetraethyl lead, are extremely toxic.
Toxic metals bioaccumulate in the body and in the food chain. The exceptions are barium and aluminum.
Therefore, a common characteristic of toxic metals is the chronic nature of their toxicity.
Heavy metals,
from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A heavy metal is any of a number of higher atomic weight elements, which has the properties of a metallic
substance at room temperature. There are several different definitions concerning which elements fall in this
class designation. Alternative terms are 'metal' or 'semi-metal' (according to the element in view). Some of
the nearly 40 known definitions are:
According to one definition, heavy metals are a group of elements between copper and bismuth on the
periodic table of the elementshaving specific gravities greater than 4.0.
A more strict definition increases specificity to metals heavier than the rare earth metals, which are at the
bottom of the periodic table. None of these are essential elements in biological systems and additionally,
most of the better known elements are toxic in fairly low concentrations. Thorium and uranium are
occasionally included in this classification as well, but they are more often referred to as "radioactive
metals". See actinides in the environment for further details of these radioactive metals.
Also, often the elements beyond mercury, e.g., the actinides such as uranium and plutonium, are not
excluded from the heavy metals. In the context of nuclear power plants, tHM means tons of heavy metal.
In astronomy, which defines any element heavier than helium a metal, a heavy metal or heavy element
includes all elements that were not formed in the big bang; all but hydrogen (and deuterium), helium, and
lithium.
Any toxic metals may be called "heavy metals", whether or not they are heavy.
Contents 1 Relationship to living organisms 2 Sources 3 See also 4 External links
[edit] Relationship to living organisms

Living organisms require trace amounts of some heavy metals, including iron, cobalt, copper, manganese,
molybdenum, vanadium, strontium, and zinc, but excessive levels can be detrimental to the organism. Other
heavy metals such as mercury, lead and cadmium (with one exception for the latter[1]) are toxic metals
they have no known vital or beneficial effect on organisms, and their accumulation over time in the bodies
of mammals can cause serious illness. The pathway for toxic effects on humans is normally:
for the entry of heavy metals into the atmosphere as industrial stack gas
to enter the soil as a soil contaminant
to enter groundwater as a water pollutant
to be deposited in ocean bottoms or bay mud, which materials at a later time be dredged to the surface
In medical usage, the definition is considerably looser and includes all toxic metals irrespective of their
atomic weight: "heavy metal poisoning" can include excessive amounts of iron, manganese, aluminium, or
beryllium (the seventh-lightest metal) as well as the true heavy metals.
Heavy metals in a hazardous materials (or "hazmat") setting are for the most part classified in Misc. on the
UN model hazard class but, they are sometimes labeled as a poison when being transported.
Beryllium, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia [edit]

Health effects
[edit] Precaution
Beryllium ore
According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), beryllium and beryllium compounds
are Category 1 carcinogens; they are carcinogenic to both animals and humans.[6] Chronic berylliosis is a
pulmonary and systemic granulomatous disease caused by exposure to beryllium. Acute beryllium disease
in the form of chemical pneumonitis was first reported in Europe in 1933 and in the United States in 1943.
Cases of chronic berylliosis were first described in 1946 among workers in plants manufacturing fluorescent
lamps in Massachusetts. Chronic berylliosis resembles sarcoidosis in many respects, and the differential
diagnosis is often difficult.
Although the use of beryllium compounds in fluorescent lighting tubes was discontinued in 1949, potential
for exposure to beryllium exists in the nuclear and aerospace industries and in the refining of beryllium
metal and melting of beryllium-containing alloys, the manufacturing of electronic devices, and the handling
of other beryllium-containing material.
Early researchers tasted beryllium and its various compounds for sweetness in order to verify its presence.
Modern diagnostic equipment no longer necessitates this highly risky procedure and no attempt should be
made to ingest this highly toxic substance. Beryllium and its compounds should be handled with great care
and special precautions must be taken when carrying out any activity which could result in the release of
beryllium dust (lung cancer is a possible result of prolonged exposure to beryllium laden dust).
This substance can be handled safely if certain procedures are followed. No attempt should be made to work
with beryllium before familiarization with correct handling procedures.
A successful test for beryllium on different surface areas has been recently developed. The procedure uses
fluorescence when beryllium is bound to sulfonated hydroxybenzoquinoline to detect up to 10 times lower
than the recommended limit for beryllium concentration in the work place. Fluorescence increases with
increasing beryllium concentration. The new procedure has been successfully tested on a variety of surfaces.
[edit] Inhalation
Beryllium can be harmful if inhaled and the effects depend on period of exposure. If beryllium
concentrations in air are high enough (greater than 100 g/m), an acute condition can result, called acute
beryllium disease, which resembles pneumonia. Occupational and community air standards are effective in
preventing most acute lung damage. Long term exposure to beryllium can increase the risk of developing
lung cancer. The more common and serious health hazard from beryllium today is chronic beryllium disease
(CBD), discussed below. It continues to occur in industries as diverse as metal recycling, dental laboratories,
alloy manufacturing, nuclear weapons production, defense industries, and metal machine shops that work
with alloys containing small amounts of beryllium.
A square beryllium foil mounted in a steel case to be used as a window between a vacuum chamber and an
X-ray microscope. Beryllium, due to its low Z number is highly transparent to X-rays.
[edit] Chronic beryllium disease (CBD)
Some people (1-15%) become sensitive to beryllium. These individuals may develop an inflammatory
reaction that principally targets the respiratory system and skin. This condition is called chronic beryllium
disease (CBD), and can occur within a few months or many years after exposure to higher than normal
levels of beryllium (greater than 0.02 g/m). This disease causes fatigue, weakness, night sweats and can
cause difficulty in breathing and a persistent dry cough. It can result in anorexia, weight loss, and may also
lead to right-side heart enlargement and heart disease in advanced cases. Some people who are sensitized to
beryllium may not have any symptoms. The disease is treatable, but not curable with traditional drugs and
medicine. CBD occurs when the body's immune system recognizes beryllium particles as foreign material
and mounts an immune system attack against the particles. Because these particles are typically inhaled into
the lungs, the lungs become the major site where the immune system responds, they become inflamed and
fill with large numbers of white blood cells that accumulate wherever beryllium particles are found. These
cells form balls around the beryllium particles called granulomas. When enough of these develop, they
interfere with the normal function of the organ. Over time, the lungs become stiff and lose their ability to
help transfer oxygen from the air into the bloodstream. Patients with CBD develop difficulty inhaling and
exhaling sufficient amounts of air, and the amount of oxygen in their bloodstreams falls. Treatment of such
patients includes use of oxygen and medicines that try to suppress the immune systems over-reaction to
beryllium. A class of immunosuppressive medicines called glucocorticoids (example: prednisone) is most
commonly used as treatment. The general population is unlikely to develop acute or chronic beryllium
disease because ambient air levels of beryllium are normally very low (0.00003-0.0002 g/m).
[edit] Ingestion
Swallowing beryllium has not been reported to cause effects in humans because very little beryllium is
absorbed from the stomach and intestines. Ulcers have been seen in dogs ingesting beryllium in the diet.
[edit] Dermatological effects
Beryllium can cause contact dermatitis. Beryllium contact with skin that has been scraped or cut may cause
rashes, ulcers, or bumps under the skin called granulomas.
[edit] Effects on children
There are no studies on the health effects of children exposed to beryllium, although individual cases of
CBD have been reported in children of beryllium workers from the 1940s. It is likely that the health effects
seen in children exposed to beryllium will be similar to the effects seen in adults. It is unknown whether
children differ from adults in their susceptibility to beryllium. It is unclear whether beryllium is teratogenic.
[edit] Detection in the body
Beryllium can be measured in the urine and blood. The amount of beryllium in blood or urine may not
indicate time or quantity of exposure. Beryllium levels can also be measured in lung and skin samples.
While such measurements may help establish that exposure has occurred, other tests are used to determine if
that exposure has resulted in health effects. A blood test, the blood beryllium lymphocyte proliferation test
(BeLPT), identifies beryllium sensitization and has predictive value for CBD. The BeLPT has become the
standard test for detecting beryllium sensitization and CBD in individuals who are suspected of having CBD
and to help distinguish it from similar conditions such as sarcoidosis. It is also the main test used in industry
health programs to monitor whether disease is occurring among current and former workers who have been
exposed to beryllium on the job. The test can detect disease that is at an early stage, or can detect disease at
more advanced stages of illness as well. The BeLPT can also be performed using cells obtained from a
person's lung by a procedure called "bronchoscopy."
[edit] Industrial release and occupational exposure limits
Typical levels of beryllium that industries may release into the air are of the order of 0.01 g/m, averaged
over a 30-day period, or 2 g/m of workroom air for an 8-hour work shift. Compliance with the current
U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) permissible exposure limit for beryllium of 2
g/m has been determined to be inadequate to protect workers from developing beryllium sensitization and
CBD. The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), which is an independent
organization of experts in the field of occupational health, has proposed a threshold limit value (TLV) of
0.05 g/m in a 2006 Notice of Intended Change (NIC). This TLV is 40 times lower than the current OHSA
permissible exposure limit, reflecting the ACGIH analysis of best available peer-reviewed research data
concerning how little airborne beryllium is required to cause sensitization and CBD. Because it can be
difficult to control industrial exposures to beryllium, it is advisable to use any methods possible to reduce
airborne and surface contamination by beryllium, to minimize the use of beryllium and berylliumcontaining alloys whenever possible, and to educate people about the potential hazards if they are likely to
encounter beryllium dust or fumes.
Iron, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Iron (as Fe2+, ferrous ion) is a necessary trace element used by almost all living organisms, the only
exceptions are a few prokaryotic organisms which live in iron-poor conditions (such as the lactobacilli in
iron-poor milk) which use manganese for catalysis, instead. Iron-containing enzymes, usually containing
heme prosthetic groups, participate in catalysis of oxidation reactions in biology, and in transport of a
number of soluble gases. See hemoglobin, cytochrome, and catalase.
Iron is believed to be the critical missing nutrient in the ocean that limits the growth of plankton.
Experimental iron fertilization of areas of the ocean using iron(II) sulfate has proven successful in
increasing plankton growth.[2][3][4] Larger scaled efforts are being attempted with the hope that iron seeding
and ocean plankton growth can remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, thereby counteracting the
greenhouse effect that is generally agreed by climatologists to cause global warming.[5]
[edit] Iron in organic synthesis
The usage of iron metal filings in organic synthesis is mainly for the reduction of nitro compounds.[7]
Additionally, iron has been used for desulfurizations,[8] reduction of aldehydes,[9] and the deoxygenation of
amine oxides.[10]
[edit] Iron in biology
Structure of Heme b
Main article: human iron metabolism
Iron is essential to nearly all known organisms. In cells, iron is generally stored in the centre of
metalloproteins, because "free" iron -- which binds non-specifically to many cellular components -- can
catalyse production of toxic free radicals.
In animals, plants, and fungi, iron is often incorporated into the heme complex. Heme is an essential
component of cytochrome proteins, which mediate redox reactions, and of oxygen carrier proteins such as
hemoglobin, myoglobin, and leghemoglobin. Inorganic iron also contributes to redox reactions in the ironsulfur clusters of many enzymes, such as nitrogenase (involved in the synthesis of ammonia from nitrogen
and hydrogen) and hydrogenase. Non-heme iron proteins include the enzymes methane monooxygenase
(oxidizes methane to methanol), ribonucleotide reductase (reduces ribose to deoxyribose; DNA
biosynthesis), hemerythrins (oxygen transport and fixation in marine invertebrates) and purple acid
phosphatase (hydrolysis of phosphate esters).
Iron distribution is heavily regulated in mammals, partly because iron has a high potential for biological
toxicity. Iron distribution is also regulated because many bacteria require iron, so restricting its availability
to bacteria (generally by sequestering it inside cells) can help to prevent or limit infections. This is probably
the reason for the relatively low amounts of iron in mammalian milk. A major component of this regulation
is the protein transferrin, which binds iron absorbed from the duodenum and carries it in the blood to cells.
[11]
[edit] Nutrition and dietary sources

Good sources of dietary iron include red meat, fish, poultry, lentils, beans, leaf vegetables, tofu, chickpeas,
black-eyed peas, potatoes with skin, bread made from completely whole-grain flour, molasses, teff and
farina. Iron in meat is more easily absorbed than iron in vegetables.[12]
Iron provided by dietary supplements is often found as iron (II) fumarate, although iron sulfate is cheaper
and is absorbed equally well. Elemental iron, despite being absorbed to a much smaller extent (stomach acid
is sufficient to convert some of it to ferrous iron), is often added to foods such as breakfast cereals or
"enriched" wheat flour (where it is listed as "reduced iron" in the list of ingredients). Iron is most available
to the body when chelated to amino acids - iron in this form is ten to fifteen times more bioavailable than
any other, and is also available for use as a common iron supplement. Often the amino acid chosen for this
purpose is the cheapest and most common amino acid, glycine, leading to "iron glycinate" supplements.[13]
The RDA for iron varies considerably based on age, gender, and source of dietary iron (heme-based iron has
higher bioavailability).[14] Infants will require iron supplements if they are not breast-fed. Blood donors are
at special risk of low iron levels and are often advised to supplement their iron intake.
[edit] Regulation of iron uptake
Excessive iron can be toxic, because free ferrous iron reacts with peroxides to produce free radicals, which
are highly reactive and can damage DNA, proteins, lipids, and other cellular components. Thus, iron toxicity
occurs when there is free iron in the cell, which generally occurs when iron levels exceed the capacity of
transferrin to bind the iron.
Iron uptake is tightly regulated by the human body, which has no physiological means of excreting iron, so
controls iron levels solely by regulating uptake. Although uptake is regulated, large amounts of ingested iron
can cause excessive levels of iron in the blood, because high iron levels can cause damage to the cells of the
gastrointestinal tract that prevents them from regulating iron absorption. High blood concentrations of iron
damage cells in the heart, liver and elsewhere, which can cause serious problems, including long-term organ
damage and even death.
Humans experience iron toxicity above 20 milligrams of iron for every kilogram of mass, and 60 milligrams
per kilogram is a lethal dose.[15] Over-consumption of iron, often the result of children eating large quantities
of ferrous sulfate tablets intended for adult consumption, is one of the most common toxicological cause of
death in children under six.[15] The DRI lists the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for adults as 45 mg/day.
For children under fourteen years old the UL is 40 mg/day.
Regulation of iron uptake is impaired in some people as a result of a genetic defect that maps to the HLA-H
gene region on chromosome 6. In these people, excessive iron intake can result in iron overload disorders,
such as hemochromatosis. Many people have a genetic susceptibility to iron overload without realizing it or
being aware of a family history of the problem. For this reason, it is advised that people should not take iron
supplements unless they suffer from iron deficiency and have consulted a doctor. Hemochromatosis is
estimated to cause disease in between 0.3 and 0.8% of Caucasians. [16]
The medical management of iron toxicity is complex, and can include use of a specific chelating agent
called deferoxamine to bind and expel excess iron from the body.
Trace element, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
In analytical chemistry, a trace element is an element in a sample that has an average concentration of less
than 100 parts per million atoms, or less than 100 micrograms per gram.
In biochemistry, a trace element is a chemical element that is needed in minute quantities for the proper
growth, development, and physiology of the organism. In biochemistry, a trace element is also referred to as
a micronutrient.
In geochemistry, a trace element is a chemical element whose concentration is less than 1000 ppm or 0.1%
of a rock's composition.
The term is used mainly in igneous petrology.
Cadmium, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

[edit] Toxicity
Main article: Cadmium poisoning
Cadmium is an occupational hazard associated with industrial processes such as metal plating and the
production of nickel-cadmium batteries, pigments, plastics and other synthetics. The primary route of
exposure in industrial settings is inhalation. Inhalation of cadmium-containing fumes can result initially in
metal fume fever but may progress to chemical pneumonitis, pulmonary edema, and death. [2]
Cadmium is also a potential environmental hazard. Human exposures to environmental cadmium are
primarily the result of the burning of fossil fuels and municipal wastes.[3] However, there have been notable
instances of toxicity as the result of long-term exposure to cadmium in contaminated food and water. In the
decades following World War II, Japanese mining operations contaminated the Jinzu River with cadmium
and traces of other toxic metals. Consequently, cadmium accumulated in the rice crops growing along the
riverbanks downstream of the mines. The local agricultural communities consuming the contaminated rice
developed Itai-itai disease and renal abnormalities, including proteinuria and glucosuria.[4] Cadmium is one
of six substances banned by the European Union's Restriction on Hazardous Substances (RoHS) directive,
which bans carcinogens in computers.
Cadmium and several cadmium-containing compounds are known carcinogens and can induce many types
of cancer [5].
Current research has found that cadmium toxicity may be carried into the body by zinc binding proteins; in
particular, proteins that contain zinc finger protein structures. Zinc and cadmium are in the same period on
the periodic table, contain the same common oxidation state (+2), and when ionized are almost the same
size. Due to these similarities, cadmium can replace zinc in many biological systems, in particular, systems
that contain softer ligands such as sulfur. Cadmium can bind up to ten times stronger than zinc in certain
biological systems, and is notoriously difficult to remove. In addition, cadmium can replace magnesium and
calcium in cetain biological systems, although, these replacements are rare.
[edit] Precautions
While working with cadmium it is important to do so under a fume hood or with the use of an appropriate
respirator to protect against dangerous fumes. [6] Solder, for example, which may contain cadmium, should
be handled with care.
Lead, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Like mercury, another heavy metal, lead is a potent neurotoxin which accumulates in soft tissues and bone
over time.
"Lead" also refers collectively to the organic and inorganic compounds of lead, which are toxic. Lead
poisoning was documented in ancient Rome, Greece, and China. In the Twentieth Century, the use of lead in
paint pigments was sharply reduced because of the danger of lead poisoning, especially to children.[1][2][3] By
the mid-1980s, a significant shift in lead end-use patterns had taken place. Much of this shift was a result of
the U.S. lead consumers' compliance with environmental regulations that significantly reduced or eliminated
the use of lead in non-battery products, including gasoline, paints, solders, and water systems. Recently, lead
use is being further curtailed by the European Union's RoHS directive. Lead may still be found in harmful
quantities in stoneware, vinyl (such as that used for tubing and the insulation of electrical cords), and brass
manufactured in China.
[edit] Health effects
Main article: Lead poisoning
Lead is a poisonous metal that can damage nervous connections (especially in young children) and cause
blood and brain disorders. Long term exposure to lead or its salts (especially soluble salts or the strong
oxidant PbO2) can cause nephropathy, and colic-like abdominal pains. The concern about lead's role in
cognitive deficits in children has brought about widespread reduction in its use (lead exposure has been
linked to schizophrenia). The majority of cases of adult elevate blood lead levels are workplace-related.[11]
Many older houses may still contain substantial amounts of lead paint. White lead paint has been withdrawn
from sale in industrialized countries, but the yellow lead chromate is still in use; for example, Holland
Colours Holcolan Yellow. It is generally recommended that old paint should not be stripped by sanding, as
this generates inhalable dust.
Lead salts used in pottery glazes have on occasion caused poisoning, when acid drinks, such as fruit juices,
have leached lead ions out of the glaze.[citation needed] It has been suggested that what was known as "Devon
colic" arose from the use of lead-lined presses to extract apple juice in the manufacture of cider. Lead is
considered to be particularly harmful for women's ability to reproduce. For that reason many universities do
not hand out lead-containing samples to women for instructional laboratory analyses.[citation needed] Lead acetate
(also known as sugar of lead) was used by the Roman Empire as a sweetener for wine, and some consider
this to be the cause of the dementia which affected many of the Roman Emperors. [12]
Lead as a soil contaminant is a widespread issue, since lead is present in natural deposits and may also enter
soil through (leaded) gasoline leaks from underground storage tanks or through a wastestream of lead paint
or lead grindings from certain industrial operations.
[edit] Biochemistry of lead poisoning
In medicine, lead inhibits -aminolevulinate (ALA) dehydratase and ferrochelatase, preventing both
porphobilinogen formation and the incorporation of iron into protoporphyrin IX, the final step in heme
synthesis. Inhibition of both of these steps results in ineffective heme synthesis and subsequent microcytic
Mercury (element), From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Mercury is used in thermometers, barometers and other scientific apparatus, though concerns about the
element's toxicity have led to mercury thermometers being largely phased out in clinical environments in
favour of alcohol-filled, digital, or thermistor-based instruments. It remains in use in a number of other ways
in scientific and scientific research applications, and in dental amalgam. Mercury is mostly obtained by
reduction from the mineral cinnabar.
Mercury occurs in deposits throughout the world and it is harmless in an insoluble form, such as mercuric
sulfide, but it is poisonous in soluble forms such as mercuric chloride or methylmercury.
[edit] History
One of the worst industrial disasters in history was caused by the dumping of mercury compounds into
Minamata Bay, Japan. The Chisso Corporation, a fertilizer and later petrochemical company, was found
responsible for polluting the bay from 19321968. It is estimated that over 3,000 people suffered various
deformities, severe mercury poisoning symptoms or death from what became known as Minamata disease.
[edit] Hat making
From the mid-18th to the mid-19th centuries, a process called "carroting" was used in the making of felt
hats. Animal skins were rinsed in an orange solution of the mercury compound mercuric nitrate,
Hg(NO3)22H2O.[11] This process separated the fur from the pelt and matted it together. This solution and the
vapors it produced were highly toxic. Its use resulted in widespread cases of mercury poisoning among
hatters. Symptoms included tremors, emotional lability, insomnia, dementia and hallucinations. The United
States Public Health Service banned the use of mercury in the felt industry in December 1941. The
psychological symptoms associated with mercury poisoning may have inspired the phrase "mad as a hatter";
see hatter on the origin of the phrase. Lewis Carroll's "Mad Hatter" in his book Alice's Adventures in
Wonderland was based on this.
[edit] Dentistry
The element mercury is the main ingredient in dental amalgams. Controversy over the health effects from
the use of mercury amalgams began shortly after its introduction into the western world, nearly 200 years
ago. In 1845, The American Society of Dental Surgeons, concerned about mercury poisoning, asked its
members to sign a pledge that they would not use amalgam. The ASDS disbanded in 1865. The American
Dental Association formed three years after and currently takes the position that "amalgam is a valuable,
viable and safe choice for dental patients,"[15] In 1993, the United States Public Health Service reported that
"amalgam fillings release small amounts of mercury vapor," but in such a small amount that it "has not been
shown to cause any adverse health effects". This position is not shared by all governments and there is an
ongoing dental amalgam controversy. A recent review by an FDA-appointed advisory panel rejected, by a
margin of 13-7, the current FDA report on amalgam safety,[citation needed] stating the report's conclusions were
unreasonable given the quantity and quality of information currently available. Panelists said remaining
uncertainties about the risk of so-called silver fillings demanded further research; in particular, on the effects
of mercury-laden fillings on children and the fetuses of pregnant women with fillings, and the release of
mercury vapor on insertion and removal of mercury fillings.[citation needed]
[edit] Medicine
Mercury and its compounds have been used in medicine for centuries, although they are much less common
today than they once were, now that the toxic effects of mercury and its compounds are more widely
understood.
Mercury(I) chloride (also known as calomel or mercurous chloride) has traditionally been used as a diuretic,
topical disinfectant, and laxative. Mercury(II) chloride (also known as mercuric chloride or corrosive
sublimate) was once used to treat syphilis (along with other mercury compounds), although it is so toxic that
sometimes the symptoms of its toxicity were confused with those of the syphilis it was believed to treat.[16] It
was also used as a disinfectant. Blue mass, a pill or syrup in which mercury is the main ingredient, was
prescribed throughout the 1800s for numerous conditions including constipation, depression, child-bearing
and toothaches.[17] In the early 20th century, mercury was administered to children yearly as a laxative and
dewormer, and it was used in teething powders for infants. The mercury containing organohalide
Mercurochrome is still widely used but has been banned in some countries such as the U.S.
Since the 1930s some vaccines have contained the preservative thiomersal, which is metabolized or
degraded to ethyl mercury. Although it was widely speculated that this mercury-based preservative can
cause or trigger autism in children, scientific studies showed no evidence supporting any such link.[18]
Nevertheless thiomersal has been removed from or reduced to trace amounts in all U.S. vaccines
recommended for children 6 years of age and under, with the exception of inactivated influenza vaccine.[19]
Mercury in the form of one of its common ores, cinnabar, remains an important component of Chinese,
Tibetan, and Ayurvedic medicine. As problems may arise when these medicines are exported to countries
that prohibit the use of mercury in medicines, in recent times, less toxic substitutes have been devised.
Today, the use of mercury in medicine has greatly declined in all respects, especially in developed countries.
Thermometers and sphygmomanometers containing mercury were invented in the early 18th and late 19th
centuries, respectively. In the early 21st century, their use is declining and has been banned in some
countries, states and medical institutions. In 2002, the U.S. Senate passed legislation to phase out the sale of
non-prescription mercury thermometers. In 2003, Washington and Maine became the first states to ban
mercury blood pressure devices.[20] Mercury compounds are found in some over-the-counter drugs,
including topical antiseptics, stimulant laxatives, diaper-rash ointment, eye drops, and nasal sprays. The
FDA (FDA) has inadequate data to establish general recognition of the safety and effectiveness, of the
mercury ingredients in these products.[21] Mercury is still used in some diuretics, although substitutes now
exist for most therapeutic uses.
[edit] Safety
See also: mercury poisoning
Mercury and most of its compounds are extremely toxic and are generally handled with care; in cases of
spills involving mercury (such as from certain thermometers or fluorescent light bulbs) specific cleaning
instructions should be used to avoid toxic exposure.[22] It can be inhaled and absorbed through the skin and
mucous membrane, so containers of mercury are securely sealed to avoid spills and evaporation. Heating of
mercury, or compounds of mercury that may decompose when heated, should always be carried out with
adequate ventilation in order to avoid exposure to mercury vapor. The most toxic forms of mercury are its
organic compounds, such as methylmercury.
[edit] Occupational exposure
Due to the health effects of mercury exposure, industrial and commercial uses are regulated in many
countries. The World Health Organization, OSHA, and NIOSH all treat mercury as an occupational hazard,
and have established specific occupational exposure limits. Environmental releases and disposal of mercury
are regulated in the U.S. primarily by the United States Environmental Protection Agency.
A study has shown that acute exposure (4-8 hours) to calculated elemental mercury levels of 1.1 to 44
mg/m3 resulted in chest pain, dyspnea, cough, hemoptysis, impairment of pulmonary function, and evidence
of interstitial pneumonitis.[23]
Acute exposure to mercury vapor has been shown to result in profound central nervous system effects,
including psychotic reactions characterized by delirium, hallucinations, and suicidal tendency. Occupational
exposure has resulted in broad-ranging functional disturbance, including erethism, irritability, excitability,
excessive shyness, and insomnia. With continuing exposure, a fine tremor develops and may escalate to
violent muscular spasms. Tremor initially involves the hands and later spreads to the eyelids, lips, and
tongue. Long-term, low-level exposure has been associated with more subtle symptoms of erethism,
including fatigue, irritability, loss of memory, vivid dreams, and depression.[24][25]
[edit] Treatment
Research on the treatment of mercury poisoning is limited. Currently available drugs for acute mercurial
poisoning include chelators N-acetyl-D,L-penicillamine (NAP), British Anti-Lewisite (BAL), 2,3dimercapto-1-propanesulfonic acid (DMPS), and dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA). In one small study
including 11 construction workers exposed to elemental mercury, patients were treated with DMSA and
NAP.[26] Chelation therapy with both drugs resulted in the mobilization of a small fraction of the total
estimated body mercury. DMSA was able to increase the excretion of mercury to a greater extent than NAP.
[edit] Mercury in fish
Fish and shellfish have a natural tendency to concentrate mercury in their bodies, often in the form of
methylmercury, a highly toxic organic compound of mercury. Species of fish that are high on the food
chain, such as shark, swordfish, king mackerel, albacore tuna, and tilefish contain higher concentrations of
mercury than others. This is because mercury is stored in the muscle tissues of fish, and when a predatory
fish eats another fish, it assumes the entire body burden of mercury in the consumed fish. Since fish are less
efficient at depurating than accumulating methylmercury, fish-tissue concentrations increase over time. Thus
species that are high on the food chain amass body burdens of mercury that can be ten times higher, or
more, than the species they consume. This process is called biomagnification. The first occurrence of
widespread mercury poisoning in humans occurred this way in Minamata, Japan, now called Minamata
disease.
The complexities associated with mercury fate and transport are relatively succinctly described by USEPA
in their 1997 Mercury Study Report to Congress. Because methylmercury and high levels of elemental
mercury can be particularly toxic to unborn or young children, organizations such as the U.S. EPA and FDA
recommend that women who are pregnant or plan to become pregnant within the next one or two years, as
well as young children avoid eating more than 6 ounces (one average meal) of fish per week.[27] In the
United States the FDA has an action level for methyl mercury in commercial marine and freshwater fish that
is 1.0 parts per million (ppm), and in Canada the limit for the total of mercury content is 0.5 ppm.
Species with characteristically low levels of mercury include shrimp, tilapia, salmon, pollock, and catfish
(FDA March 2004). The FDA characterizes shrimp, catfish, pollock, salmon, and canned light tuna as lowmercury seafood, although recent tests have indicated that up to 6 percent of canned light tuna may contain
high levels.[28]
Arsenic, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

[edit] Notable characteristics
Arsenic is very similar chemically to its predecessor, phosphorus. Similar to phosphorus, it forms
colourless, odourless, crystalline oxides As2O3 and As2O5 which are hygroscopic and readily soluble in
water to form acidic solutions. Arsenic (V) acid, like phosphoric acid, is a weak acid. Like phosphorus,
arsenic forms an unstable, gaseous hydride: arsine (AsH3). The similarity is so great that arsenic will partly
substitute for phosphorus in biochemical reactions and is thus poisonous. However, in subtoxic doses,
soluble arsenic compounds act as stimulants, and were once popular in small doses as medicinals by people
in the mid 18th century.
[edit] Applications
Lead hydrogen arsenate has been used, well into the 20th century, as an insecticide on fruit trees (sometimes
resulting in brain damage to those working the sprayers), and Scheele's Green (a copper arsenate) has even
been recorded in the 19th century as a coloring agent in sweets. In the last half century, monosodium methyl
arsenate (MSMA), a less toxic organic form of arsenic, has replaced lead arsenate's role in agriculture.
The application of most concern to the general public is probably that of wood which has been treated with
chromated copper arsenate ("CCA", or "Tanalith", and the vast majority of older "pressure treated" wood).
CCA timber is still in widespread use in many countries, and was heavily used during the latter half of the
20th century as a structural, and outdoor building material, where there was a risk of rot, or insect
infestation in untreated timber. Although widespread bans followed the publication of studies which showed
low-level leaching from in-situ timbers (such as children's playground equipment) into surrounding soil, the
most serious[citation needed] risk is presented by the burning of CCA timber. Recent years have seen fatal animal
poisonings, and serious human poisonings resulting from the ingestion - directly or indirectly - of wood ash
from CCA timber (the lethal human dose is approximately 20 grams of ash). Scrap CCA construction timber
continues to be widely burnt through ignorance, in both commercial and domestic fires. Protocols for safe
disposal of CCA timber are still in place only patchily; there is concern in some quarters about the
widespread landfill disposal of such timber.
During the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, a number of arsenic compounds have been used as medicines,
including arsphenamine (by Paul Ehrlich) and arsenic trioxide (by Thomas Fowler). Arsphenamine as well
as Neosalvarsan was indicated for syphilis and trypanosomiasis, but has been superseded by modern
antibiotics. Arsenic trioxide has been used in a variety of ways over the past 200 years, but most commonly
in the treatment of cancer. The Food and Drug Administration in 2000 approved this compound for the
treatment of patients with acute promyelocytic leukemia that is resistant to ATRA.[2] It was also used as
Fowler's solution in psoriasis.[3]
Copper acetoarsenite was used as a green pigment known under many different names, including 'Paris
Green' and 'Emerald Green'. It caused numerous arsenic poisonings.
Other uses;
Various agricultural insecticides, termination and poisons.
Used in animal feed, particularly in the US as a method of disease prevention and growth stimulation.
Gallium arsenide is an important semiconductor material, used in integrated circuits. Circuits made using
the compound are much faster (but also much more expensive) than those made in silicon. Unlike silicon it
is direct bandgap, and so can be used in laser diodes and LEDs to directly convert electricity into light.
Also used in bronzing and pyrotechny.
Occupational Exposures
Exposure to higher-than-average levels of arsenic can occur in some occupations placing workers at risk.
Industries that use inorganic arsenic and its compounds include wood preservation, glass production,
nonferrous metal alloys, and electronic semiconductor manufacturing. Inorganic arsenic is also found in
coke oven emissions associated with the smelter industry. [4]
GRUPA 15: Dolha, Drban, Png

[edit] History
The word arsenic is borrowed from the Persian word Zarnikh meaning "yellow orpiment". Zarnikh
was borrowed by Greek as arsenikon wich means masculine or potent. Arsenic has been known and used in
Persia and elsewhere since ancient times. As the symptoms of arsenic poisoning were somewhat ill-defined,
it was frequently used for murder until the advent of the Marsh test, a sensitive chemical test for its
presence. (Another less sensitive but more general test is the Reinsch test.) Due to its use by the ruling class
to murder one another and its potency and discreetness, arsenic has been called the Poison of Kings and the
King of Poisons.In the Victorian era, 'arsenic' (colourless, crystalline, soluble 'white arsenic') was mixed
with vinegar and chalk and eaten by women to improve the complexion of their faces, making their skin
paler to show they did not work in the fields. Arsenic was also rubbed into the faces and arms of women to
'improve their complexion'. The accidental use of arsenic in the adulteration of foodstuffs led to the
Bradford sweet poisoning in 1858, which resulted in approximately 20 deaths and 200 people taken ill with
arsenic poisoning.
[edit] Arsenic in drinking water
Main article: Arsenic contamination of groundwater
Arsenic contamination of groundwater has led to a massive epidemic of arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh[5]
and neighbouring countries. It is estimated that approximately 57 million people are drinking groundwater
with arsenic concentrations elevated above the World Health Organization's standard of 10 parts per billion.
The arsenic in the groundwater is of natural origin, and is released from the sediment into the groundwater
due to the anoxic conditions of the subsurface. This groundwater began to be used after western NGOs
instigated a massive tube well drinking-water program in the late twentieth century. This program was
designed to prevent drinking of bacterially contaminated surface waters, but failed to test for arsenic in the
groundwater.(2) Many other countries and districts in South East Asia, such as Vietnam, Cambodia, and
Tibet, China, are thought to have geological environments similarly conducive to generation of high-arsenic
groundwaters. Arsenicosis was reported in Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand in 1987, and the dissolved
arsenic in the Chao Phraya River is suspected of containing high levels of naturally occurring arsenic, but
has not been a public health problem due to the use of bottled water.[6]
The northern United States, including parts of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota and the Dakotas are known
to have significant concentrations of arsenic in ground water.
Arsenic can be removed from drinking water through coprecipitation of iron minerals by oxidation and
filtering. When this treatment fails to produce acceptable results, adsorptive arsenic removal media may be
utilized. Several adsorptive media systems have been approved for point of service use in a study funded by
the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S.EPA) and the National Science Foundation (NSF).
[edit] Toxicity
Main article: Arsenic poisoning
Arsenic and many of its compounds are especially potent poisons. Arsenic disrupts ATP production through
several mechanisms. At the level of the citric acid cycle, arsenic inhibits pyruvate dehydrogenase and by
competing with phosphate it uncouples oxidative phosphorylation, thus inhibiting energy-linked reduction
of NAD+, mitochondrial respiration, and ATP synthesis. Hydrogen peroxide production is also increased,
which might form reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress. These metabolic interferences lead to death
from multi-system organ failure (see arsenic poisoning) probably from necrotic cell death, not apoptosis. A
post mortem reveals brick red colored mucosa, due to severe hemorrhage. Although arsenic causes toxicity,
it can also play a protective role.[8].
Elemental arsenic and arsenic compounds are classified as "toxic" and "dangerous for the environment" in
the European Union under directive 67/548/EEC.
The IARC recognizes arsenic and arsenic compounds as group 1 carcinogens, and the EU lists arsenic
trioxide, arsenic pentoxide and arsenate salts as category 1 carcinogens.
Arsenic is known to cause arsenicosis due to its manifestation in drinking water, the most common species
being arsenate [HAsO42- ; As(V)] and arsenite [H3AsO3 ; As(III)]. The ability of arsenic to undergo redox
conversion between As(III) and As(V) makes its availability in the environment possible. According to
Croal, Gralnick, Malasarn, and Newman, [the] understanding [of] what stimulates As(III) oxidation and/or
limits As(V) reduction is relevant for bioremediation of contaminated sites (Croal). The study of
chemolithoautotrophic As(III) oxidizers and the heterotrophic As(V) reducers can help the understanding of
the oxidation and/or reduction of arsenic.[9]
Polonium, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

[edit] Applications
Because of its very high toxicity, polonium can be used as a poison (see, for example, Alexander Litvinenko
poisoning).
[edit] Toxicity
[edit] Overview
By mass, polonium-210 is around 250 thousand (250*10) times more toxic than hydrogen cyanide (the
actual LD50 for 210Po is about 1 microgram for 80 kg person (see below) compared to about 250 milligram
for hydrogen cyanide[25]). The main hazard is its intense radioactivity (as an alpha emitter), which makes it
very difficult to handle safely: one gram of Po will self-heat to a temperature of around 500 C. Even in
microgram amounts, handling 210Po is extremely dangerous, requiring specialized equipment and strict
handling procedures. Alpha particles emitted by polonium will damage organic tissue easily if polonium is
ingested, inhaled, or absorbed (though they do not penetrate the epidermis and hence are not hazardous if
the polonium is outside the body).
[edit] Acute effects
The median lethal dose (LD50) for acute radiation exposure is generally about 4.5 Sv.[26] The committed
effective dose equivalent 210Po is 0.51 Sv/Bq if ingested, and 2.5 Sv/Bq if inhaled.[27] Since 210Po has an
activity of 166 TBq (4486.5 Ci) per gram[27] (1 gram produces 1661012 decays per second), a fatal 4.5 Sv
(J/kg) dose can be caused by ingesting 8.8 MBq/kg (238 microcuries, or about 24 mCi for 80 kg person),
about 50 nanograms per kilogram (ng/kg), or inhaling 1.8 MBq/kg (48 microcuries, or about 4 mCi for 80
kg person), about 10 ng/kg. One gram of 210Po could thus in theory poison 2 million (50 kg each) people of
whom 1 million would die. The actual toxicity of 210Po is lower than these estimates, because radiation
exposure that is spread out over several weeks (the biological half-life of polonium in humans is 30 to 50
days[28]) is somewhat less damaging than an instantaneous dose. It has been estimated that a minimal lethal
dose of 210Po for an 80 kg person is 0.15 GBq (4 millicuries), or 0.89 micrograms, still an extremely small
amount. [29][30]
[edit] Long term (chronic) effects
In addition to the acute effects, radiation exposure (both internal and external) carries a long-term risk of
death from cancer of 510% per Sv.[26] The general population is exposed to small amounts of polonium as a
radon daughter in indoor air; the isotopes 214Po and 218Po are thought to cause the majority[31] of the
estimated 15,000-22,000 lung cancer deaths in the US every year that have been attributed to indoor radon.
[32]
Tobacco smoking causes significant additional exposure to Po.[33]
[edit] Regulatory exposure limits
The maximum allowable body burden for ingested 210Po is only 1,100 Bq (0.03 microcurie), which is
equivalent to a particle weighing only 6.8 picograms. The maximum permissible workplace concentration of
airborne 210Po is about 10 Bq/m (3 10-10 Ci/cm).[34] The target organs for polonium in humans are the
spleen and liver.[35] As the spleen (150 g) and the liver (1.3 to 3 kg) are much smaller than the rest of the
body, if the polonium is concentrated in these vital organs, it is a greater threat to life than the dose which
would be suffered (on average) by the whole body if it were spread evenly throughout the body, in the same
way as caesium or tritium (as T2O).
210
Po is widely used in industry, and readily available with little regulation or restriction. In the US, a
tracking system run by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission will be implemented in 2007 to register
purchases of more than 16 curies of polonium 210 (enough to make up 5,000 lethal doses). The IAEA "is
said to be considering tighter regulations... There is talk that it might tighten the polonium reporting
requirement by a factor of 10, to 1.6 curies."[36]
[edit] Famous polonium poisoning cases
Notably, the alleged murder of Alexander Litvinenko, a Russian dissident, in 2006 was announced as due to
210
Po poisoning [37] (see Alexander Litvinenko poisoning). According to Nick Priest, a radiation expert
speaking on Sky News on December 2, Litvinenko was probably the first person ever to die of the acute radiation effects of 210Po.
It has also been suggested that Irne Joliot-Curie was the first person ever to die from the radiation effects of
polonium (due to a single intake) in 1956.[38] She was accidentally exposed to polonium in 1946 when a
sealed capsule of the element exploded on her laboratory bench. A decade later, on 17 March 1956, she died
in Paris from leukemia which may or may not have been caused by that exposure.
According to the book The Bomb in the Basement, several death cases in Israel during 1957-1969 were
caused by 210Po.[39] A leak was discovered at a Weizmann Institute laboratory in 1957. Traces of 210Po were
found on the hands of Prof. Dror Sadeh, a physicist who researched radioactive materials. Medical tests
indicated no harm, but the tests did not include bone marrow. Sadeh died prematurely from cancer. One of
his students died of leukemia, and two colleagues died after a few years, both from cancer. The issue was
investigated secretly, and there was never any formal admission that a connection between the leak and the
deaths had existed.
[edit] Treatment
It has been suggested that chelation agents such as British Anti-Lewisite (dimercaprol) can be used to
decontaminate humans.[40][41] In one experiment, rats were given a fatal dose of 1.45 MBq/kg (8.7 ng/kg) of
210
Po; all untreated rats were dead after 44 days, but 90% of the rats treated with the chelation agent
HOEtTTC remained alive after 5 months.[42]
Chromium, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

[edit] Biological role
Trivalent chromium (Cr(III), or Cr3+) is required in trace amounts for sugar metabolism in humans (Glucose
Tolerance Factor) and its deficiency may cause a disease called chromium deficiency. In contrast,
hexavalent chromium is very toxic and mutagenic when inhaled as publicized by the film Erin Brockovich.
Cr(VI) has not been established as a carcinogen when not inhaled but in solution it is well established as a
cause of allergic contact dermatitis (ACD).[3]
Recently it was shown that the popular dietary supplement chromium picolinate complex generates
chromosome damage in hamster cells. In the United States the dietary guidelines for daily chromium uptake
were lowered from 50-200 g for an adult to 35 g (adult male) and to 25 g (adult female).[4]
[edit] Precautions
Chromium metal and chromium(III) compounds are not usually considered health hazards; chromium is an
essential trace mineral.[5] However, hexavalent chromium (chromium VI) compounds can be toxic if orally
ingested or inhaled. The lethal dose of poisonous chromium (VI) compounds is about one half teaspoon of
material. Most chromium (VI) compounds are irritating to eyes, skin and mucous membranes. Chronic
exposure to chromium (VI) compounds can cause permanent eye injury, unless properly treated.
Chromium(VI) is an established human carcinogen. An investigation into hexavalent chromium release into
drinking water formed the plot of the motion picture Erin Brockovich.
World Health Organization recommended maximum allowable concentration in drinking water for
chromium (VI) is 0.05 milligrams per liter. Hexavalent chromium is also one of the substances whose use is
restricted by the European Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive.
As chromium compounds were used in dyes and paints and the tanning of leather, these compounds are
often found in soil and groundwater at abandoned industrial site, now needing environmental cleanup and
remediation per the treatment of brownfield land. Primer paint containing hexavalent chromium is still
widely used for aerospace and automobile refinishing applications.
Carcinogen
The term carcinogen refers to any substance, radionuclide or radiation which is an agent directly involved in
the promotion of cancer or in the facilitation of its propagation. This may be due to genomic instability or to
the disruption of cellular metabolic processes. Several radioactive substances are considered carcinogens,
but their carcinogenic activity is attributed to the radiation, for example gamma rays or alpha particles,
which they emit. Common examples of carcinogens are inhaled asbestos and tobacco smoke.
Cancer is a disease where damaged cells of the patient's body do not undergo programmed cell death, but
their growth is no longer controlled and their metabolism is altered. Carcinogens may increase the risk of
getting cancer by altering cellular metabolism or damaging DNA directly in cells, which interferes with
biological processes, and induces the uncontrolled, malignant division ultimately leading to the formation of
tumors. Usually DNA damage, if too severe to repair, leads to programmed cell death, but if the
programmed cell death pathway is damaged, then the cell cannot prevent itself from becoming a cancer cell.
There are many natural carcinogens. Aflatoxin B1, which is produced by the fungus Aspergillus flavus
growing on stored grains, nuts and peanut butter, is an example of a potent, naturally-occurring microbial
carcinogen. Certain viruses such as Hepatitis B and human papilloma viruses have been found to cause
cancer in humans. The first one shown to cause cancer in animals was Rous sarcoma virus, discovered in
1910 by Peyton Rous.
Benzene, kepone, EDB, asbestos, and the waste rock of oil shale mining have all been classified as
carcinogenic.[citation needed] As far back as the 1930s, industrial and tobacco smoke were identified as sources of
dozens of carcinogens, including benzopyrene, tobacco-specific nitrosamines such as nitrosonornicotine,
and reactive aldehydes such as formaldehyde which is also a hazard in embalming and making plastics.
Vinyl chloride, from which PVC is manufactured, is a carcinogen and thus a hazard in PVC production.
Co-carcinogens are chemicals which do not separately cause cancer, but do so in specific combinations.
After the carcinogen enters the body, the body makes an attempt to eliminate it through a process called
biotransformation. The purpose of these reactions is to make the carcinogen more water-soluble so that it
can be removed from the body. But these reactions can also convert a less toxic carcinogen into a more toxic
one.
DNA is nucleophilic, therefore soluble carbon electrophiles are carcinogenic, because DNA attacks them.
For example, some alkenes are toxicated by human enzymes to produce an electrophilic epoxide. DNA
attacks the epoxide, and is bound permanently to it. This is the mechanism behind the carcinogenity of
benzopyrene in tobacco smoke, other aromatics, aflatoxin and mustard gas.
[edit] Radiation
CERCLA identifies all radionuclides as carcinogens, although the nature of the emitted radiation (alpha,
beta, or gamma, and the energy), its consequent capacity to cause ionization in tissues, and the magnitude of
radiation exposure, determine the potential hazard. Carcinogenity of radiation depends of the type of
radiation, type of exposure and penetration. For example, alpha radiation has low penetration and is not a
hazard outside the body, but are carcinogenic when inhaled or ingested.
For example, Thorotrast, a (incidentally-radioactive) suspension previously used as a contrast medium in xray diagnostics, is a potent human carcinogen known because of its retention within various organs and
persistent emission of alpha particles. Marie Curie, one of the pioneers of radioactivity, died of cancer
caused by radiation exposure during her experiments.
Not all types of electromagnetic radiation are carcinogenic. Low-energy waves on the electromagnetic
spectrum are generally not, including radio waves, microwave radiation, infrared radiation, and visible light.
Higher-energy radiation, including ultraviolet radiation (present in sunlight), x-rays, and gamma radiation,
generally is carcinogenic, if received in sufficient doses.
Substances or foods irradiated with electrons or electromagnetic radiation (such as microwave, X-ray or
gamma) are not carcinogenic. No "radiation" remains, just like no light remains in a lens. (In contrast, nonelectromagnetic neutron radiation produced inside nuclear reactors can make substances radioactive.)
[edit] Carcinogens in prepared food
Cooking food at high temperatures, for example broiling or barbecuing meats, can lead to the formation of
minute quantities of many potent carcinogens that are comparable to those found in cigarette smoke (i.e.,
benzopyrene).[1] Charring of food resembles coking and tobacco pyrolysis and produces similar carcinogens.
There are several carcinogenic pyrolysis products, such as polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, which are
converted by human enzymes into epoxides, which attach permanently to DNA. Pre-cooking meats in a
microwave oven for 2-3 minutes before broiling shortens the time on the hot pan, which can help minimize
the formation of these carcinogens.
Reports from the Food Standards Agency have found that the known animal carcinogen Acrylamide. is
generated in fried or overheated carbohydrate foods (such as french fries and potato chips). Studies are
underway at the FDA and European regulatory agencies to assess its potential risk to humans. The charred
residue on barbecued meats has been identified as a carcinogen, along with many other tars.
Nevertheless, the fact that the food contains minute quantities doesn't necessarily mean that there is a
significant hazard. The gastrointestinal tract sheds its outer layer continuously to protect itself from
carcinomas, and has a high activity of detoxifying enzymes. The lungs are not protected in this manner,
Nongenotoxins do not directly affect DNA but act in other ways to promote growth. These include
hormones and some organic compounds.[2]
Dimethylmercury, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Dimethylmercury ((CH3)2Hg) is a flammable, colorless liquid, and one of the strongest known neurotoxins.
It is described as having a slightly sweet smell, though inhaling enough fumes to notice this would involve
significant exposure to the chemical. It is extremely dangerous, with absorption of doses as low as 0.001 mL
being fatal. The high vapor pressure of the liquid means that any spillage will result in dangerous levels of
exposure to the fumes for those nearby. Its molecule has a linear structure, with the mercury and carbon
atoms in line.
Dimethylmercury crosses the blood-brain barrier easily, probably due to formation of a complex with
cysteine. It is eliminated from the organism very slowly, therefore it has tendency to bioaccumulate. The
symptoms of poisoning may appear when it is too late for effective treatment.
Dimethylmercury passes through latex, PVC, butyl, and neoprene rapidly (within seconds), and is absorbed
through the skin. Therefore, most laboratory gloves do not provide adequate protection from it, and the only
safe precaution is to handle dimethyl mercury while wearing highly resistant laminated gloves underneath
long-cuffed neoprene or other heavy-duty gloves. A long face shield and work under a fume hood are also
indicated.
The toxicity of dimethylmercury was highlighted when a well-known chemist, Karen Wetterhahn, died after
spilling a few drops of this compound on her latex-gloved hand.
[edit] Use
Dimethylmercury is most often used in toxicology experiments as a fixed point of reference due to its
extreme toxicity. It has also been used to calibrate NMR instruments for detection of mercury, although less
toxic mercury salts are preferred.[1][2]
Tetra-ethyl lead, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Tetra-ethyl lead, abbreviated TEL, is an organometallic compound with the formula (CH3CH2)4Pb. Once a
common anti-knock additive in gasoline (petrol), TEL usage was largely discontinued because of the
toxicity of lead and its disadvantageous effects on catalytic converters. It is still used as an additive in the
aviation fuel known as avgas.
The product, TEL, is a viscous colorless liquid. Because TEL is charge neutral and contains an exterior of
alkyl groups, it is highly lipophilic and soluble in petrol (gasoline).
A noteworthy feature of TEL is the weakness of its four C-Pb bonds. At the temperatures found in internal
combustion engines (CH3CH2)4Pb decomposes, first into (CH3CH2)3Pb and ethyl radicals. These radicals
scavenge other radicals, thereby preventing the initiation of combustion, which itself is a radical reaction, in
order to delay ignition. When (CH3CH2)4Pb burns, it produces not only carbon dioxide and water, but also
lead:
(CH3CH2)4Pb + 13 O2 8 CO2 + 10 H2O + Pb
This lead can oxidize further to give species such as lead oxide:
2Pb + O2 2PbO
The Pb and PbO would quickly accumulate and destroy an engine. For this reason, lead scavengers such as
1,2-dibromoethane and 1,2-dichloroethane are used in conjunction with TEL - these agents form volatile
lead(II) bromide and lead(II) chloride, respectively, which are exhausted from the engine (and into the air).
[edit] Formulation of ethyl fluid
Tetra-ethyl lead was supplied for mixing with raw gasoline in the form of "ethyl fluid", which was tetraethyl lead blended together with the lead scavengers 1,2-dibromoethane and 1,2-dichloroethane. Ethyl fluid
also contained a reddish dye which would distinguish treated gasoline from untreated gasoline and
discourage the diversion of gasoline for other purposes such as cleaning.
Ethyl fluid was added to gasoline at rate of 1:1260, usually at the refinery. Because of the widespread use,
specialised and toxic nature of ethyl fluid, the Ethyl Corporation developed an expertise in the handling and
formulation of toxic organometallics. Despite this, some 17 workers for the Ethyl Corporation and Standard
Oil died during the 1920s from the effects of exposure to lead.
The classical formula for ethyl fluid is:
Tetraethyl lead 61.45%
1,2-Dibromoethane 17.85%
1,2-Dichloroethane 18.80%
Inerts & dye 1.90%
[edit] Uses of TEL as an antiknock agent
TEL was once used extensively as an additive in gasoline (petrol) for its ability to increase the fuel's octane
rating (that is, to prevent its premature detonation ("knocking") in the engine) thus allowing the use of
higher compression ratios for greater efficiency and power. The use of TEL in gasoline was started in the
US while in Europe alcohol was initially used. The advantages of ethyl gasoline from its higher energy
content and storage quality eventually led to a universal switch to leaded fuel. One of the greatest
advantages of TEL over other anti-knock agents or the use of high octane blend stocks is the very low
concentrations needed. Typical formulations called for 1 part of ethyl fluid (prepared TEL) to 1260 parts
untreated gasoline. Competing anti-knock agents must be used in higher amounts and/or have a much lower
energy level than natural gasoline. The higher energy content of ethyl gasoline results in greater fuel
efficiency.
When used as an antiknock agent, alcohol will cause fuel to absorb moisture from the air. Over time high
fuel humidity can rise leading to rusting and corrosion in the fuel line. Whereas TEL is highly soluble in
gasoline, ethanol is poorly soluble and that solubility decreases as fuel humidity increases. Over time
droplets and pools of water can form in the fuel system creating a risk for fuel line icing. High fuel humidity
can also raise issues of biological contamination, as certain bacteria can grow in on surface of the
water/gasoline interface thus forming bacterial mats in the fuel system. TEL's biocidal properties help
prevent fuel contamination and degradation from bacterial growth.
In most Western countries this additive went out of use in the late 20th century, because of the concerns
over air pollution. Use of TEL as a fuel additive would result in the fouling of catalytic converters. The need
for TEL was lessened by several advances in automotive engineering and petroleum chemistry. Lower oil
prices promoted the development of low compression engines that were not as sensitive to gasoline quality.
Other anti-knocking additives (MMT) and cheaper methods for making higher octane blending stocks
(reformate) reduced the need for TEL.
As of 2007, unleaded automotive gasoline is available throughout the world, and the only countries in which
leaded gasoline is extensively used are Yemen, Afghanistan and North Korea. Leaded gasoline is still
available in parts of Northwest Africa, Europe, Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), Iraq, Jordan
and the Palestinian territories.
TEL remains an ingredient of aviation gasoline and high-octane racing fuels. TEL is still in use today as a
component of 100 octane aviation fuel, as a suitable replacement for it in the aviation industry has not yet
been found. The current formulation of 100LL (low lead) aviation gasoline contains much less lead than did
historical aviation gasolines.
In earlier times many vehicles produced before TEL's phase-out required modification to a greater or lesser
extent to run successfully on unleaded gasoline. The installation of new hardened valve seats can be done by
a competent automotive machine shop. A major engine rebuild, generally by the use of dished pistons, is
required to reduce the compression ratio of some older high-performance engines (which required 100octane leaded fuel) to a ratio that is compatible with currently available gasoline ratings and this reform
necessarily entails a decrease in engine power. However by the 21st century additives were available to
allow continued use of even these sensitive engines, more or less to their normal function.
[edit] History
TEL was found to be an effective anti-knocking agent by Thomas Midgley in 1921, working under Charles
Kettering at General Motors Research.[2] Due to its extreme toxicity, many early researchers of TEL became
ill (including Midgley himself), and dozens died [1]. In 1924, Standard Oil of New Jersey (ESSO/EXXON)
and General Motors created the Ethyl Gasoline Corporation to produce and market TEL. In the US in 1972,
the EPA launched an initiative to phase out leaded gasoline, which caused Ethyl Corp. to sue the EPA. The
EPA won, so in 1976 the phase out began and was completed by 1986. A 1994 study indicated that the
concentration of lead in blood dropped 78% from 1978 to 1991 [2].
Leaded gasoline phased out European Union-wide on the 1st January 2000, although it had been banned
much earlier in some member states. It was only recently phased out in China (around 2001). In the United
Kingdom a small amount of leaded gasoline ("four star petrol") is still permitted to be manufactured and
sold [3], albeit with a higher rate of fuel duty.
Even though leaded gasoline is largely gone in North America, it has left high concentrations of lead in the
dirt adjacent to all roads that were constructed prior to its phaseout. Child development specialists often
advise parents to not let their children play in such dirt, especially because some children like to eat dirt (see
pica).
[edit] Alternative antiknock agents
Since the main problem with TEL is its lead content, many alternative additives that contain less poisonous
metals have been examined. Methylcyclopentadienyl Manganese Tricarbonyl (MMT or methylcymantrene)
is used as an antiknock agent in Canada, but its use as a fuel additive had been banned in the US until 1995.
Ferrocene has also been reported as an effective antiknock agent. It had also been established by 1921 that
ethanol was an effective antiknock agent, but TEL was introduced for mainly commercial reasons to replace
it.
Improvements of the gasoline itself decrease the need for separate antiknock agents. Synthetic iso-octane
and alkylate are examples of such blending stocks.
Bioaccumulation, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a toxic substance at a rate greater than that at which the
substance is lost. Thus, the longer the biological half-life of the substance the greater the risk of chronic
poisoning, even if environmental levels of the toxin are very low.
This is one reason why chronic poisoning is a common aspect of environmental health in the workplace. As
people spend so much time, for so many years in these environments, very low levels of toxins can be lethal
over time.
An example of poisoning in the workplace can be seen from the phrase "as mad as a hatter". The process for
stiffening the felt used in making hats involved mercury, which forms organic species such as
methylmercury, which is lipid soluble, and tends to accumulate in the brain resulting in mercury poisoning.
Other lipid (fat) soluble poisons include tetra-ethyl lead compounds (the lead in leaded petrol), and DDT.
These compounds are stored in the body's fat, and when the fatty tissues are used for energy, the compounds
are released and cause acute poisoning.
Strontium 90, part of the fallout from atomic bombs, is mistaken by the human body for calcium, and is laid
down in the bone, where its radiation can cause damage for a long time.
Naturally produced toxins can also bioaccumulate. The marine algal blooms known as "red tides" can result
in local filter feeding organisms such as mussels and oysters becoming toxic; coral fish can be responsible
for the poisoning known as ciguatera when they accumulate a toxin called ciguatoxin from reef algae.
Some animal species exhibit bioaccumulation as a mode of defense; by consuming toxic plants or animal
prey, a species may accumulate the toxin which then presents a deterrent to a potential predator. One
example is the tobacco hornworm, which concentrates nicotine to a toxic level in its body as it consumes
tobacco plants.
Other compounds that are not normally considered toxic can be accumulated to toxic levels in organisms.
The classic example is of Vitamin A, which becomes concentrated in carnivore livers of e.g. polar bears: as
a pure carnivore that feeds on other carnivores (seals), they accumulate extremely large amounts of Vitamin
A in their livers. It was known by the native peoples of the arctic that the livers should not be eaten, but
arctic explorers have suffered Hypervitaminosis A from eating the bear livers (and there has been at least
one example of similar poisoning of Antarctic explorers eating husky dog livers).
Food chain, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Food chains, food webs and/or food networks describe the feeding relationships between other species to
another within an ecosystem. Organisms are connected to the organisms they consume by arrows
representing the direction of biomass transfer. Typically a food chain or food web refers to a graph where
only connections are recorded, and a food network or ecosystem network refers to a network where the
connections are given weights representing the quantity of nutrients or energy being transferred.
[edit] Organisms represented in food chains
Primary producers, or autotrophs, are species capable of producing complex organic substances (essentially
"food") from an energy source and inorganic materials. These organisms are typically photosynthetic plants,
bacteria or algae, but in rare cases, like those organisms forming the base of deep-sea vent food webs, can
be chemotrophic. Organisms that get their energy by consuming organic substances are called heterotrophs.
Heterotrophs include herbivores, which obtain their energy by consuming live plants; carnivores, which
obtain energy from consuming live animals; as well as detritivores, scavengers and decomposers, which all
consume dead biomass.
A food chain is the flow of energy from one organism to the next. Organisms in a food chain are grouped
into trophic levels from the Greek word for nourishment, trophikos based on how many links they are
removed from the primary producers. Trophic levels may consist of either a single species or a group of
species that are presumed to share both predators and prey. They usually start with a primary producer and
end with a carnivore. The diagram at right is a food chain from a Swedish lake. It can be described as
follows: osprey feed on northern pike, that feed on perch, that eat bleak, that feed on freshwater shrimp.
Although they are not shown in this diagram, the base of this food chain is likely phytoplankton.
Phytoplankton are autotrophs, and are the base of the food chain by virtue of their ability to
photosynthesize. Phytoplankton, as well as attached algae form the base of most freshwater food chains. It is
often the case that biomass of each trophic level decreases from the base of the chain to the top. This is
because energy is lost to the environment with each transfer. On average, only 10% of the organism's energy
is passed on to its predator. The other 90% is used for the organisms life processes or is lost as heat to the
environment. Graphic representations of the biomass or productivity at each trophic level are called trophic
pyramids. In this food chain for example, the biomass of osprey is smaller than the biomass of pike, which
is smaller than the biomass of perch. Some producers, especially phytoplankton, are so productive and have
such a high turnover rate that they can actually support a larger biomass of grazers. This is called an
inverted pyramid, and can occur when consumers live longer and grow more slowly than the organisms they
consume. In this food chain, the productivity of phytoplankton is much greater than that of the zooplankton
consuming them. The biomass of the phytoplankton, however, may actually be less than that of the
copepods. Directly linked to this are pyramids of numbers, which show that as the chain is travelled along,
the number of consumers at each level drops very significantly, so that a single top consumer (e.g. a Polar
Bear) will be supported by literally millions of separate producers (e.g. Phytoplankton). Food chains are
overly simplistic as representatives of what typically happens in nature. The food chain shows only one
pathway of energy and material transfer. Most consumers feed on multiple species and are, in turn, fed upon
by multiple other species. The relations of detritivores and parasites are seldom adequately characterized in
such chains as well.The food chain has a producer, consumer, herbivore, carnivore, omnivore, decomposer.
[edit] Food web
A food web extends the food chain concept from a simple linear pathway to a complex network of
interactions. The earliest food webs were published by Victor Summerhayes and Charles Elton in 1923 and
Hardy in 1924. Summerhayes and Elton's (right) depicted the interactions of plants, animals and bacteria on
Bear Island, Norway,[1] while Hardy's food web showed the interactions of herring and plankton in the North
Sea.
The direct steps as shown in the food chain example above seldom reflect reality. This web makes it
possible to show much bigger animals (like a seal) eating very small organisms (like plankton). Food
sources of most species in an ecosystem are much more diverse, resulting in a complex web of relationships
as shown in the figure on the right. In this figure, the grouping of Algae Protozoa Oligochaeta
Northern Eider Arctic Fox is a food chain; the whole complex network is a food web.
Barium, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

[edit] Notable characteristics
Barium is a metallic element that is chemically similar to calcium but more reactive. This metal oxidizes
very easily when exposed to air and is highly reactive with water or alcohol, producing hydrogen gas.
Burning in air or oxygen produces not just barium oxide (BaO) but also the peroxide. Simple compounds of
this heavy element are notable for their high specific gravity. This is true of the most common bariumbearing mineral, its sulfate barite BaSO4, also called 'heavy spar' due to the high density (4.5 g/cm).
[edit] Applications
Barium has some medical and many industrial uses:
Barium compounds, and especially barite (BaSO4), are extremely important to the petroleum industry.
Barite is used in drilling mud, a weighting agent in drilling new oil wells.
Barium sulfate is radioopaque (x-ray absorbant), used in X-ray diagnostic work for obtaining images of the
digestive system ("barium meals" and "barium enemas").
Barium carbonate is a useful rat poison and can also be used in making bricks. Unlike the sulfate, the
carbonate dissolves in stomach acid, allowing it to be poisonous.
An alloy with nickel is used in spark plug wire.
Barium oxide is used in a coating for the electrodes of fluorescent lamps, which facilitates the release of
electrons.
The metal is a "getter" in vacuum tubes, to remove the last traces of oxygen.
Barium carbonate is used in glassmaking. Being a heavy element, barium increases the refractive index and
luster of the glass.
Barite is used extensively in rubber production.
Barium nitrate and chlorate give green colors in fireworks.
Impure barium sulfide phosphoresces after exposure to the light.
Lithopone, a pigment that contains barium sulfate and zinc sulfide, is a permanent white that has good
covering power, and does not darken in when exposed to sulfides.
Barium peroxide can be used as a catalyst to start an aluminothermic reaction when welding rail tracks
together. It can also be used in green tracer ammunition.
Barium titanate was proposed in 2007[1] to be used in next generation battery technology for electric cars.
Barium Fluoride is used in infrared applications.
Barium is a key element in YBCO superconductors.
[edit] History
[edit] Precautions
All water or acid soluble barium compounds are extremely poisonous. At low doses, barium acts as a
muscle stimulant, while higher doses affect the nervous system, causing cardiac irregularities, tremors,
weakness, anxiety, dyspnea and paralysis. This may be due to its ability to block potassium ion channels
which are critical to the proper function of the nervous system.
Barium sulfate can be used in medicine only because it does not dissolve, and is eliminated completely from
the digestive tract. Unlike other heavy metals, barium does not bioaccumulate.[1] However, inhaled barium
dust can accumulate in the lungs, a benign condition called baritosis.
Oxidation occurs very easily and, to remain pure, barium should be kept under a petroleum-based fluid
(such as kerosene) or other suitable oxygen-free liquids that exclude air.
Barium acetate could lead to death in high doses. Marie Robards poisoned her father with the substance in
Texas in 1993. She was tried and convicted in 1996.
Aluminium, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

of 1.2 Kelvin.[citation needed]
[edit] Applications
[edit] General use
Aluminium foam
[edit] Precautions
Aluminium is a neurotoxin that alters the function of the blood-brain barrier.[20] It is one of the few abundant
elements that appears to have no beneficial function to living cells. A small percent of people are allergic to
it they experience contact dermatitis from any form of it: an itchy rash from using styptic or
antiperspirant products, digestive disorders and inability to absorb nutrients from eating food cooked in
aluminium pans, and vomiting and other symptoms of poisoning from ingesting such products as Amphojel,
and Maalox (antacids). In other people, aluminium is not considered as toxic as heavy metals, but there is
evidence of some toxicity if it is consumed in excessive amounts. The use of aluminium cookware, popular
because of its corrosion resistance and good heat conduction, has not been shown to lead to aluminium
toxicity in general. Excessive consumption of antacids containing aluminium compounds and excessive use
of aluminium-containing antiperspirants are more likely causes of toxicity. In research published in the
Journal of Applied Toxicology, Dr. Philippa D. Darby of the University of Reading has shown that
aluminium salts increase estrogen-related gene expression in human breast cancer cells grown in the
laboratory. These salts' estrogen-like effects have lead to their classification as a metalloestrogen.
It has been suggested that aluminium is a cause of Alzheimer's disease, as some brain plaques have been
found to contain the metal. Research in this area has been inconclusive; aluminium accumulation may be a
consequence of the Alzheimer's damage, not the cause. In any event, if there is any toxicity of aluminium it
must be via a very specific mechanism, since total human exposure to the element in the form of naturally
occurring clay in soil and dust is enormously large over a lifetime.[21][22]
Mercury applied to the surface of an aluminium alloy can damage the protective oxide surface film by
forming amalgam. This may cause further corrosion and weakening of the structure. For this reason,
mercury thermometers are not allowed on many airliners, as aluminium is used in many aircraft structures.
Powdered aluminium can react with Fe2O3 to form Fe and Al2O3. This mixture is known as thermite, which
burns with a high energy output. Thermite can be produced inadvertently during grinding operations, but the
high ignition temperature makes incidents unlikely in most workshop environments.
[edit] Aluminium and plants (phytoremediation)
Aluminium is primary among the factors that contribute to the loss of plant production on acid soils.
Although it is generally harmless to plant growth in pH-neutral soils, the concentration in acid soils of toxic
Al3+ cations increases and disturbs root growth and function.
Wheat's adaptation to allow aluminium tolerance is such that the aluminium induces a release of organic
compounds that bind to the harmful aluminium cations. Sorghum is believed to have the same tolerance
mechanism. The first gene for aluminium tolerance has been identified in wheat. A group in the U.S.
Department of Agriculture showed that sorghum's aluminium tolerance is controlled by a single gene, as for
wheat. This is not the case in all plants.
Lead poisoning, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Lead poisoning is a medical condition, also known as saturnism, plumbism or painter's colic, caused by
increased blood lead levels. Lead may cause irreversible neurological damage as well as renal disease,
cardiovascular effects, and reproductive toxicity.
Humans have been mining and using this heavy metal for thousands of years, poisoning themselves in the
process due to accumulation and exposure. The dangers have also long been known. Reducing the hazard
requires both individual actions and public policy regulations. Blood lead levels once considered safe are
now considered hazardous, with no known threshold.[3]
[edit] History
Lead was first mined in Asia Minor (today Turkey) about 6500 BC. A 6000- to 8000-year-old lead necklace
was found in the ancient city site of Anatolia. Lead's easy workability, low melting point and corrosion
resistance were among its attractions.
Lead toxicity was first recognized as early as 2000 BC. Nicander of Colophon wrote of lead-induced anemia
and colic in 250 BC.[1] Gout, prevalent in affluent Rome, is thought to be the result of lead, or leaded eating
and drinking vessels. Lead was used in makeup. Sugar of lead (lead(II) acetate) was used to sweeten wine,
and the gout that resulted from this was known as saturnine gout.[2]
Aulus Cornelius Celsus, writing ca. 30 AD, listed white lead on a list of poisons with antidotes (beside
cantharides, hemlock, hyoscyamus, poisoned mushrooms, and a swallowed leech), and claimed it could be
remedied by mallow or walnut juice rubbed up in wine,[3] an interesting idea.[4][5] Despite his awareness
of lead's toxicity, citing many contemporary authorities, Celsus recommended its use in a wide range of
ointments applied to wounds to stop bleeding and reduce infection or inflammation.[6]
Julius Caesar's engineer, Vitruvius, who also served his successor Caesar Augustus, reported, "Water is
much more wholesome from earthenware pipes than from lead pipes. For it seems to be made injurious by
lead, because white lead paint is produced from it; and this is said to be harmful to the human body."[7] It
should be noted that the prevalence of lead poisoning, at least that caused by drinking water containing lead,
in ancient Rome is far less than what is traditionally believed. The hardness of Rome's water caused heavy
deposits of calcium carbonate to form on pipes and in turn prevented the lead of the pipes from coming into
contact with the water, thus reducing any chance of getting lead poisoning from drinking water. The calcium
deposits takes some time to collect. Older homes have the potential for less lead exposure where new homes
with fresh pipes, connections and construction residue have a good potential for lead poisoning of
occupants.
In 17th-century Germany, an Ulm physician noticed that monks who did not drink wine were healthy, while
wine drinkers developed colic. The culprit was sugar of lead, made by simmering litharge with vinegar.[8]
Ludwig van Beethoven suffered many years and died due of lead poisoning, though the cause has not been
traced to sweetened wine.
Chinese alchemists found that lead could be rendered harmless by soaking it in blood and firing it. When
this process was repeated several times it provided a protective coat that lead could not pass. The only
notable use of this measure was by martial artists so they could use the heavy metal as weights for training.
Today, most exposure in developed countries is the result of occupational hazards, leaded paint, and leaded
gasoline (which continues to be phased out in most countries). Lead poising interferes with the normal
development of the brain.
The term "lead poisoning" is sometimes used as a dysphemism for gunshot wounds, as almost all bullets are
mainly composed of lead. Despite this, bullets lodged in the body rarely cause significant levels of lead
poisoning.[9] Bullets lodged in the joints are the exception, as they deteriorate and release lead into the body
over time.[10]
[edit] Symptoms and effects
The symptoms of chronic lead poisoning include neurological problems, such as reduced cognitive abilities,
or nausea, abdominal pain, irritability, insomnia, metal taste in oral cavity, excess lethargy or hyperactivity,
headache and, in extreme cases, seizure and coma. There are also associated gastrointestinal problems, such
as constipation, diarrhea, vomiting, poor appetite, weight loss, which are common in acute poisoning. Other
associated effects are anemia, kidney problems, and reproductive problems.
In humans, lead toxicity sometimes causes the formation of a bluish line along the gums, which is known as
the "Burton's line", although this is very uncommon in young children. Blood film examination may reveal
"basophilic stippling" of red blood cells, as well as the changes normally associated with iron deficiency
anemia (microcytosis and hypochromia).
Lead affects the peripheral and central nervous system. The most common sign of peripheral neuropathy
due to chronic lead poisoning is painless wristdrop (weakness of the extensor muscles of hand) which
usually develops after many weeks of exposure.
A direct link between early lead exposure and extreme learning disability has been confirmed by multiple
researchers and child advocacy groups.
A May 2000 study by economic consultant Rick Nevin theorizes that lead exposure explains 65% to 90% of
the variation in violent crime rates in the U.S. and other countries.[11][12]. The results were discussed in the
July Washington Post article, reviving interest in the subject[13]. The result is somewhat supported by
Dartmouth Political Scientist Roger D. Masters' work,[14] and similar work is being done by other
researchers. Amherst economist Jessica Reyes' working paper,[15] Masters' work are both pre-publication and
available online.
[edit] Biological role
Lead has no known biological role in the body. The toxicity comes from its ability to mimic other
biologically important metals, the most notable of which are calcium, iron and zinc. Lead is able to bind to
and interact with the same proteins and molecules as these metals, but after displacement, those molecules
function differently and fail to carry out the same reactions, such as in producing enzymes necessary for
certain biological processes.
Most lead poisoning symptoms are thought to occur by interfering with an essential enzyme Deltaaminolevulinic acid dehydratase, or ALAD. ALAD is a zinc-binding protein which is important in the
biosynthesis of heme, the cofactor found in hemoglobin. Lead poisoning also inhibits the enzyme
ferrochelatase which catalyzes the joining of protoporphyrin IX and Fe2+ to form a Heme. Genetic
mutations of ALAD cause the disease porphyria, a disease which was highlighted in the movie The
Madness of King George. Lead poisoning is sometimes mistaken for porphyria but the distinction is that
lead poisoning usually causes anemia while true porphyria does not.
An article on Lead Encephalopathy on Emedicine states:
Lead also interferes with excitatory neurotransmission by glutamate, which is the transmitter at more than half the
synapses in the brain and is critical for learning. The glutamate receptor thought to be associated with neuronal
development and plasticity is the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor, which is blocked selectively by lead. This
disrupts long-term potentiation, which compromises the permanent retention of newly learned information. [16]
The January 2004 edition of Scientific American magazine contained an article on schizophrenia that said
the latest research:
... implies that their brain circuits reliant on NMDA receptors are out of kilter. If reduced NMDA receptor activity
prompts schizophrenia's symptoms, what then causes this reduction? The answer still remains unclear.
However, a Johns Hopkins report by Tomas Guilarte stated:

It has been known for some time that lead is a potent inhibitor of the NMDA receptor, a protein known to play an
important role in brain development and cognition. In this study we demonstrate that lead exposure decreased the
amount of NMDA receptor gene and protein in a part of the brain called the hippocampus. [17]
Ezra Susser and his colleagues at Columbia University in New York followed 12,000 children born in
Oakland, California, between 1959 and 1966, whose mothers had given samples of blood serum while they
were pregnant, which were frozen and stored for later analysis. They found that children who had been
exposed to high levels of lead in the womb were more than twice as likely to go on to develop
schizophrenia. Their research was presented at the 2004 annual meeting of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science in Seattle, Washington.
Lead poisoning can also be fatal.
[edit] Occurrence
Outside of occupational hazards, the majority of lead poisoning occurs in children under age twelve. The
main sources of poisoning are from ingestion of lead contaminated soil (this is less of a problem in countries
that no longer have leaded gasoline) and from ingestion of lead dust or chips from deteriorating lead-based
paints. This is particularly a problem in older houses where the sweet-tasting lead paint is likely to chip, but
deteriorating lead-based paint can also powder and be inhaled. Small children also tend to teethe and suck
on painted windowsills as they look outside. In most American states, landlords and those selling such
houses are required to inform the potential residents of the danger.
Lead has also been found in drinking water. It can come from plumbing and fixtures that are either made of
lead or have trace amounts of lead in them.[18] Exposure to metallic lead such as small lead objects, can
rarely lead to an increase in blood lead levels if the lead is retained in the gastrointestinal tract or appendix.
Lead can also be found in some imported cosmetics such as Kohl, from the Middle East, India, Pakistan,
and some parts of Africa, and Surma from India and from imported toys, such as many made in China.
There are also risks of elevated blood lead levels caused by folk remedies like Azarcon which contains 95
percent lead and is used to "cure" empacho. For more information about less common causes of elevated
blood lead levels, see footnote.[19]
Lead may be contracted through the mucous membranes through direct contact to mouth, nose, eyes, and
breaks in skin.
GRUPA 16: Stoica J., Popa, Minc

[edit] Measurement
One measure of lead in the body is the blood lead level (BLL), measured in micrograms of lead per deciliter
of blood (g/dL). Nearly everyone has a measurable BLL. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC) states that a BLL of 10 g/dL or above is a cause for concern. However, lead can impair
development even at BLLs below 10 g/dL.[20] However, BLL measures current exposure to lead, but lead
may also be incorporated into bone from prior exposures that will not show in BLLs until this bone-lead
becomes "mobilized" through pregnancy or fracture healing. A fetus can be poisoned in utero if its mother
had high bone-lead from either childhood exposure or a later occupational or other exposure that is
subsequently mobilized by the fetal need for calcium. K-fluorescent X-ray metering can measure bone-lead.
Portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF) equipment can be used to measure lead concentrations and exposures in
the field, from lead paint, children's toys, etc. Simple inexpensive test kits are available, which show color
changes based on chemical reactions, but they are inexact.
[edit] Exposures and demographics
The average person has less than 10 micrograms per deciliter, or 100 parts per billion, ppb, of lead in their
blood. People who have been exposed to an unusual amount of lead will have blood lead levels higher than
200 ppbmost clinical symptoms of lead poisoning begin at around 100 ppb. The effect on children's
mental/cognitive abilities has been noted at very low levels.[21] The levels found today in most people are
orders of magnitude greater than that of ancient times. These levels are within an order of magnitude of
levels that have resulted in adverse health effects.[22] Blood lead levels once considered safe are now
considered hazardous, with no known threshold.[23]
[edit] Pathways
Today almost everyone is exposed to environmental lead. Exposure to lead and lead chemicals can occur
through inhalation, ingestion or occasionally dermal contact. Lead mining and lead smelting are common in
many countries, where children and adults can receive substantial lead exposure from sources uncommon
today in the U.S. Most countries will have phased out use of leaded gasoline by 2007. Lead exposure in the
general population (including children) occurs primarily through ingestion, although inhalation also
contributes to lead body burden and may be the major contributor for workers in lead-related occupations.
Inhalation is the second major pathway of exposure. Almost all inhaled lead is absorbed into the body,
whereas from 20% to 70% of ingested lead is absorbed (with children generally absorbing a higher
percentage than adults do). Dermal exposure plays a role for exposure to organic lead among workers, but is
not considered a significant pathway for the general population, except in areas where leaded gasoline is
used. Organic lead from gasoline additives may be absorbed directly through the skin.[24]
[edit] Children
Lead-contaminated household dust is the major source of lead exposure to children in the U.S.[25] In 1978
there were 13.5 million children in the United States with elevated blood lead levels (i.e., 10g/dl). By
2002, that number had dropped to 310,000 kids.[26] The U.S. incurs $43.4 billion annually in the costs of all
pediatric environmental disease, with childhood lead poisoning alone accounting for the vast majority of it.
[27]
[edit] Adults
Although children are at greater risk from lead exposure, adult exposures can also result in harmful health
effects. Most adult exposures are occupational and occur in lead-related industries such as lead smelting,
refining, and manufacturing industries. One frequent source of lead exposure to adults is home renovation
that involves scraping, remodeling, or otherwise disturbing lead-based paint. Adults can also be exposed
during certain hobbies and activities where lead is used. Workers may inhale lead dust and lead oxide fumes,
as well as eat, drink, and smoke in or near contaminated areas, thereby increasing their probability of lead
ingestion. Between 0.5 and 1.5 million US workers are exposed to lead in the workplace (ATSDR, 1999).
Other than the developmental effects unique to young children, the health effects experienced by adults
from adult exposures are similar to those experienced by children, although the thresholds are generally
higher.[28]
[edit] Regulation
[edit] US Rules and Regulations
See United States Environmental Protection Agency: Rules and Regulations for its jurisdiction and
regulations.
"In 1998, the US Government instituted regulations which limit the amount of lead in toys and other
consumer products which are expected to be used by infants to 0.06% (or 600 ppm)."[29]
Ten g/dL (micrograms /deciliter) was adopted by CDC in 1991 as an action level for children, an advisory
level for environmental and educational intervention. There are requirements that children receiving
Medicaid be screened. Most states ask or require primary care physicians and persons in charge of screening
programs to report both presumptive and confirmed cases of lead toxicity to the appropriate health agency.
This is to ensure abatement of the lead source, education of the patient, and remediation steps are
undertaken. In some states, the clinical laboratories performing blood lead testing are required to report
cases of lead toxicity.
Workplace Air
The OSHA Lead Standard specifies the permissible exposure limit (PEL) of lead in the workplace, the
frequency and extent of medical monitoring, and other responsibilities of the employer. OSHA has set a
PEL (enforceable) of lead in workplace air at 50 g/m3 averaged over an 8-hour workday for workers in
general industry. NIOSH at CDC has set a Recommended Exposure Limit (REL) of 50 g/m3 to be
maintained so that worker blood lead remains < 60 g/dL of whole blood.[30] The ACGIH has set a threshold
limit value for a time-weighted average (TLV/TWA) of 50 g/m3 for lead in workplace air (except for lead
arsenate).[31]
The NIOSH Adult Blood Lead Epidemiology and Surveillance (ABLES) program , a state-based
surveillance program of laboratory-reported adult blood lead levels works to reduce the rate of adults(age 16
or older) who have blood lead levels of 25 micrograms per deciliter (mcg/dL) or greater.[32]
Lead contaminated soil can pose a risk through direct ingestion, uptake in vegetable gardens, or tracking
into homes. Uncontaminated soil contains lead concentrations less than 50 ppm but soil lead levels in many
urban areas exceed 200 ppm. (AAP 1993) The EPAs standard for lead in bare soil in play areas is 400 ppm
by weight and 1200 ppm for non-play areas. This regulation applies to cleanup projects using federal funds.
The soil screening level (SSL) for lead represents a conservative estimate for a level that would be
protective of public health in residential soils based on an analysis of the direct ingestion pathway for
children.
EPA has set drinking water standards with two levels of protection. The maximum contaminant level goal
(MCLG) is zero. This is the level determined to be safe by toxicological and biomedical considerations,
independent of feasibility. EPAs final rule establishes an action level is set at 15 g/L. The use of lead
solder and other lead-containing materials in connecting household plumbing to public water supplies was
banned by EPA as of June 1988.
FDA has set a number of action levels (enforceable) and levels of concern for lead in various food items.
These levels are based on FDA calculations of the amount of lead a person can consume without ill affect.
FDA has set an action level of 0.5 g/mL for lead in products intended for use by infants and children and
has banned the use of lead-soldered food cans. (FDA 1994 and FDA 1995 as cited in ATSDR 1999)
House paint contained up to 50% lead before 1955. Federal law lowered the amount of lead allowable in
paint to 1% in 1971. The CPSC has limited since 1977 the lead in most paints to 0.06% (600 ppm by dry
weight). Paint for bridges and marine use may contain greater amounts of lead.[33]
Both the federal government and the state of Massachusetts are considering (as of September 2007) action
against lead in childrens jewelry. "But Mr. Durbin said he was disappointed with Ms. Nord and the safety
commission, which he said did not appear to be attacking the problem aggressively enough, including
moving too slowly to institute and enforce a ban on lead in childrens jewelry. He also mocked a new
agreement with Chinese officials to block lead in toys, saying that the Chinese government told his office
the policy had long been in place."[34]
[edit] Treatment
Although the most important part of treating lead poisoning is decreasing exposure to lead, there are some
forms of chelation therapy that can be used to reduce existing BLL levels: DMSA , EDTA , British antiLewisite
Additionally, a comparative study of chelating agents showed that vitamin C (ascorbic acid), along with
DMSA, CDTA and DMPS increased survival in an animal model of lead intoxication, while EGTA, Nacetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) and various other agents did not.[35] High serum levels of vitamin C have been
associated with a decreased prevalence of elevated blood lead levels[36] and intervention with supplemental
vitamin C was shown to markedly decrease lead levels in smokers (mean: 81 %). Authors hypothesize,
however, that this effect might be due to an inhibition of lead absorption.[37]
[edit] Famous cases of lead poisoning
Much of Ancient Rome's affluent class suffered from lead-induced gout.[38]
The Devon colic was caused by the presence of lead in cider in 18th century Devon.
Many historians have believed that Ludwig van Beethoven suffered from lead poisoning. This belief has
been confirmed in 2005 by tests done at Argonne National Laboratory in the US on skull bone fragments,
confirming earlier tests on hair samples.
Francisco Goya was considered skilled but unremarkable until he contracted lead poisoning in his late
forties and painted a series of disturbing paintings called "the Caprices."[39]
George Frideric Handel is believed to have acquired saturnine gout through port wine.[40]
Lead shot for hunting ducks and other waterfowl in wetland areas is often restricted because waterfowl can
ingest spent shot while feeding from the bottom of lakes and ponds. Non-toxic alternatives such as bismuth
or powdered metal/polymer shot is manufactured specifically for use in restricted habitat areas.[citation needed]
Operation of a smelter in Trail, British Columbia contributed to higher than average blood lead levels in
children living in Trail compared to nearby communities.[citation needed]
In 1845, a crew of 128 gathering magnetic data in the Canadian Arctic, under the leadership of John
Franklin, are thought to have died from lead poisoning among other things. The canned food on board was
sealed in tin cans with lead solder. The lead is thought to have leaked into the food and driven the men mad.
[41]
Mercury poisoning, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Mercury poisoning (also known as mercurialism or hydrargyria, or acrodynia when affecting children) is a
disease caused by exposure to mercury or its toxic compounds. Mercury is a cumulative heavy metal poison
which occurs in its elemental form, inorganically as salts, or organically as organomercury compounds; the
three groups vary in effects due to differences in their absorption and metabolism, among other factors.[1]
However, with sufficient exposure all mercury-based toxins damage the central nervous system and other
organs or organ systems such as the liver or gastrointestinal tract.
Symptoms typically include sensory impairment (vision, hearing, speech), disturbed sensation and a lack of
coordination. The type and degree of symptoms exhibited depend up on the individual toxin, the dose, and
the method and duration of exposure.
Due to its toxicity, there have been campaigns in many countries to ban mercury altogether.
[edit] Signs and symptoms
Common symptoms include peripheral neuropathy (presenting as paresthesia or itching, burning or pain),
skin discoloration (pink cheeks, fingertips and toes), edema (swelling) and desquamation.
Since mercury blocks the degradation pathway of catecholamines, epinephrine excess causes hyperhidrosis
(profuse sweating), tachycardia, mercurial ptyalism (hypersalivation) and hypertension (high blood
pressure). Mercury is thought to inactivate S-adenosyl-methionine, which is necessary for catecholamine
catabolism by catechol-o-methyl transferase.
Affected children may show red cheeks and nose, erythematous lips (red lips), loss of hair, teeth, and nails,
transient rashes, hypotonia and photophobia. Other symptoms may include kidney disfunction (e.g. Fanconi
syndrome) or neuropsychiatric symptoms (emotional lability, memory impairment, insomnia).
Thus, the clinical presentation may resemble pheochromocytoma or Kawasaki disease.
[edit] Causes
Mercury poisoning is caused by sufficient exposure to elemental mercury or mercury compounds.

[edit] Sources of exposure
Exposure to mercury can occur from breathing contaminated air.[2] The majority of mercury pollution comes
from industrial emissions, especially from the burning of fossil fuels--particularly high-sulfur coal. Other
industrial sources include mercury mining and smelting, chloralkali process plants, and organic mercurial
pesticides.[3] Improper use or disposal of mercury and mercury-containing objects can also cause mercury
exposure, for example, after spills of elemental mercury or improper disposal of fluorescent light bulbs.[4]
Other sources of mercury vapour include crematoriums, waste incinerators, and volcanoes.[4]
Mercury exposure can also occur by ingestion of contaminated food and water. The consumption of fish is
by far the most significant source of ingestion-related mercury exposure in humans, although plants and
livestock also contain mercury due to bioaccumulation of mercury from soil, water and atmosphere, and due
to biomagnification by ingesting other mercury-containing organisms.[5]
Mercury and many of its chemical compounds, especially organomercury compounds, can also be readily
absorbed through direct contact with bare, or in some cases (such as dimethyl mercury) insufficiently
protected, skin. Mercury and its compounds are commonly used in chemical laboratories, hospitals, dental
clinics, and facilities involved in the production of items such as fluorescent light bulbs, batteries, and
explosives.[6]
[edit] Toxic effects
Mercury damages the central nervous system, endocrine system, kidneys, and other organs, and adversely
affects the mouth, gums, and teeth. Exposure over long periods of time or heavy exposure to mercury vapor
can result in brain damage and ultimately death. Mercury and its compounds are particularly toxic to fetuses
and infants. Women who have been exposed to mercury in pregnancy have sometimes given birth to
children with serious birth defects (see Minamata disease).
Mercury exposure in young children can have severe neurological consequences, preventing nerve sheaths
from forming properly. Mercury inhibits the formation of myelin, the building block protein that forms these
sheaths.[7]
There is some evidence that mercury poisoning may predispose to Young's syndrome (men with
bronchiectasis and low sperm count).[8]
Mercury poisoning in the young has been hypothesized as a cause of autistic behaviors.[9][10] This hypothesis
is controversial, as much evidence suggests that about 90% of autism is explained by genetics.[11] The
hypothesis has not been confirmed by reliable studies.[12]
Mercury poisoning's effects partially depend on whether it has been caused by exposure to elemental
mercury, inorganic mercury compounds (as salts), or organomercury compounds.
[edit] Elemental mercury
Pure elemental mercury is moderately absorbed through the skin, rather poorly absorbed through the
gastrointestinal tract (often passing through unabsorbed), and readily absorbed as vapor through the lungs.
The element is strongly toxic when absorbed as vapor from the respiratory tract, but it is considerably less
so when exposure occurs via other routes.
[edit] Inorganic mercury compounds
Mercury occurs inorganically as salts such as mercury(II) chloride. Mercury salts primarily affect the
gastro-intestinal tract and the kidneys, and can cause severe kidney damage; however, as they can not cross
the blood-brain barrier easily, mercury salts inflict little neurological damage without continuous or heavy
exposure.[13] As two oxidation states of mercury form salts (Hg+1 and Hg+2), mercury salts occur in both
mercury(I) (or mercurous) and mercury(II) (mercuric) forms. Mercury(II) salts are usually more toxic than
their mercury(I) counterparts because their solubility in water is greater; thus, they are more readily
absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract.[13]
[edit] Organic mercury compounds
Compounds of mercury tend to be much more toxic than the element itself, and organic compounds of
mercury are often extremely toxic and have been implicated in causing brain and liver damage. The most
dangerous mercury compound, dimethyl mercury, is so toxic that even a few microliters spilled on the skin,
or even a latex glove, can cause death.[14][15] Dimethylmercury can be fatal within hours or less.[citation needed]
One of the chief targets of the toxin is the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH). The enzyme is
irreversibly inhibited by several mercury compounds, the lipoic acid component of the multienzyme
complex binds mercury compounds tightly (mercury binds to the sulfur atoms in lipoic acid) and thus
inhibits PDH.
Through bioaccumulation in the environment, methyl mercury works its way up the food chain, reaching
high concentrations among populations of some species. Larger species of fish, such as tuna or swordfish,
are usually of greater concern than smaller species. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) advises
women of child-bearing age and children to completely avoid swordfish, shark, king mackerel and tilefish
and to limit consumption of king crab, snow crab, albacore tuna and tuna steaks to 6 oz. or less per week.
However, there is no evidence that moderate consumption of fish in the U.S. poses a significant health
hazard. One recent Harvard Medical School study of mothers and their infants suggests that the nutritional
benefits of eating fish outweighs the potential drawbacks of methylmercury.[16] In the study, each additional
weekly serving of fish consumed by the mother during pregnancy was associated with an increase in infant
cognition.
Ethylmercury is a breakdown product of the antibacteriological agent thimerosal which has effects similar
but not identical to methyl mercury.
[edit] Treatment
The Standard of Care for mercury poisoning is chelation therapy using DMSA (in U.S.), DMPS and ALA
(in Europe, Russia and former Soviet republics). A study of workers involved in the production of
mercurous chloride, showed that the sodium salt of 2,3-dimercapto-1-propanesulfonic acid (DMPS) was
effective in lowering the body burden of mercury and in decreasing the urinary mercury concentration to
normal levels.[17]
Alternative medicine makes use of these same substances along with others, such as vitamin C (ascorbic
acid), EDTA and "high sulfur foods". However, it has been shown that inorganic mercury (Hg2+) bound to
EDTA (a necessary step in EDTA-induced mercury chelation) forms a complex (HgEDTA) that is
"potentially injurious to the neuronal cytoskeleton".[18]
Some of the toxic effects of mercury are in some cases partially or wholly reversible, either through specific
therapy or through natural elimination of the metal after exposure has been discontinued. However, heavy or
prolonged exposure can do irreversible damage, particularly in fetuses, infants, and young children.
[edit] Prevention
Mercury poisoning can be prevented (or minimized) by eliminating or reducing exposure to mercury and
mercury compounds. To that end, many governments and private groups have made efforts to avoid
common hazards or to ban mercury altogether.
[edit] Regulations
There have been growing efforts to limit exposure from all sources. For children, these efforts have centered
on reducing mercury exposure in its organic form by limiting consumption of contaminated fish such as
tuna and swordfish, and fish caught from mercury-contaminated waters. (AAP advocacy)
As a precautionary measure, thimerosal, a mercury-containing preservative is being eliminated from
vaccines as quickly as manufacturers can alter their production processes and obtain FDA approval. (AAP
advocacy)
AAP recommends that pediatricians stop using all mercury-containing devices, including thermometers, and
encourage parents to do the same. (AAP advocacy)
The variability among regulations and advisories are at times confusing for the lay person as well as
scientists.
Regulating
Regulated
Type of mercury
Country
Medium
Type of limit
Limit
Agency
activity
compound
occupational
Ceiling (not to
US
OSHA
air
elemental mercury
0.1 mg/m
exposure
exceed)
occupational
Ceiling (not to
US
OSHA
air
organic mercury
0.05 mg/m
exposure
exceed)
Maximum
2 ppb
US
FDA
drinking
water
inorganic mercury allowable
(0.002mg/L)
concentration
Maximum
US
FDA
eating
sea food
methyl mercury allowable
1 ppm
concentration
Maximum
2 ppb
US
EPA
drinking
water
inorganic mercury
Contaminant Level (0.002mg/L)
[19]
[edit] Occurrences of mercury poisoning

The phrase "Mad as a hatter" is likely a reference to mercury poisoning, as mercury-based compounds were
once used in the manufacture of felt hats in the 18th and 19th century.[1]
From 1932 to 1968 methyl mercury was released into the sea around the city of Minamata in Kumamoto
prefecture, Japan. The toxin bioaccumulated in fish, which when eaten by the local population caused the
largest case of mercury poisoning known. Minamata disease caused the deaths of over 1000 people and
permanently disabled a great many more.
Another case of widespread mercury poisoning occurred in rural Iraq in 1971-1972, when grain treated with
a methyl mercury-based fungicide that was intended for planting only was used by the rural population to
make bread.
In December 1997, a chemistry professor, Karen Wetterhahn, working at Dartmouth College in the United
States spilled a drop of dimethyl mercury on her latex glove. She began experiencing the symptoms of
mercury poisoning within 5 months of the exposure and, despite treatment, died a few months later.[14][15]
In April of 2000, Alan Chmurny attempted to kill a former employee, Marta Bradley, by pouring mercury
into the ventilation system of her car.[20]
The first emperor of unified China, Qin Shi Huang Di, was driven insane and killed by mercury pills
intended to give him eternal life.
[edit] Acrodynia epidemic
Acrodynia is a type of mercury poisoning in children characterized by pain and pink discoloration of the
hands and feet. The word is derived from the Greek, where means high (as in:in an extremity) and
means pain. As such, it might be (erroneously) used to indicate that a patient has pain in the hands or
feet. However, acrodynia is a disease rather than a symptom.[21] Also known as pink disease, erythredema,
Selter's disease, or Swift-Feer disease, acrodynia was relatively commonplace amongst children in the first
half of the 20th century.[22] Initially, the cause of the acrodynia epidemic among infants and young children
was unknown; however, mercury poisoning, primarily from calomel in teething powders, began to be
widely accepted as its cause in the 1950s and 60s.[22] The prevalence of acrodynia decreased greatly after
calomel was excluded from most teething powders in 1954.[22]
[edit] Medical procedures
Because elemental mercury often passes through the GI tract without being absorbed, it was used medically
for various purposes until the dangers of mercury poisoning became known. For example, elemental
mercury was used to mechanically clear intestinal obstructions (due to its great weight and fluidity), and it
was a key ingredient in various medicines throughout history, such as blue mass. The toxic effects often
were either not noticed at all, or so subtle or generic that they were attributed to other causes and were not
recognized as poisoning caused by mercury. While the usage of mercury in medicine has declined, mercurycontaining compounds are still used medically in vaccines and dental amalgam, both of which have been the
subject of controversy regarding their potential for mercury poisoning.
[edit] Thimerosal
For more details on this topic, see Thimerosal controversy.
Thimerosal, a preservative that contains mercury, has been added to vaccines to prevent their deterioration
since the 1930s.[23] No adverse effects of thimerosal have ever been proven, although some allergic reactions
have been noted.[citation needed] However, organizations such as the American Academy of Pediatrics have
recommended that the use of thimerosal be reduced as a precautionary measure. Today, with the exception
of some flu vaccines, none of the vaccines used in the United States to protect preschool children against
twelve infectious diseases contains thimerosal as a preservative.[24]
[edit] Dental amalgam
For more details on this topic, see Dental amalgam controversy.
In recent years, some concern has arisen about the potential toxicity of mercury amalgam in dental
restorative procedures (i.e., in tooth fillings).
[edit] Mercury poisoning from cosmetics
Some skin whitening products contain the toxic chemical mercury(II) chloride as the active ingredient.
When applied, the chemical readily absorbs through the skin into bloodstream.[25][26] The use of mercury in
cosmetics is illegal in the United States. However, cosmetics containing mercury are often illegally
imported. Following a certified case of mercury poisoning resulting from the use of an imported skin
whitening product, the FDA warned against the use of such products.[27][28][29] Symptoms of mercury
poisoning have resulted from the use of various mercury-containing cosmetic products.[30][31][32] The use of
skin whitening products is especially popular amongst Asian women.[33] In Hong Kong in 2002, two
products were discovered to contain between 9,000 to 60,000 times the recommended dose. [34]
Thallium, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Thallium is highly toxic and is used in rat poisons and insecticides but since it might also cause cancer
(although the United States EPA does not class it as carcinogen), this use has been cut back or eliminated in
many countries. It is also used in infrared detectors.[2] It has even been used in some murders, earning the
nicknames "The Poisoner's Poison" and "Inheritance powder" (alongside arsenic).
[edit] Toxicity
Thallium and its compounds are very toxic, and should be handled with great care. Contact with skin is
dangerous, and adequate ventilation should be provided when melting this metal. Thallium(I) compounds
have a high aqueous solubility and are readily absorbed through the skin. Exposure to them should not
exceed 0.1 mg per m of skin in an 8-hour time-weighted average (40-hour work week). Thallium is a
suspected human carcinogen.
Part of the reason for thallium's high toxicity is that, when present in aqueous solution as the univalent
thallium(I) ion (Tl+), it exhibits some similarities with essential alkali metal cations, particularly potassium
(as the atomic radius is almost identical). It can thus enter the body via potassium uptake pathways.
However, other aspects of thallium's chemistry are very different from that of the alkali metals (e.g. its high
affinity for sulfur ligands due to the presence of empty d-orbitals), and so this substitution disrupts many
cellular processes (for instance, thallium may attack sulphur-containing proteins such as cysteine residues
and ferredoxins).
Thallium's toxicity has led to its use (now discontinued in many countries) as a rat and ant poison.
Among the distinctive effects of thallium poisoning are loss of hair (which led it to its initial use as a
depilatory before its toxicity was properly appreciated) and damage to peripheral nerves (victims may
experience a sensation of walking on hot coals). Thallium was once an effective murder weapon before its
effects became understood, and an antidote (prussian blue) discovered.
Thallium has recently been in the news due to the poisoning of two Russian-American women by this
substance. The incident is under investigation both in Moscow where the apparent poisoning took place
as well as in Los Angeles, which is home to the two women.
[edit] Treatment and internal decontamination
One of the main methods of removing thallium (both radioactive and normal) from humans is to use
Prussian blue, which is a solid ion exchange material which absorbs thallium and releases potassium. The
prussian blue is fed by mouth to the person, and it passes through their digestive system and comes out in
the stool.[10]
[edit] Famous uses as a poison
The CIA is believed (by its Inspector General) to have conceived a scheme to poison Fidel Castro by
exposure to thallium salts placed in his shoes while they were being polished. The goal was to discredit him
by causing him to lose his characteristic hair and beard. The scheme progressed as far as testing on animals,
but the trip during which the poison was to be administered fell through.[11]
In 1953, Australian Caroline Grills was sentenced to life in prison after three family members and a close
family friend died. Authorities found thallium in tea that she had given to two additional family members.[12]
Flix-Roland Moumi, a leader of the Cameroonian anticolonial armed struggle against France was
murdered by thallium poisoning on October 15, 1960. A French agent posing as a journalist was the main
suspect of this murder.
It is claimed that South African agents once plotted to use it against Nelson Mandela while he was in prison
on Robben Island. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission heard how agents established plans to add
doses of the chemical to his medication.[12]
In the 1960s and 1970s, Graham Frederick Young killed at least three people with thallium. The 1995 film
The Young Poisoner's Handbook is based upon him.
In October 1988, Peggy Carr of Alturas, Florida began to suffer from a mysterious illness. She was admitted
to the hospital and remained there for several days before being discharged. After discharge, Peggys
condition worsened, and she was readmitted to the hospital. Travis Carr and Duane Dubberly also exhibited
similar symptoms and were transported to the hospital. Thallium poisoning was suspected based on the
symptoms displayed. Within one day, thallium poisoning was confirmed. Peggy Carrs condition worsened,
and she fell into a coma. She died when life support was disconnected in March of 1989. Travis Carr and
Duane Dubberly remained in the hospital for treatment of thallium poisoning. Further testing revealed the
presence of thallium in other family members, including Gelena Shiver, Kasey Bell and Parealyn Carr.
George Trepal of Alturas, Florida was convicted and sentenced to death for the murder of Peggy Carr on
March 6, 1991. He is still on death row in Florida.
In 1991, Robert Curley was poisoned with thallium. His wife, Joann Curley, murdered him for insurance
money.
In 1995, Zhu Ling, a student at Tsinghua University in Beijing, China, was reportedly poisoned twice by her
roommate, over a period of a few months. The classmates of the victim asked for help through Usenet, to
which access was very new in mainland China at the time. Joint efforts by physicians who responded
through the web led to the diagnosis of thallium poisoning. The case was covered by news reports around
the world. However, efforts came too late to prevent major damage: she now cannot speak, remains largely
paralyzed and blind and with severely reduced mental function.
In June 2004, 25 Russian soldiers earned Honorable Mention Darwin Awards after becoming ill from
thallium exposure when they found a can of mysterious white powder in a rubbish dump on their base at
Khabarovsk in the Russian Far East. Oblivious to the danger of misusing an unidentified white powder from
a military dump site, the conscripts added it to tobacco, and used it as a substitute for talcum powder on
their feet.[13]
In 2005, a 17 year old girl in Numazu, Shizuoka, Japan, admitted to attempting to murder her mother by
lacing her tea with thallium, causing a national scandal.[14]
In November of 2006, it was initially believed that Russian dissident Alexander Litvinenko was poisoned by
use of thallium, until the presence of the radioisotope polonium-210 was discovered in his body.
In February of 2007, two Americans, Marina and Yana Kovalevsky, a mother and daughter, visiting Russia
were hospitalized due to Thallium poisoning. Both had emigrated from the Soviet Union to the United
States in 1989 and had made several trips to Russia since then. [15]
[edit] In Fiction
Agatha Christie, who worked as a pharmacist, used thallium as the agent of murder in her detective fiction
novel The Pale Horse the first clue to the murder method coming from the hair loss of the victims.
In Nigel Williams' 1990 novel The Wimbledon Poisoner, Henry Far uses thallium to baste a roast chicken in
a failed attempt to murder his wife.
"Concentrated thallium" is used as the poison of choice of the Wyoming Widow in the 2006 comedy Big
Nothing
AntimonyFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

[edit] Precautions
Antimony and many of its compounds are toxic. Clinically, antimony poisoning is very similar to arsenic
poisoning. In small doses, antimony causes headache, dizziness, and depression. Larger doses cause violent
and frequent vomiting, and will lead to death in a few days.
See also arsenic poisoning.
[edit] Leaching from PET
A study found that antimony is leaching from PET bottles (reported for some acidic fruit drinks),[citation needed]
but at levels below drinking water guidelines. The guidelines are:
WHO, 20 g l1
Japan, 15 g l1[15]
US EPA, Health Canada and the Ontario Ministry of Environment, 6 g l1
German Federal Ministry of Environment, 5 g l1[16]
The acidic nature of the drink is sufficient to dissolve small amounts of antimony oxide contained in the
packaging of the drink;[citation needed] modern manufacturing methods prevent this occurrence.[citation needed]
However, researchers are concerned that antimony levels correspond to duration the bottle is left to stand the longer the beverage has been bottled, the higher the antimony leached.[citation needed]
Radioactive decay
Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting radiation in
the form of particles or electromagnetic waves. This decay, or loss of energy, results in an atom of one type,
called the parent nuclide transforming to an atom of a different type, called the daughter nuclide. For
example: a carbon-14 atom (the "parent") emits radiation and transforms to a nitrogen-14 atom (the
"daughter.") This is a random process on the atomic level, in that it is impossible to predict when a
particular atom will decay, but given a large number of similar atoms, the decay rate, on average, is
predictable.
The trefoil symbol is used to indicate radioactive material.
The SI unit of radioactive decay (the phenomenon of natural and artificial radioactivity) is the becquerel
(Bq). One Bq is defined as one transformation (or decay) per second. Since any reasonably-sized sample of
radioactive material contains many atoms, a Bq is a tiny measure of activity; amounts on the order of TBq
(terabecquerel) or GBq (gigabecquerel) are commonly used. Another unit of (radio)activity is the curie, Ci,
which was originally defined as the activity of one gram of pure radium, isotope Ra-226. At present it is
equal (by definition) to the activity of any radionuclide decaying with a disintegration rate of 3.7 1010 Bq.
The use of Ci is presently discouraged by SI.
Thorium, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Thorium (IPA: /rim/) is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Th and atomic
number 90. As a naturally occurring, slightly radioactive metal, it has been considered as an alternative
nuclear fuel to uranium.
[edit] Precautions
Powdered thorium metal is often pyrophoric and should be handled carefully.
Natural thorium decays very slowly compared to many other radioactive materials, and the alpha radiation
emitted cannot penetrate human skin. Owning and handling small amounts of thorium, such as a gas mantle,
is considered safe if care is taken not to ingest the thorium -- lungs and other internal organs can be
penetrated by alpha radiation. Exposure to aerosolized thorium can lead to increased risk of cancers of the
lung, pancreas and blood. Exposure to thorium internally leads to increased risk of liver diseases. This
element has no known biological role. See also Thorotrast.
Outdoor Air:Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs)

The 1990 Clean Air Act named 189 chemicals, metals and particulates as Hazardous Air Pollutants, commonly
referred to as HAPs. These pollutants are known to increase the risk of developing cancer, immune and
neurological damage, reproductive and endocrine disorders, and birth defects in children. For this reason, federal
regulations of these substances are more rigorous.
Benzene, toluene, vinyl chloride, perchloroethylene, arsenic, mercury, diesel particulates and various
pesticides are included on the list. For a complete list of the HAPs, along with information about the known
health effects associated with each, go to the US EPA's Health Effects Notebook for Hazardous Air
Pollutants
Because of the concentration of petrochemical industry in the Houston region, combined with the area's
reliance on automobiles and trucks for transportation, most research suggests that the area has higher levels
of HAPs than most other urban areas. For example, the levels of 1,3-butadiene measured in the air are up to
six times higher than the levels measured in the Los Angeles area. In general, the air in cities is more
polluted than the air in the countryside, and the Houston area has higher levels of outdoor air pollution than
are measured in most other cities in the U.S.
Outdoor pollution comes from many sources, including industry, cars and trucks, and other sources such as
gasoline stations, farm equipments, fires, and outdoor pesticide use. The Houston area has a larger industrial
base than most similarly sized cities, but vehicles are a major source of pollution as well. For many
Houstonians, vehicle pollution may be their largest source of exposure to outdoor pollution. For more
information about industrial and vehicle pollution in Houston and potential health effects, visit:
Outdoor Air: Industrial Pollution

Outdoor Air: Freeway Pollution
The following are the primary outdoor air pollutants of concern in the Houston area. The federal
government has established health-based standards for the first six pollutants in the list.
Ozone (O3)
Particulate Matter (PM)
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
Lead (Pb)
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs)
The Houston Environmental Foresight program, coordinated by the Houston Advanced Research Center,
ranked outdoor air in its "highest" category of health concern. The Houston area regularly violates the
standards for ozone, and occasionally violates the standards for particulate matter. Health problems,
however, have been observed at levels below the current federal standards, and the standards are regularly
revised based on our growing understanding of the relationships between air pollution and illness.
For the Houston region, the Houston-area Air Quality Reference Guide provides information about these
pollutants, the federal standards and the levels found in the region's outdoor air. Daily ozone warnings and
daily ozone forecasts are available through the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ)
website, as are current ozone levels and particulate matter levels. For more comprehensive air pollution data
for Houston and the rest of the United States, see EPA's Air Database.
Several citizen groups have expressed concern over whether EPA and TCEQ have fulfilled their
responsibilities in bringing the region into attainment of health-based air quality standards. Recently,
attorney Jim Blackburn filed a lawsuit on behalf the Galveston Bay Conservation Preservation Association
over TCEQ's alleged failure to implement the Houston-Galveston state implementation plan for controlling
ozone air pollution in the Houston/Galveston area.
Indoor Air Pollution
Most people spend 90% of their time indoors. Numerous studies have found that indoor levels of air
pollution are often 2-100 times greater than outdoor levels (USEPA & USCPSC, 1995).
Common indoor air pollutants include:
second-hand tobacco smoke;

airborne mold and mildew;
pet dander;
lead-impregnated dust from old paint and some vinyl miniblinds;
cockroach shedding;
dust mite particles;
combustion gases released by stoves, heaters, candles and fireplaces; and
chemicals released by
o dry cleaned clothes;
o cleaning products;
o room deodorizers;
o office supplies;
o carpets;
o paints and sealers;
o new furniture and pressed wood;
o personal care products; and
o pesticides.
Exposure to these pollutants can irritate the lungs and sinuses, cause rashes and may contribute to chronic
diseases such as asthma, fatigue, cancer and neurological problems.
Tobacco Smoke
Of all indoor air pollutants, tobacco smoke is generally the most hazardous, especially for children. Smoke contains tiny
particulates as well as many toxic chemicals, such as acrolein. It is an established carcinogen, and has been linked to
bronchitis, ear infections, pneumonia, asthma, and even Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) (Blair, 1996]
Things You Can Do To Reduce Indoor Air Pollution

To reduce the levels of indoor air pollution you can:
never allow smoking indoors;

use less toxic cleaning products;
make certain that the indoor space is properly ventilated;
reduce levels of cockroach and dust mite particles;
reduce pet dander;
avoid or minimize use of pesticides indoors;
use low toxicity paints, sealers and caulks;
reduce the use of solvent-based dry cleaning and/or air out dry-cleaned clothes thoroughly
before bringing into one's home;
avoid idling an internal combustion engine, such as a car, lawn mower or fork lift, in an
enclosed space or near the entrance to one's home or workplace; and
change air filters frequently.
To obtain hourly and annual averages of selected chemicals sampled at monitors in the Houston region, the
Texas Commission on Environmental Quality's Air Pollution Data Collected by Automated Gas
Chromatographs is very useful. Additionally, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Monitor Values
Report - Hazardous Air Pollutants provides summaries of monitor data collected since 1995 for numerous
hazardous air pollutants in Texas and other states.
Water Pollution
Health risks associated with water usually arise from:
drinking or washing with contaminated water;

eating seafood from polluted rivers or bays;
eating crops watered with polluted water; and/or

swimming in polluted waterways.
Common pollutants of area rivers, streams, bayous, lakes, ponds, estuaries and bays include:
fertilizers from home lawns and gardens, as well as agriculture;

mercury from power plants and industrial waste;
herbicides and insecticides;
oil and other chemicals from roadway runoff;
prescription medications, paint and other toxic substances disposed down household sinks and
toilets;
trash and sediment from construction sites;
pet waste;
faulty septic systems;
run-off from industrial sources or sewage treatment plants; and
hormone and prescription medications in human waste.
The City of Houston Health and Human Services Department performs water quality monitoring of area
bayous, which may contain relatively high levels of bacteria, toxic metals, pesticides and/or organic
compounds.
Several resources are also available through the Houston-Galveston Area Council website, including a tool
to find your watershed, view land cover, and use an interactive map for the region. The Texas Commission
on Environmental Quality (TCEQ) has a Surface Water Quality viewer on their website.
Drinking Water
The Houston region relies on surface and well water to meet the daily needs of area residents. See our
Drinking Water page for a map with links to the drinking water quality reports for the largest cities/utility
districts in Harris County. The Houston Environmental Foresight program ranked area drinking water as a
"low" health concern.
Seafood
Seafood is an excellent source of protein and other important nutrients, such as the omega-3 oils. However,
seafood can also contain chemical toxins such as mercury and pesticides, and can harbor dangerous bacteria.
Avoiding eating seafood from heavily contaminated waterways is always reasonable, but because many
species travel long distances or may be dangerous to eat only during certain times of the year, area residents
should regularly check with local officials or the State of Texas when regularly eating locally caught
seafood.
The Texas Department of Health's Seafood Safety Division monitors the levels of mercury and other toxins
in seafood and issues advisories whenever necessary to protect the health of area residents. The division
maintains an online Map of Texas Seafood Advisories and Bans.
Elevated mercury levels in certain species of fish is a particular concern. Eating fish with high mercury levels regularly can lead
to mercury poisoning and neurological symptoms
(Davidson 2004). Mercury is especially dangerous for fetuses or young children whose brains and nervous
systems are developing. In general, larger older fish contain higher levels of mercury (which is stored
throughout the fish) and of lipophilic (fat-loving) chemicals, such as DDT, which are primarily stored in the
fat.
Soil
Soil contamination is relatively common in the Houston area. Superfund and landfill sites comprise a large
portion of the problem, but many smaller areas of contamination, such as from leaking underground
gasoline station tanks or illegal dumping, are probably yet to be identified. Land close to heavy car and
truck traffic, industry or hazardous waste incinerators may be contaminated, especially with heavy metals,
but little systematic testing has been done.
The 13-county area is home to some 85 Superfund sites, of which 16 are listed on the National Priority List.
For more information, see the Foresight Environmental Houston program's assessment of Contaminated and
Abandoned Sites. The Foresight's Human Health Panel rated the health concern for area residents as "high."
GRUPA 17: Stnciulescu, Bodea, Oancea, Cico

Municipal solid waste includes residential and industrial waste. Solid waste is usually disposed of in
landfills or recycled. Paper and yard trimmings make up a large percentage of the waste in municipal
landfills. Houston's commercial and residential sectors produce 1.6 million tons of municipal solid waste
every year. The City of Houston Department of Solid Waste Management picks up approximately 35
percent of this waste, whereas private companies handle the rest. The department maintains a
comprehensive website listing sites, schedules and other important information about properly disposing
waste. The city also works closely with neighborhoods to promote clean-up activities
Hazardous waste, defined as that which is toxic, corrosive, flammable, or ignitable needs to be disposed of
properly. The City of Houston and area counties operate hazardous waste facilities. It is illegal to dump
these materials into storm drains or ditches. The Houston-Galveston Area Council maintains a
comprehensive website on area disposal facilities and programs.
Potentially infectious medical waste, generated by hospitals, clinics, medical offices, and other treatment,
testing, or research facilities, is usually incinerated or transported to landfills.
Storage and transport of nuclear waste raise concerns about potential radiation exposure. Commercial
nuclear waste is handled differently from government-generated nuclear waste. Nuclear waste from both
sources is classified as either high- or low-level waste (HLW or LLW). Typically, LLW from commercial
power plants, hospitals, and non-military sources is incinerated, compacted, or shredded, although larger
nuclear power plants may transport waste to an out-of-state federally approved disposal site. Governmentgenerated LLW is either disposed of on-site or shipped to a US Department of Energy site for disposal.
Commercial HLW consists primarily of spent nuclear fuel and is currently stored on-site at each plant. Most
government HLW is stored in underground tanks and vaults. Many of the nations weapons facilities are
highly contaminated.
Workplace Hazards
Many jobs expose workers to environmental toxins. The U.S. Department of Labor's Occupational Safety &
Administration (OSHA) website contains links to numerous safety and health issues, including information
about exposure to lead, methylene chloride, asbestos, styrene, 1,3-butadiene, asphalt fumes, pesticides, inks,
dry cleaning chemicals, molds and other substances in the workplace.
In the Houston region, some of the workplaces of particular environmental health concern include the:
petrochemical industries, including refining, synthetic rubber, pesticide and chemical feedstock
producers; road construction; building construction; pesticide companies; trucking; lawn care
companies; and small businesses such as dry cleaners, nail salons, janitorial services, gasoline
stations, body shops, and auto and truck repair facilities.
Several classes of exposures of special concern include solvents, lead, asbestos, pesticides and diesel
exhaust.
Solvents. Petrochemical workers, professional painters, printers, furniture refinishers, and gasoline station
operators are often exposed to relatively high levels of solvents. The brain and kidneys are especially
vulnerable to the effects of solvents. Exposure to benzene can cause damage to the bone marrow and
leukemia.
Lead . Until the 1970s, household and commercial paint often had relatively high levels of lead. Sanding or
sandblasting lead-based paint can lead to high levels of exposure.The OSHA website contains an excellent
overview of workplace exposure to lead and its health effects.
Asbestos. Now banned as a construction material, asbestos is a known carcinogen that was used widely for
insulation and fireproofing. Tiny airborne fibers of asbestos scar the lungs and may cause mesothelioma, a
type of lung cancer almost entirely associated with asbestos exposure. The OSHA website contains an
excellent overview of workplace exposure to asbestos and its health effects.
Pesticides.
In the Houston region, largely uneducated workers often apply pesticides or work with
pesticide-treated wood and other materials with little knowledge of the potential long-term effects of
exposure.
Diesel Exhaust.Truck drivers, construction workers, barge and crane workers along the Ship Channel,
traffic policemen, and bus and truck mechanics are often chronically exposed to elevated levels of diesel
exhaust, a known carcinogen. Diesel exhaust has also been linked to increased hospital admissions and
deaths from cardiovascular and respiratory causes, and to an increased sensitivity to allergens
Other. Asphalt fumes, dry cleaning chemicals, electromagnetic radiation, and infectious waste are among
some of the other exposures of particular concern among Houston-area workers.
Socioeconomic factors include income, ethnicity, sense of community and other such factors. Studies have
shown that certain segments of society are disproportionately exposed to environmental hazards, and may
be more vulnerable to such hazards than other populations In general, residents in low income, minority
neighborhoods are more likely to live near: chemical waste dumping sites; electric power plants;
municipal incinerators; solid waste landfills; industrial plants; and heavily traveled roadways.
These neighborhoods are also more likely to have abandoned lots, auto-body shops, concrete crushing
facilities and other sources of pollution than more affluent neighborhoods. This is especially true in the
Houston area because of the lack of zoning.
Low income, minority populations are also more likely to live in older housing that may have lead-based
paint, unventilated gas stoves or heaters, and/or mold or insect problems.
Light pollution occurs when too much artificial illumination enters the night sky and reflects off of water
droplets and dust particles in the air causing a condition known as skyglow. Unmanaged glare from
improperly aimed and unshielded light fixtures crossing property lines is also considered light pollution.
Light pollution .wastes energy; prevents us from seeing the stars at night; distracts and sometimes
temporarily blinds nighttime drivers; and causes disruptions in sleep patterns which can lead to sleep
deprivation and secondary problems such as vehicle accidents and poor school or job performance.
In the Houston area, common light pollution complaints include being unable to sleep because of a
neighbor's outdoor lights, street lights, or lights from a nearby freeway. Most public lighting can be
redirected to lessen the unwanted effects of lighting; judicious use of vegetation and light-blocking
draperies can also be useful.
Noise Pollution. Freeway traffic, trains, buses, lawn mowers, leaf blowers, helicopters, construction noise,
low-flying recreational planes, jet skis, air-conditioning units, and parking garage fans are among some of
the sources of Houston-area noise. Exposure to noise levels higher than 85 decibels for long periods of time
can cause permanent hearing damage, but much lower levels have been shown to cause stress, increase
blood pressure, cause sleep disturbances which affect sleep quality as well as mood and performance, and in
children chronically exposed to noise, lower reading and math scores .
Houston's city council passed a noise ordinance for residential areas, setting the maximum decibel reading
at 65 during the day and 58 during the evening. Loud garden and lawn machinery are prohibited between 8
p.m. to 7 a.m.
Certain work conditions have the potential to harm hearing. The Occupational Safety and Health
Administration requires that a workplace louder than 90 decibels for duration longer than eight hours must
enforce earplug usage for employees. Construction workers are at particular risk in the Houston area.
Other Environmental Health Hazards. A number of other factors, such as poor nutrition, insufficient
physical activity and stress, may increase one's likelihood of illness following exposure to environmental
health hazards.
Heat and Humidity. In the Houston area, heat and humidity are environmental health hazards. High
humidity impedes the body's ability to cool itself. This is a particular problem for the elderly. Cities such as
Houston are up to 10 degrees warmer than the surrounding countryside due to a phenomenon known as the
"urban heat island" effect. This is largely the result of the predominance of concrete, asphalt and other such
surfaces that hold heat, not allowing the area to cool off at night.
Poor Nutrition. Inadequate nutrition or irregular eating patterns can undermine the body's ability to
detoxify and excrete pollutants, and to properly repair DNA damage.
Insufficient Physical Activity. Regular physical activity promotes muscle, decreases fat (and fat-stored
toxic chemicals such as DDT and PCBs), and increases the oxygenation of organs. Improved immune
response, improved DNA repair activity and decreased physical and psychological stress are also associated
with regular physical activity.
Stress. Although some stress may be beneficial and necessary for peak performance, excessive stress is
associated with decreased immune function and an increased risk of environmentally related illness.
Air Pollutants Emitted by Transport Systems

Author : Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
1. Local and Regional Impacts
One geographical dimension of air pollution is at the local and regional levels where its externalities are
immediately felt. Many pollutants identified as being closely related to transportation:
Carbon Monoxide CO. Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas, the result of the incomplete
combustion of hydrocarbons.
Transportation accounts from 70 to 90% of total carbon monoxide emissions. It is thus the air pollutant
the most strongly associated with transportation. Carbon monoxide is often present near major traffic
intensive arterials, notably in urban areas. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas.
When inhaled, it combines with hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin, preventing absorption of oxygen
and resulting in asphyxiation. 0.5% of carbon monoxide in air may prove fatal in less than half an hour by
transforming over 50% of the hemoglobin in carboxyhemoglobin. Lower concentrations of carbon
monoxide (3 ppm) may cause poisoning symptoms and affect people with heart, lung and circulatory system
weaknesses. It also effects the respiration of plants by inhibiting photosynthesis.
Since carbon monoxide is not chemically very stable, direct global effects are strongly limited (probably
non existent). Indirectly, carbon monoxide contributes to the formation of greenhouse gazes as a catalyst.
Nitrogen Oxides NOx. Nitrogen oxide (NO or NO2) is a brown, odorless gas. A by-product of combustion
when energy is used to oxide nitrogen instead of an hydrocarbon.
Transportation accounts from 45 to 50% of total emissions of nitrogen oxides. Other sources are
chemicals (notably nitrates) industrial production and combustion of fossil fuels in thermal power plants.
Nitrogen oxides are not very harmful to humans (particularly NO), but when released from an internal
combustion engine, high concentrations are often toxic. It irritates and infects the respiratory system and the
eyes. Some decreases in the ability to resist bacterial infection were also observed when the subject is
exposed to significant concentrations of nitrogen dioxide. Nitrogen oxides are known to prevent the growth
of crops and thus reduce agricultural yields.
Nitrogen oxides are known to be associated with several global effects and have increased at a rate of 0.2%
annually over the last decades. They are a catalyst for ozone, a component of acid rain and a component of
smog. Depositions of nitrogen oxides influence the nitrate cycle, particularly in water where it influences
algae blooms.
Hydrocarbons and Volatile Organic Compounds - (HC/VOC). Hydrocarbons (HC) are a group of chemical
compound composed of carbon and hydrogen. When in a gaseous form, HC are called Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOC). Several HC and VOC are heavy gazes or volatile compounds with a strong odor. They
are mostly the result of the incomplete combustion of gasoline or by-products of the petrochemical industry.
They include methane (CH4), gasoline (C8H18) and diesel vapours, benzene (C6H6), formaldehyde (CH2O),
butadiene (C4H6) and acetaldehyde (CH3CHO).
Transportation accounts from 40 to 50% of total emissions of HC/VOC. They can be emitted by
incomplete combustion (70%), during refueling (10%) or by evaporation from storage units (20%),
particularly gas tanks. For instance, a car parked overnight during summer emits approximately 4 grams of
HC/VOC. Other important sources are petrochemical (plastics and solvent) industries.
All HC/VOC are carcinogen (cases of leukemia linked with benzene) to some extent, fatal at high
concentrations, harmful to crops and accumulates within the food chain (poisoning). However, heavy
hydrocarbons (like benzene) are far more carcinogen than light hydrocarbons (like methane).
All HC/VOC have several global effects. They are components of smog, catalysts for ozone and
components of acid rain.
Particulates . Particulates include various solids in suspension in the atmosphere such as smoke, soot, and
dust and results of the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, notably coal. They may also carry traces of
other toxic substances like HC/VOC.
Transportation accounts for around 25% of total emissions of particulates. Diesel engines are the main
emitters. Other important sources are thermal power plants using coal.
Particulates are carcinogen. They are also harmful to lungs tissue and worsen respiratory and cardiovascular
problems, notably if their size is smaller than 5 microns. Particulates depositions may alter the aesthetic of
structures.
The accumulation of particulates in the atmosphere and deposition on leafs may reduce photosynthesis and
plant growth.
Smog . Mixture of solid and liquid fog and smoke particles formed through the accumulation of carbon
monoxide, ozone, HC/VOC, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxide, water, particulates, and other chemical
pollutants. Photochemical smog are those with a higher concentration of ozone and HC/VOC.
Smog is strongly linked with transportation and industrial activities, notably in urban areas. Smog is
particularly dense during a thermal inversion (static regional air masses that enable the accumulation of
pollutants).
The effects of smog are the conjunction of those of its major components (see the effects of carbon
monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, HC/VOC, particulates and ozone). Based upon historical
observations (like London in the 50s), the number of deaths among susceptible persons (respiratory and
cardiovascular problems) grows sharply during thermal inversions.
Several large cities (like Los Angeles, Tokyo and Mexico) have serious smog problems to the point that
emissions reduction policies are established. Smog impairs visibility considerably and causes different
annoyances (odors, irritations, etc.). Because of its components, smog is highly associated with acid rains
and greenhouse effects.
Lead Pb . Lead is a toxic metal mainly used as an anti-knock agent in gasoline (Lead tetraethyl Pb(C2H5)4) and in batteries (lead dioxide as an anode and lead as a cathode).
Until recently, lead tetraethyl was a main source of atmospheric lead emissions in developing countries.
This contribution has dropped in absolute numbers but still accounts for 30 to 40% of total emissions.
Batteries are now an important source of lead for transportation, but a very limited amount of this lead is
carried through the atmosphere (see water pollution).
Extremely poisonous metal. Lead has effects on the metabolism and accumulates in living tissues. May
causes anemia, and mental retardation for young children. For instance, an extremely high occurrence of
mental retardation in some parts of Mexico city was directly linked with lead poisoning. Small doses may
cause behavioral changes.
Lead is fixed by plants and animals and re-contaminate the food chain. It has a high potential to accumulate
in the environment. Lead can also be transported in the atmosphere over wide distances.
Odors . Odors are the subjective perception of the sense of smell. They exists different "shapes" of odors
perceived as pleasant, neutral, or unpleasant. A long run exposition to specific odors will attenuate their
perception.
Diesel and gasoline engines are the major sources of odors accounted by transportation. Odors are
particularly prevalent during smog conditions. Odors are at worst an annoyance, but they are linked with the
presence of harmful air pollutants like sulfur dioxide, ozone and HC/VOC. People tend to stay or move
away from areas having a significant prevalence of odors.
2. Global Impacts. Although the pollutants below can have local and regional impacts, their scope is more
global.
Carbon Dioxide CO2 . Carbon dioxide is a colorless, odorless gas that composes 0.04% of the atmosphere.
Whenever there is combustion (oxidation) of fossil fuels, there is an emission of carbon dioxide. Important
temperature regulator for the atmosphere, keeping it a +15oC instead of -15oC if carbon dioxide was absent.
Transportation accounts for around 30% of total carbon dioxide emissions in developed countries
(15% worldwide).
About 66% of carbon dioxide emissions from transportation come from the combustion of gasoline, 16%
from diesel fuel and 15% from jet fuel. Carbon dioxide emissions by transportation have the following
modal breakdown: cars (43%), light trucks (20%), heavy trucks (14%), airplanes (14%), rail and marine
(7%) and non-oil based (2%). Other significant natural sources are volcanic eruptions and the metabolic
respiration of living organisms (including decomposition).
Carbon dioxide is a harmless gas and an essential element of photosynthesis. Although limited
concentrations of carbon dioxide have no effects on human beings, high concentrations (5000 ppm) may be
harmful by causing breathing disorders. Growing quantities of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are
assumed to be linked with the greenhouse effect. Concentrations of CO2 have rose on the average of 0.4%
per year over the last decades. Before the industrial revolution (early 19th century), the concentration of
carbon dioxide was estimated to be around 275 ppm, while by 2002 it has reached 372 ppm. It is advocated
that a level of 400 ppm is the limit after which climate modifications become important and difficult to
predict. Levels of about 600 ppm are anticipated by the middle of the 21st century.
Sulfur Dioxide SO2. Sulfur dioxide is a heavy, colorless gas with a strong odour. It is the result of the
combustion of fossil fuels like coal (particularly bituminous coal) and hydrocarbons.
Transportation accounts for around 5% of total sulfur dioxide emissions. Although transportation is a
minor source of SO2, related activities like steel and petrochemical industries are important emitters. One of
the most important artificial source are thermal power plants using low quality coal. Volcanic eruptions are
an important natural source of sulfur dioxide.
Sulfur dioxide causes and worsens respiratory and cardiovascular problems. In sufficient concentration, it
irritates the eyes and causes discomfort (odor). Sulfur is an essential nutrient for plants but sulfur dioxide is
regarded as an inhibitor of physiological activity. Most affected plants are those having a high physiological
activity like crops and commercial timber forests.
A major component favoring the genesis of acid rain. Sulfur dioxide has a counter effect on greenhouse
gases by blocking radiation. This effect is significant enough to be included in global warming climatic
models.
Ozone . Ozone is a pale blue gas with a strong odour and a powerful oxidant. It is the most common
photochemical oxidant. Ozone is created naturally in the high atmosphere when an oxygen molecule is
broken apart by ultraviolet radiation and combines with another oxygen molecule.
Ozone is also the result of the action of light over a mixture of HC/VOC and nitrogen oxides in the lower
atmosphere. It is thus directly linked with transport emissions, notably in urban areas.
Ozone is poisonous, hampers breathing and irritates the eyes and the respiratory system at concentrations
higher than 0.15 ppm. The normal/natural concentration is around 0.01 ppm at ground levels. It degrades
structures (metal and concrete) through oxidation. It damages crops and vegetation and leads to losses of
leafs. Depending on the crops and the concentration involved, ozone may reduce yields from 1 to 20%.
Ozone impairs visibility.
Ozone is essential in the upper atmosphere, as it absorbs light in the ultraviolet band. A drop of 5% in the
concentration of ozone may lead to an increase of 10% of skin cancer and eye cataracts. Ozone is also a
greenhouse gas.
Acid Rain and Acid Depositions (Sulfuric and Nitric Acid - H2SO4, HNO3). Sulfuric acid is a corrosive, oily
colorless liquid, which forms when sulfur oxides and water vapors are mixed. Nitric acid is a corrosive and
colorless liquid and forms when nitrogen oxides and water vapor are mixed. The level of formation of acid
(sulfuric and nitric) is influenced by the level of exposition to sun light. It may also exists in dry form,
which is called acid deposition. When dissolved in water, sulfuric and nitric acids lower the pH (higher
concentrations of hydrogen ions). The standard pH of fresh water ranges between 6.5 and 7.5.
Since transportation accounts for 5% of sulfur dioxide emissions, 45% of nitrogen oxides emissions and
for 40% of HC/HOV emissions, sources may range from 10 to 30% of acid rains, depending on regions.
This figure is of 25% in Western Europe.
Sufficient concentrations of sulfuric of nitric acids are known to damage artificial structures, thus historical
monuments are particularly vulnerable. When inhaled as a mist, may cause respiratory organs irritation.
Change the chemical composition of soils by breaking down complex organic matter in simpler elements.
At a small scale, this is beneficial, but at a large scale, it reduces the available biomass. By altering the pH
of fresh water, acid rains gradually destroy life in lake and rivers.
Sulfuric and nitric acids are carried over large distances through weather systems. It later falls down either
as rain or fog. Acid rain and acid depositions are known to alter the ecological balance of continental
ecosystems, notably in industrialized areas.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs are colourless and poisonless gases (or liquids). They are very stable,
non-flammable and non-toxic components and they have been widely used as dispersing agents (aerosols)
or as refrigerants (notably Freon, R-12).
For transportation, motor vehicle air-conditioning systems are the main source and account for about
20% of all CFCs emissions. In fact, during its life cycle, an air-conditioning system will release 100% of
its CFCs in the atmosphere. With recent legislations, CFCs emissions have considerably subsided in
developed countries but not in developing countries.
Because of its chemical properties (stable and non-toxic), CFCs have no noticed effects on living organisms.
Current concentrations of CFCs in the atmosphere reach about 0.35 ppm (all types of CFCs) but the most
widely used type, R12, has 20,000 times more infrared absorbency than carbon dioxide. Thus one ton of
Freon will have the same greenhouse effect than 2,000 tons of carbon dioxide. CFCs reduce the
concentration of stratospheric ozone, which absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays. CFCs may stay in the
atmosphere from 70 to 200 years, due to their extremely stable properties. They are a long term component
of the atmosphere. CFCs emitted in the 1990s are likely to damage the ozone layer for 200 years.
Indirect effects of CFCs (increase in ultraviolet rays exposition) include growths in the incidence of skin
cancer, eye cataracts, damage to crops and plants, deficiencies of the immune system and increase of ozone
at ground levels (through photochemical smog).
Even though transportation contributes significantly to the emission of air pollutants new technologies
(catalytic converters) and policies have reduced emissions significantly, notably in the United States
Hazard, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. A Hazard is a situation which poses a level of threat to life,
health, property or environment. Most hazards are dormant or potential, with only a theoretical risk of harm,
however, once a hazard becomes 'active', it can create an emergency situation.
[edit] Modes of a Hazard. A hazard is usually used to describe a potentially harmful situation, although not
usually the event itself - once the incident has started it is classified as an emergency or incident. There are a
number of modes for a hazard, which include:
Dormant - The situation has the potential to be hazardous, but no people, property or environment is
currently affected by this. For instance, a hillside may be unstable, with the potential for a landslide, but
there is nothing below or on the hillside which could be affected.
Potential - Also known as 'Armed', this is a situation where the hazard is in the position to affect persons,
property or environment. This type of hazard is likely to require further risk assessment.
Active - The hazard is certain to cause harm, as no intervention is possible before the incident occurs.
Mitigated - A potential hazard has been identified, but actions have been taken in order to ensure it does not
become an incident. This may not be an absolute guarantee of no risk, but it is likely to have been
undertaken to significantly reduce the danger.
[edit] Classifying Hazards. By its nature, a hazard involves something which could potentially be harmful
to a person's life, health, property or to the environment. There are a number of methods of classifying a
hazard, but most systems use some variation on the factors of Likelihood of the hazard turning in to an
incident and the Seriousness of the incident if it were to occur.
A common method is to score both likelihood and seriousness on a numerical scale (with the most likely
and most serious scoring highest) and multiplying one by the other in order to reach a comparative score.
Risk = Likelihood of Occurrence x Seriousness if incident occurred.
This score can then be used to identify which hazards may need to be mitigated. A low score on likelihood
of occurrence may mean that the hazard is dormant, whereas a high score would indicate that it may be an
Active hazard.
[edit] Causes of hazards.There are many causes of hazards, but they can broadly be termed in to:
Natural - Natural hazards include anything which is caused by a natural process, and can include obvious
hazards such as volcanoes to smaller scale hazards such as loose rocks on a hillside
Man made - Hazards created by humans, which includes a huge array of possibilities, probably too many to
list, as it includes long term (and sometimes disputed) effects such as global warming to immediate hazards
such as building sites .
Activity related - Some hazards are created by the undertaking of a certain activity, and the cessation of the
activity will negate the risk. This includes hazards ie. flying.
Innovative Technology For Municipal Waste Processing.

22.06.2007 16:44
Contents. Summary 1. The analysis of existing methods of processing waste1.1. Municipal solid waste.
A retrospective show and prospect1.2. Dumps and reception of biogas1.3. Recycling1.4. Biological processing1.5. Thermal
methods of processing1.6. Processing of oil containing waste. Complex utilization of waste
2. Advantages of offered technologyReferences
Summary.
For the first time in world practice is proposed creation of the plant on the basis of new highly effective, fuel producing and environmentally clean technology for processing of the waste, including solid municipal waste or
like refuse and also of mentioned refuse together with oil-industry wastes (oil sludge, acid tars, etc.), soil polluted
by pesticides and oil products, waste products of electronics, used tires, all kinds of plastics, sewage sludge of the
city waste water treatment plant , the polluted ground sediment of reservoirs, biologically polluted waste of
hospitals, contents of cattle mortuary, dumps, etc.
Now technology is patented, the Technologic Schedule For Design Of Manufacture For Thermochemical Municipal
Waste Processing, including calculation of material and thermal balances of the plant, the data of researches and
calculations of all stages of technological process and a stage of waste heat recovery, the technological circuit of
manufacture, the specification of the equipment, specific material and power expenses, the control and
management of the technological operating mode, definition of manufactures category and of factory premises
characteristics are developed, kinds, characteristics and amount of products of the manufacture received at
processing of waste products and the recommendation of their use are determined. The comparative ecological
characteristic of modern incinerate plants and the developed technology is shown.

For construction in different regions, and also for reconstruction existing incinerate plants for work on offered
technology it is necessary to execute the individual feasibility report.

1. The analysis of existing methods for refuse processing.
1.1. Municipal solid waste. A retrospective show and prospect.
A problem of pollution of cities by its waste products and its solving appeared as extremely complex scientific,
technical, and economic problem. Special specificity here is shown in a possible concentration in these waste
products practically all variety of substances and the materials meeting in the nature and artificially created by the
humans, and also in continuous growth of their amount (1, 2, 3, 4).
According to data of United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) the total annual producing of
municipal waste products in the USA for the period from 1960 till 2005 has grown from 88.1 million tons up to
245.7 million tons, i.e. more than in 2.7 times (Table 1). Such steady growth of formation of waste creates the big
complexities, is especial to municipalities of the big cities. The analysis of the data presented by U.S. EPA (5, 6)
shows, that in 2005 in the USA processing of waste products was carried out by ground disposal on dumps (54.3
% of the general national volume of refuse), recycling (23.8 %), biological processing - composting (8.4 %) and
burning (13.6 %). Each of the specified ways has the advantages and lacks. The general lack for all above
specified methods is contamination of environment by toxic substances, impossibility to provide a recoupment of
ecological actions and non-polluting processing or destruction of many materials and substances, for example,
plastic, packing materials, waste products of electronics, etc. The low level of recycling of such materials as plastic
(5,7 %), rubber and leather (14,3 %), the textiles (15,3 %), a paper and a cardboard (50 %), a tree (9,4 %),
food waste products (2,4 %) causes economic feasibility of processing of their not utilized rests on pyrolysis
installations with reception of non-polluting fuel and other commodity products.
1.2. Dumps and reception of biogas.
Now the most part of solid household waste products of the majority of large cities is taken out to the dumps
located for tens of miles, and, the areas for these purposes are practically exhausted, that in addition results in
formation of many hundreds spontaneous dumps (7). Thus it is necessary to take into account, that dumps are a
serious source of ground pollution, subsoil waters and atmosphere by toxic chemicals, high toxic heavy metals,
landfill gases, and at ignition of refuse - dioxins, furanes and biphenyls, and, maximum permissible concentration
of dangerous substances are exceeded in 1000 and more times (8, 9). Application of compactors for refuse
compaction allows to stack more densely it, that prolongs dumps life, however, at the same time raises specific
loading on ground and, accordingly, results in the even greater environmental contamination (10, 11).
Distant transportation of solid waste by lorries and heavy trailers result in additional worsening of the ecological
condition peculiar to vehicles. Besides dumps assume constantly increasing expenses of corresponding institutions
as do not provide any recoupment of ecological actions (10).
It is possible to assume, however, that in immediate prospects the role of garbage dumps appreciably will not
decrease. In this connection such technological approach to neutralization of refuse as sanitary soil filling,
providing reception of landfill gas, will be enough actual. With this purpose household refuse covers by the soil
blanket according to the certain technology by layer of puddle of ground 0.6 - 0.8m thickness. Landfill gas dumps
are supplied with ventilating pipes, gas blowers and capacities for landfill gas gathering. However it is possible to
use of landfill gas only in 5-10 years after creation of a dump, the output of it is not constant, and profitability is
shown only at volumes of refuse more than 1 million tons. During the subsequent burning of landfill gas the most
part of its toxic components are destructing with the exception of heavy metals, which are reset then into an
environment. It is necessary to note also, that the earth and superficial waters penetrating through soil filling,
grasp dissolved and suspended solid substances and products of biological decomposition, than in addition pollute
an environment (1, 11). Besides landfills are responsible for an estimated 36% of all methane (greenhouse gas)
emissions in the USA (12).
Table 1
Movement for an interdiction of dumps creation near to settlements now considerably increased and has made
necessary search of other ways of processing and destruction of solid waste products .
1.3. Recycling.
Economically the most attractive could be sorting of the mixed refuse, including on the automated sorting
complexes, with the subsequent returning a significant part of components into manufacture. However it is
extremely toilful, epidemically and toxically dangerous process, allowing to sort no more than 30 % of refuse as
its big part is impossible to separate (9, 13). At initial sorting of refuse in places of its formation about 80% of
useful secondary raw materials (9) are possible to take out. It is necessary to note, however, that the level of
recycling considerably depends on the general culture and discipline of the population and also that plastic packing
materials are difficult and expansive to recycle. As various resines cannot be mixed, plastic materials should be
not only sorted, but also processed separately. Such labor-intensive process essentially raises cost of processing.
Thus many companies cannot use them because of poor quality and bad structure in comparison with the
products received from normal raw material. Therefore these materials can find only limited application for
packing, for example, food and pharmaceutical products, i.e. for the products having the greatest market
concerning packing. Thus, recycling plenteous of plastic is a unreal purpose. Experience of Germany has shown
that recycling is economically expedient only for such materials as steel, aluminum, glass, depending on local
conditions, probably, a paper and is completely unacceptable for plastic, packing materials, newspapers, waste
products of electronics, etc. (14). Now Switzerland and Japan have achieved accordingly 23% and 20% of waste
products recycling (15), and in the USA now 23.8 % of waste products are recycling (5). It means, that at least
65 - 70 % of solid waste should be processed by a different way.
1.4. Biological processing.

It was supposed, that the major direction of recycling solid waste will be its processing into organic fertilizer compost (1, 2). Among known methods of processing (with a purge of air in stacks, in mesh chambers, on louver
shelves, in vertical towers) the most effective and hygienic for today is the method of bioprocessing in rotating
cylindrical drums. Process occurs in full isolation from the humans. Difficulty of realization of this method is in
necessity of complex sorting and preliminary solid waste processing that entails necessity of construction of an
additional factory for sorting refuse. Besides received compost is sated with heavy metals and other harmful
components of refuse (16). Actually it is suitable only for recultivation and overlapping of dumps. The majority of
these factories is unprofitable (17). The same lacks are inherent also in a way of processing of organic waste
products by Californian red worms allocating valuable organic fertilizer - humus. Besides this method demands
application of manual skills and for large industrial scales is poorly suitable (18, 19).
1.5. Thermal methods of processing.
Now in world practice has realized more than ten technologies of processing solid household and industrial wastes.
The most widespread among them are thermal ways - burning, pyrolysis and gasification.
Burning cannot be considered as economically justified or saving resources method as many organic substances
which could be used, are burnt with additional consumption of energy (20). Besides existing and offered plants for
refuse insineration have a lot of lacks, the main among them is forming secondary extremely toxic waste products
(polychlorinated dibenzodioxins, -furanes, and -biphenyls), allocated together with heavy metals in an
environment with chimney gases, sewage and slag (21).
It is necessary to note, that chlororganic waste products frequently named "dioxins", pertain to supertoxic group,
the steadiest and extremely dangerous as destroying hormonal system of the human, that results in an
immunodeficiency, is especial to growth of female illnesses, children"s death rate and physical inability, decrease
of birth rate (20, 22). On May, 25 2002 in Stockholm the Global International Convention on prohibition of
persistent organic pollutants has been accepted. The group of 12 listed highly dangerous substances includes
mentioned earlier dioxins, furans and biphenyls (60).
Dioxin formation components of waste products are such materials as polyvinylchloride, linoleum, plastics,
packing cardboard, newspapers, etc. (23). Toxic metals are thrown out in the form of salts or oxides, that is in a
steady kind, and can be in an environment uncertain quantity of years, gradually collecting and with a dust
getting into human body that results in defeat of a liver and a gastroenteric path, autoimmune to diseases of
joints, diseases of nervous system and psychoneurological frustrations, genetic changes at descendants, to
increase of sensitivity to ionizing radiation, osteoporosis of tubular bones (24, 25).
Concentration of heavy metals oxides in slag and ashes in 2-3 times (and sometimes more) is higher, than in
burning waste products. Therefore, though the method of burning allows to reduce considerably volume of waste
products, thus even more dangerous to an environment ash and slag demanding special recycling measures or a
burial place are formed (20).
Now for toxic slag processing the technology of ecoconcreting is used: mixture of slags after their neutralization
with cement, lime or silicon dioxide with the subsequent hardening of mixture. At correct mixing ratio waste
products to the bonding agent occurs an "incapsulation" toxic substances (including heavy metals and dioxins) in
the cement stone, which is not passing, in authors opinion, ecotoxicants into an environment. However, such
technology demands preliminary neutralization of waste products for what a plenty of chemical reagents is
necessary. A number of the substances making waste products, for example, sulphur-containing, can cause
degradation of a cement stone that results in penetration contaminators into an environment (26). Besides toxic
metals in the certain conditions can be washed away from blocks by rains, for example, at change of acidity of
rain water "on weather conditions" (20). Now the advanced method of ecoconcreting - integrated mineral-matrix
technology (I-technology) is developed, which should provide ecological safety of a received material due to
chemical bonding contaminators down to their inclusion in a crystal lattice of cementing new formation (for
example, heavy metals) or blocking contaminators by colloidal-disperse and sol-gel phases in mass of a forming
material. However, as authors specify in same publication, it is possible only "at rationally picked up components
of system when potential chemical properties of components of system and their mechanical characteristics are
summarized" (26). Commercially such condition cannot be executed, as structure of municipal refuse and,
accordingly, slag is not constant.
Thus, even the advanced technologies do not provide manufacture of non-polluting, suitable slag for the further
use, municipal refuse received after burning. Thus it is necessary to note, that cost of a burial place of dangerous
waste products (ashes and slag) 10 times higher, than a burial place of refuse (20).
Other serious lack of incinerators is their low profitability. So, in New Jersey (USA) in 1997 seven incinerators had
total debit in 1.6 billion dollars(27). It speaks in the low coefficient of useful consumption of heat energy which
even on the best plants for municipal refuse incineration does not exceed 65 % (28) and a significant amount of
used an additional liquid fuel reaching 70 gallons per ton of burning waste (29).
To the modernized ways of burning of solid waste it is possible to attribute replacement of air submitted to a place
of burning, by oxygen (30). It allows to speed up process, to lower emissions of nitrogen oxides, however
emission of the most dangerous components - dioxins, furanes, biphenyls, heavy metals - remains constant.
Besides the similar technology demands additional significant expenses for generation of oxygen.
As burning waste products produces heat, the desire to use it was natural. So movement "Waste-to-Energy" has
appeared (31, 32, 33). However, burning of solid waste with the purpose of heat reception to manufacture the
electric power results in the even greater environmental contamination. It speaks that the electric power
consumption is not constant and has daily and seasonal peaks, that, accordingly, results in fluctuations of loading
of combustion chambers of garbage incineration boilers and, as a result, to incompletely burn of waste products
and to the even greater emission of harmful substances with chimney gases, slag, ash and sewage. For only
technical reasons cost of the electric power made at municipal refuse incineration plants cannot compete to cost of
the electric power of heat power stations. The price of one kilowatt at heat power stations is 1 - 3 cents, and at
refuse incineration plants - 11 cents. However, on laws in force for stabilization of the market to consumers it is
obliged to sell energy for 2 cents per 1 kilowatt, that gives enormous losses for refuse incineration plants, and in a
combination to necessity of a burial place for slag and ash makes these plants absolutely unprofitable and
financial forecasts for their development are extremely adverse. (34)
Now authorities of New York plan to use the gas received at burning of waste products of a megacity, for
manufacture of electricity at eight recycling refuse factories. In New York has already installed eight 200-kilowatt
fuel batteries at four plants of Brooklyn. Mayor of city Michael Blumberg has explained, that "fuel elements will
transform garbage gas in electric and thermal energy and thus do not poison air of nearby neighborhood" (35).
Really, fuel elements have some advantages. The main thing - these elements are much more efficient in
comparison with any other ways of electric energy generation. Efficiency of already existing elements is 50%,
theoretically it can be more than 85%.
The electric power in batteries is developed directly due to chemical reactions and in this case it is not required
the intermediate parts used at power stations (boiler units, turbines) which reduce efficiency of energy reception.
Non-polluting fuel elements develop the electric power due to electrochemical reaction between hydrogen and
atmospheric oxygen, and, as a by-product water (36) is formed only. However, using methanol the process ceases
to be rather non-polluting as methanol at decomposition forms not only hydrogen but also poisonous carbon
monoxide (CO). It is necessary for utilizing, and, the simplest way to achieve it is carbon monoxide (CO) up to
carbon dioxide (CO2) which then will be thrown out in an atmosphere. Thus, finally a problem of emission
reduction of greenhouse gases in an atmosphere in such a way to solve it is not possible (37). At use in fuel
elements of the gas received as a result of refuse burning, the problem of environmental contamination remains
at all not solved as the most dangerous toxic substances - dioxins, furanes, biphenyls, heavy metals, etc. cannot
be detained in fuel batteries. Besides the slags received after refuse burning also are dangerous and require a
burial place.
The level of burning of household waste products in some countries is various. So, from total amounts of
household refuse the share of burning fluctuate in such countries, as Austria, Italy, France, Germany from 20 % to
40 %; Belgium, Sweden - 48-50 %, Japan - 70 %; Denmark, Switzerland - 80 %; England and the USA - 10 %;
Russia - 2 % (30).
Now many scientists consider, that incinerators cannot be the non-polluting plants at all. Among supporters of this
point of view are Paul Connett - the professor of chemistry from university in Canton (N.Y.), Michael Gendron from
Ontario which has entitled article on September, 8, 1999: " The Full Health Implications of Waste Incineration are
Unknown ", Neil J. Carton - former Clean Air Program Director, Austin (Texas), toxicologist from state Maine
Robert Frakes, etc. (38). The head of the organization of independent experts of Russia Doctor of Chemistry
S.Yufit has convincingly shown not only danger of incinerate factories, but also their inefficiency, ecology
destruction and absolute economic unacceptability for any local budget (20).
Recently many companies pass from simple burning waste to the two-level process including a stage of pyrolysis
(decomposition of organic substances without access of oxygen at rather low temperatures 450 - 800C). Such
process appears energetically more favorable, than simple burning. As a result of pyrolysis receive gas and solid
rest of pyrolysis. Then those and other products at once, without any additional processing, direct to the furnace
to burn. The part of gases of pyrolysis after condensation can be deduced from system and is used as liquid fuel
by other consumers (39, 40, 41). There are the same lacks, as at direct waste products burning. In the cases
when gas of pyrolysis is refining from acid gases such as hydrogen chloride (HCL), economically process becomes
expensive enough because of application of the expensive equipment and using of expensive caustic or calcinated
soda and environmental contamination by heavy metals is not eliminated.
Alternative to process of pyrolysis is the process of gasification which goes similarly, but at temperature 800 1300C and at presence of a small amount of air. In this case received gas represents a mix of low-molecular
hydrocarbons which then are burning in furnace (39, 42). Unfortunately, such process does not improve an
ecological situation, whereas presence of air and contained in refuse chlorine organic substances in combination to
high temperature results in intensive formation of dioxins, furanes, biphenyls, and salts of heavy metals, as well
as in other technologies, from process are not deduced and pollute an environment. Anyway in materials of the
U.S. EPA (Table 2) such comparative characteristics are presented (43):
Table 2
The name of pollutant Incinerators, kg/t waste products. Gasification plant, kg/t waste products.
Dioxins and furanes
Mercury
Lead
Dioxide of sulfur
Oxide nitrogen
Oxide carbon
0,7 x 10-7
3 x 10-3
14 x 10-4
1,57
1,12
0,21
0,6 x 10-6
3 x 10-3
13 x 10-4
1,47
1,43
0,14
The most complete destruction of the products contained in refuse, is carried out during high-temperature
pyrolysis or gasification at temperature 1650-1930C in melted metal with mineral additives (44), or at
temperature up to 1700C in melt of salts or alkalis in a mix with additives and at the presence of catalysts (45).
The specified ways provide refuse processing practically of any structure as at such temperature are completely
destroying all dioxins, furanes and biphenyls. As a result it turns into synthesis gas - a mix of hydrogen, methane,
carbonic oxide, carbon dioxide, water steam, nitrogen oxides and sulfur, the solid rest - coke, pieces of inorganic
materials, lime, cement, glass and slag which are proposed to be removed from a reactor in sealed bunkers and
forms without the indication of their further use and wasted melts of salts and metal which regeneration is
extremely complex and power-consuming process demanding besides the significant consumption of various
reagents. Synthesis gas after enough complex clearing of impurity can be used as fuel. It is necessary to note
also, that the specified processes do not provide allocation of heavy metals and their salts from the firm rest of
pyrolysis, therefore the further utilization of slag for manufacture of building materials and designs is impossible,
special measures of their recycling or a burial place are necessary.
Recently the technology of processing of waste products on a basis of low temperature plasmas (2000 - 10000C)
began to develop. As the rest of process there are receiving heavy metals which can be used in metallurgy (46).
One of lacks of this method is its high operational cost. So, company Solution NTT working together with Institute
of Electrophysical Problems (Moscow), specifies, that it makes 100 dollars for ton of waste products (47). Other
lack which practically excludes a real opportunity to apply this method in large industrial scales, that fact is, that
the material of the reaction chamber at such high temperature quickly fails and it is necessary to stop it very
frequently to repair.
1.6. Processing of oil containing waste. Complex utilization of waste.
The emergency situation has developed all over the world with utilization of the oil containing waste, liquidation of
oil sludge and acid tars accumulators, clearing of the ground polluted with mineral oil.
The liquid waste products containing more than 14 % of mineral oil are mainly burnt. Most perspective as fuel is
water-mazut emulsion. At the contents of mineral oil in waste products less than 14 % are used microbiological
methods of clearing (48). Till now, however, the comprehensible solution of the challenge - clearing of the ground
repeatedly polluted with mineral oil (for example, a ground of gas stations, seaports, railway depots, tank farms,
etc.), recycling of acid tars (waste products of sulfuric purification of some mineral oil, for example, the lubricant
oils, containing 15 - 70% of the sulfuric acid dissolved in water), utilization of ground sediments of oil tanks,
ponds - sediment bowls, earthen sludge barns representing a solid phase, containing paraffin, asphalt-resinous
substances, sulfur, sand, clay and other mechanical impurity, and also heavy metals - lead, cadmium, zinc, etc is
not found.. (49, 50). It is proposed to process such waste products in units of thermal neutralization where as a
result of pyrolysis receive, as authors assert, dry neutralized carbon containing material - raw material for
manufacture of building materials and asphalt concrete mixes, and also the condensate and the gas used as fuel
in these units (51). It is necessary to note, that such solution of a problem is not satisfactory as the solid rests of
pyrolysis contain heavy metals and, hence, are not suitable for industrial use and a burial place demands. Also for
that extraction of oil from ground deposits is inexpedient in connection with high expenses and insignificant
amount of an oil phase: at the average 5 - 8% (52). Recycling of acid tars - waste products of sulfuric clearing of
some mineral oils, for example, lubricant oils - a problem of the governments of many countries. Tars are
dangerous, as containing resinous substances, organics, heavy metals, sulfur, products of polymerization of
nonsaturated hydrocarbons, and amount of the sulfuric acid dissolved in water, reaches 70 %. The way of storage
of tars in open for this purpose foundation ditches which turn then in oil tar lakes is not less dangerous to an
environment, the layer of water in which actually makes only 0.3 - 0.4 m, and then is 7 - 8 m depth is tar like
substance. The majority of recycling ways are reduced to regeneration from acid tars the sulfuric acid and to burn
the neutralized rests or to neutralization by limestone with the subsequent burning at thermal power stations. As
a result into an atmosphere are dumped highly toxic substances (53) that are not acceptable at all at the present
time.
The most rational way of the solution of oil sludge recycling problem is observed at joint process of pyrolysis with
solid municipal waste products (54). Correctness of economic feasibility of such technology is confirmed with
introduction some installations, providing joint recycling oil contenting, rubber-fabric, textile waste products, oiled
rags, sawdust, waste products paint and varnish materials, a polymeric film and others (55). However, the
questions connected to protection of an environment from pollution by heavy metals, dioxins, furanes and
biphenyls also are not solved.
Now in world practice some technologies of joint thermal processing of solid municipal waste and sludge deposits
of the sewage formed at city sewage purification plants. Thus their joint burning in furnaces of various designs
with preliminary drying deposits and obligatory returning of chimney gases after drying for deodorization in a
furnace is provided (56, 57, 58, 59).
In connection with the elevated content of heavy metals in sludge deposits of sewage all these technologies result
in producing of extremely dangerous slag and ashes which demand a burial place. Besides chlororganic
compaunds contained in solid waste, leads to environmental contamination by dioxins, furanes and biphenyls - the
extremely dangerous to human health and an environment.
Thus, the problem of clearing of places of mass human dwelling for the present moment has no satisfactory
solution.
2. Advantages of offered technology.
Disadvantages of existing methods of municipal solid waste processing, mentioned above, completely are
eliminating in offered technology which differs from above mentioned:
- the technology is based on well-known and repeatedly checked up methods in another industries. Actually
the new technological chain consist of old well-known parts which, however, entirely now still is not carried
out anywhere;
- allow to process effectively waste products of any humidity, including frozen together;
- does not require preliminary sorting of waste, however, depending on local conditions and economic
reasons it is useful by known methods to remove objects, which recycling is expedient, for example, ferrous
metals, aluminium, glass, etc. though the technology itself does not demand it;
- produces fuel which in connection with deep heat recovery in productions covers self-consumption over
the odds that allows to refuse use of fuel from outside sources (except for the starting period) and provides
an output of commodity fuel to the market;
- coefficient of useful consumption of thermal energy in technological processes of the plant is equal 91.1
%;
- in case of using of all received commodity fuel for manufacture of the electric power directly at the plant,
for example, on diesel engine - generating installation - is completely provided self consumption of the
plant, that allows to abandon use of the electric power from extraneous sources (except for the starting
period) and delivery of the electric power on the market in regional electric networks is provided in
addition;
- produces a variety of ecologically clean commodity by-products: dry calcium chloride, liquid carbon
dioxide, concentrate of salts of the heavy metals, purified from impurities (heavy metals and sulfur) slag and
slag-concrete products;
- reduces a production cycle, increase of physics mechanical parameters of slag-concrete products due to
their thermohumid treatment;
- requires no sewage system by utilizing waste waters in the process itself, that simultaneously reduces on
93.4 % consumption of fresh technical water;
- a production waste are only smoke gases which structure fully complies with all requirements of
ecological safety norms that is achieved directly during technological processes of waste processing and
reception of commodity products without installation of any additional clearing equipment as offered
technology:
- does not produce chlorine organic substances such as dioxins, furanes and biphenyls and, accordingly,
excludes their emission into an environment; - does not eject highly toxic heavy metals, including
radioactive, into an environment;
- does not eject highly toxic carbon monoxide, organic light and unwell smelling substances into an
environment;
- reduces emission of carbon dioxide (greenhouse gas) on 57 %, nitrogen oxides on 72 %, sulfur dioxide on
60.2 %, benzopyrene and smoke particles on 24.6 % in comparison with modern working garbage
incineration plants and industrial boiler-houses;
- use the serial, easily accessible equipment;
- capacity of the plant can be varied in wide range of parameters, because it consist of separate autonomous
technological lines (modules);
- all processes are continuous, fully-automated, not toxic and not explosive;
- independent work of the plant, for example, in the remote areas at dumps of solid household waste is
possible as the technology allows to provide completely self-consumption of the plant in fuel, electric power
and technical water at full absence of industrial sewage and solid waste.
Commodity products of this technology are: liquid fuel with heat value of ~8,150 kcal/kg (14,670 Btu/lb),
dry calcium chloride, liquid carbon dioxide, concentrate of salts of the heavy metals, purified from
impurities slag and slag concrete products.
Use of all received commodity fuel to produce the electric power directly at a plant provides self
consumption of the plant and delivery of the electric power to consumers in regional electric networks.
As a result of calculations it is established, that from one ton of municipal waste of average structure it is
possible to expose to the market:
92 kg of liquid commodity fuel or 212.7 kWh the electric power,
32.4 kg of dry calcium chloride, 50 kg of liquid carbon dioxide, 4 kg mixes of salts of heavy metals and
coke or coal (including 150g actually salts concentrate) and 0.52 m3 light-weight slag concrete.
Liquid fuel is used for heating buildings and in power boiler installations, liquid carbon dioxide - for
carbonation of beverages and in welding practice.
Calcium chloride is applied to acceleration of concrete hardening, as deicer for roads and railway switches,
against regelation of coal and ores, for preparation of refrigerants and medical products.
The slag purified from heavy metals and sulfur is used for road construction or as fill material for
manufacture of slag concrete products.
Mix of heavy metals with coke or coal is raw material for the metallurgical enterprises working with
complex ores where the specified mix is used as charge stock. References
Incineration,From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Incineration is a waste treatment technology that involves the combustion of organic materials and/or
substances.[1] Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment systems are described as "thermal
treatment". Incineration of waste materials converts the waste into ash, flue gases, particulates, and heat,
which can in turn be used to generate electricity. The flue gases are cleaned for pollutants before they are
dispersed in the atmosphere.
Incineration with energy recovery is one of several waste-to-energy (WtE) technologies such as gasification
and anaerobic digestion. Incineration may also be implemented without energy and materials recovery.
In some countries, incinerators built just a few decades ago often did not include a materials separation to
remove hazardous, bulky or recyclable materials before combustion. These facilities tended to risk the
health of the plant workers and the local environment due to inadequate levels of gas cleaning and
combustion process control. Most of these facilities did not generate electricity.
Incinerators reduce the volume of the original waste by 95-96 %, depending upon composition and degree
of recovery of materials such as metals from the ash for recycling.[2] This means that while incineration does
not completely replace landfilling, it reduces the necessary volume for disposal significantly.
Incineration has particularly strong benefits for the treatment of certain waste types in niche areas such as
clinical wastes and certain hazardous wastes where pathogens and toxins can be destroyed by high
temperatures. Examples include chemical multi-product plants with diverse toxic or very toxic wastewater
streams, which cannot be routed to a conventional wastewater treatment plant.
Waste combustion is particularly popular in countries such as Japan where land is a scarce resource.
Denmark and Sweden have been leaders in using the energy generated from incineration for more than a
century, in localised combined heat and power facilities supporting district heating schemes.[3] In 2003,
waste incineration produced 3 % of the electricity consumption and 11 % of the total domestic heat
consumption in Denmark. A number of other European Countries rely heavily on incineration for handling
municipal waste, in particular Luxemburg, The Netherlands, Germany and France. [2]
Contents1 Technology 1.1 Types of incinerators 1.1.1 Moving grate 1.1.2 Fixed grate 1.1.3 Rotary-kiln 1.1.4 Fluidized bed 1.1.5
Specialized incineration 1.2 Use of heat 1.3 Pollution 1.4 Gaseous emissions
1.4.1 Dioxin and furans 1.4.2 CO2 1.4.3 Other emissions 1.4.4 Flue gas cleaning 1.5 Solid outputs 1.6 Other pollution issues 2
The debate over incineration 2.1 The argument for incineration 2.2 The argument against incineration 3 Trends in incinerator use
3.1 Incineration in the United States 3.2 Incineration in the United Kingdom 3.3 Small incinerator units 4 Incinerators 5 See also
6 References
[edit] Technology
[edit] Types of incinerators

An incinerator is a furnace for burning refuse. Modern incinerators include pollution mitigation equipment
such as flue gas cleaning. There are various types of incinerator plant design: moving grate, fixed grate,
rotary-kiln, fluidised bed.
[edit] Moving grate
Control room of a typical moving grate incinerator overseeing two boiler lines
The typical incineration plant for municipal solid waste is a moving grate incinerator. The moving grate
enables the movement of waste through the combustion chamber to be optimised to allow a more efficient
and complete combustion. A single moving grate boiler can handle up to 35 tonnes of waste per hour, and
can operate 8,000 hours per year with only one scheduled stop for inspection and maintenance of about one
months duration[4]. Moving grate incinerators are sometimes referred to as Municipal Solid Waste
Incinerators (MSWIs).
The waste is introduced by a waste crane through the "throat" at one end of the grate, from where it moves
down over the descending grate to the ash pit in the other end. Here the ash is removed through a water
lock.
Municipal solid waste in the furnace of a moving grate incinerator capable of handling 15 tonnes waste per
hour. The holes in the grate elements supplying the primary combustion air are visible.
Part of the combustion air (primary combustion air) is supplied through the grate from below. This air flow
also has the purpose of cooling the grate itself. Cooling is important for the mechanical strength of the grate,
and many moving grates are also water cooled internally.
Secondary combustion air is supplied into the boiler at high speed through nozzles over the grate. It
facilitates complete combustion of the flue gases by introducing turbulence for better mixing and by
ensuring a surplus of oxygen. In multiple/stepped hearth incinerators, the secondary combustion air is
introduced in a separate chamber downstream the primary combustion chamber.
According to the European Waste Incineration Directive, incineration plants must be designed to ensure that
the flue gases reach a temperature of at least 850 C for 2 seconds in order to ensure proper breakdown of
organic toxins. In order to comply with this at all times, it is required to install backup auxiliary burners
(often fueled by oil), which are fired into the boiler in case the heating value of the waste becomes too low
to reach this temperature alone.
The flue gases are then cooled in the superheaters, where the heat is transferred to steam, heating the steam
to typically 400 C at a pressure of 40 bar for the electricity generation in the turbine. At this point, the flue
gas has a temperature of around 200 C, and is passed to the flue gas cleaning system.
At least in Scandinavia scheduled maintenance is always performed during summer, where the demand for
district heating is low. Often incineration plants consist of several separate 'boiler lines' (boilers and flue gas
treatment plants), so that waste receival can continue at one oven line while the others are subject to
revision.
[edit] Fixed grate
The older and simpler kind of incinerator was a brick-lined cell with a fixed metal grate over a lower ash pit,
with one opening in the top or side for loading and another opening in the side for removing incombustible
solids called clinkers. Many small incinerators formerly found in apartment houses have now been replaced
by waste compactors.
[edit] Rotary-kiln
The rotary-kiln incinerator[5] used by municipalities and by large industrial plants. This design of
incinerators have 2 chambers a primary chamber and secondary chamber. The primary chamber in a rotary
kiln incinerator consist of an inclined refractory lined cylindrical tube. Movement of the cylinder on its axis
facilitates movement of waste. In the primary chamber, there is conversion of solid fraction to gases,
through volatilization, destructive distillation and partial combustion reactions. The secondary chamber is
necessary to complete gas phase combustion reactions
The clinkers spill out at the end of the cylinder. A tall flue gas stack, fan, or steam jet supplies the needed
draft. Ash drops through the grate, but many particles are carried along with the hot gases. The particles and
any combustible gases may be combusted in an "afterburner".[6] A diagram of a rotary-kiln incinerator can
be found here.
[edit] Fluidized bed
A strong airflow is forced through a sandbed. The air seeps through the sand until a point is reached where
the sand particles separate to let the air through and mixing and churning occurs, thus a fluidised bed is
created and fuel and waste can now be introduced.
The sand with the pre-treated waste and/or fuel is kept suspended on pumped air currents and takes on a
fluid-like character. The bed is thereby violently mixed and agitated keeping small inert particles and air in a
fluid-like state. This allows all of the mass of waste, fuel and sand to be fully circulated through the furnace.
[edit] Specialized incineration
Furniture factory sawdust incinerators need much attention as these have to handle resin powder and many
flammable substances. Controlled combustion, burn back prevention systems are very essential as dust
when suspended resembles the fire catch phenomenon of any liquid petroleum gas.
[edit] Use of heat
The heat produced by an incinerator can be used to generate steam which may then be used to drive a
turbine in order to produce electricity. The typical amount of net energy that can be produced per ton
municipal waste is about 0.67 MWh electricity of electricity and 2 MWh district heating[2]. Thus,
incinerating about 600 tonnes per day of waste will produce about 17 MW of electrical power and
1200 MWh district heating.
[edit] Pollution
Incineration has a number of outputs such as the ash and the emission to the atmosphere of flue gas. Before
the flue gas cleaning system, the flue gases may contain significant amounts of particulate matter, heavy
metals, dioxins, furans, sulphur dioxide, and hydrochloric acid.
In a study[7] from 1994, Delaware Solid Waste Authority found that incineration plants emitted fewer
particles, hydrocarbons and less SO2, HCl, CO and NOx than coal-fired power plants, but more than natural
gas fired power plants. According to Germany's Ministry of the Environment, waste incinerators reduce the
amount of some atmospheric pollutants by substituting power produced by coal-fired plants with power
from waste-fired plants[8].
[edit] Gaseous emissions
[edit] Dioxin and furans
The most publicized concerns from environmentalists about the incineration of municipal solid wastes
(MSW) involve the fear that it produces significant amounts of dioxin and furan emissions.[9] to the
atmosphere. Dioxins and furans are considered by many to be serious health hazards. Older generation
incinerators that were not equipped with adequate gas cleaning technologies were indeed significant sources
of dioxin emissions. Today, however, due to advances in emission control designs and stringent new
governmental regulations, incinerators emit virtually no dioxins. In 2005, The Ministry of the Environment
of Germany, where there were 66 incinerators at that time, estimated that "...whereas in 1990 one third of all
dioxin emissions in Germany came from incineration plants, for the year 2000 the figure was less than 1 %.
Chimneys and tiled stoves in private households alone discharge approximately twenty times more dioxin
into the environment than incineration plants."[8]. According to the U.S. EPA, incineration plants are no
longer significant sources of dioxins and furans. In 1987, before the governmental regulations required the
use of emission controls, there was a total of 10,000 grams of dioxin emissions from U.S. incinerators.
Today, the total emissions from the 87 plants are only 10 grams, a reduction of 99.9 %. Backyard barrel
burning of household and garden wastes, still allowed in some rural areas, generates 580 grams of dioxins
yearly. Studies conducted by EPA[10] demonstrate that the emissions from just one family using a burn barrel
produces more emissions than an incineration plant disposing of 200 tonnes of waste per day.
[edit] CO2
As for other complete combustion processes, nearly all of the carbon content in the waste is emitted as CO2
to the atmosphere. MSW contain approximately the same mass fraction of carbon as CO2 itself (27%), so
incineration of one tonne of MSW produce approximately 1 tonne of CO2.
Alternatively the waste could be landfilled. In the landfill, one tonne of MSW would produce approximately
62 m methane by anaerobic digestion of the biodegradable part of the waste. This amount of methane has
more than twice the global warming potential than the one tonne of CO2, which would have been produced
by incineration. In some countries, large amounts of this landfill gas is collected, but still the global
warming potential of the lost landfill gas in the US in 1999 was approximately 32 % higher than the amount
of CO2 that would have been emitted by incineration.[11]
In addition, nearly all biodegradable waste has biological origin, and absorbed all of the emitted CO2 during
growth.
Such considerations are the main reason why several countries administrate incineration of the
biodegradable part of waste as renewable energy[12]. The rest - mainly plastics and other oil and gas derived
products - is generally treated as non-renewables.
[edit] Other emissions
Other gaseous toxins in the flue gas from incinerator furnaces include sulphur dioxide, hydrochloric acid,
heavy metals and fine particles.
The steam content in the flue may produce visible fume from the stack, which can be perceived as a visual
pollution. It may be avoided by decreasing the steam content by flue gas condensation, or by increasing the
flue gas exit temperature well above its dew point. Flue gas condensation allows the latent heat of
vaporization of the water to be recovered, subsequently increasing the thermal efficiency of the plant.
[edit] Flue gas cleaning
The quantity of pollutants in the flue gas from incineration plants is reduced by several processes.
Particulate is collected by particle filtration, most often electrostatic precipitators (ESP) and/or baghouse
filters. The latter are generally very efficient for collecting fine particles. In an investigation by the Ministry
of the Environment of Denmark in 2006, the average particulate emissions per energy content of incinerated
waste from 16 Danish incinerators were below 2.02 g/GJ (grams per energy content of the incinerated
waste). One incinerator equipped only with an ESP for particle filtration emitted 5.3 g/GJ fine particles with
sizes below 2.5 micrometres (PM2.5), while two incinerators equipped with baghouse filters emitted 0.002
and 0.013 g/GJ PM2.5.[13]
Acid gas scrubbers are used to remove hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, hydrofluoric acid, mercury, lead and
other heavy metals. Basic scrubbers remove sulfur dioxide, forming gypsum by reaction with lime.[14]
Waste water from scrubbers must subsequently pass through a waste water treatment plant.
Sulfur dioxide may also be removed by dry desulfurisation by injection limestone slurry into the flue gas
before the particle filtration.
NOx is either reduced by catalytic reduction with ammonia in a catalytic converter (selective catalytic
reduction, SCR) or by a high temperature reaction with ammonia in the furnace (selective non-catalytic
reduction, SNCR).
Heavy metals are often adsorbed on injected active carbon powder, which is collected by the particle
filtration.
[edit] Solid outputs

Incineration produces fly ash and bottom ash just as is the case when coal is combusted. The total amount of
ash produced by municipal solid waste incineration ranges from 4-10 % by volume and 15-20 % by weight
of the original quantity of waste[2][15], and the fly ash amounts to about 10-20 % of the total ash[citation needed].
The fly ash, by far, constitutes more of a potential health hazard than does the bottom ash because the fly
ash often contain high concentrations of heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, copper and zinc as well as
small amounts of dioxins and furans[16]. The bottom ash seldom contain significant levels of heavy metals.
While fly ash is always regarded as hazardous waste, bottom ash is generally considered safe for regular
landfill after a certain level of testing defined by the local legislation. Ash, which is considered hazardous,
may generally only be disposed of in landfills which are carefully designed to prevent pollutants in the ash
from leaching into underground aquifers - or after chemical treatment to reduce its leaching
characteristics[17]. In testing over the past decade, no ash from an incineration plant in the USA has ever been
determined to be a hazardous waste[citation needed]. At present although some historic samples tested by the
incinerator operators' group would meet the being ecotoxic criteria at present the EA say "we have agreed"
to regard incinerator bottom ash as "non-hazardous" until the testing programme is complete.
[edit] Other pollution issues
Odour pollution can be a problem with old-style incinerators, but odours and dust are extremely well
controlled in newer incineration plants. They receive and store the waste in an enclosed area with a negative
pressure with the airflow being routed through the boiler which prevents unpleasant odours from escaping
into the atmosphere. However, not all plants are implemented this way, resulting in inconveniences in the
locality.
An issue that affects community relationships is the increased road traffic of waste collection vehicles to
transport municipal waste to the incinerator. Due to this reason, most incinerators are located in industrial
areas.
[edit] The debate over incineration
Use of incinerators for waste management is controversial. The debate over incinerators typically involves
business interests (representing both waste generators and incinerator firms), government regulators,
environmental activists and local citizens who must weigh the economic appeal of local industrial activity
with their concerns over health and environmental risk.
People and organizations professionally involved in this issue include the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency and a great many local and national air quality regulatory agencies worldwide.
[edit] The argument for incineration
The concerns over the health effects of dioxin and furan emissions have been significantly lessened by
advances in emission control designs and very stringent new governmental regulations that have resulted in
large reductions in the amount of dioxins and furans emissions[8].
Incineration plants generate electricity and heat that can substitute power plants powered by other fuels at
the regional electric grid and steam supply for industrial customers.
The bottom ash residue remaining after combustion has been shown to be a non-hazardous solid waste that
can be safely landfilled or possibly reused[17].
In densely populated areas, finding space for additional landfills is becoming increasingly difficult. Fine
particles can be efficiently removed from the flue gases with baghouse filters. Even though approximately
40 % of the incinerated waste in Denmark was incinerated at plants with no baghouse filter, Danish
incinerators were only responsible for approximately 0.3 % of the total domestic emissions of particulate
smaller than 2.5 micrometres (PM2.5) to the atmosphere in 2006.[13]
Incineration of municipal solid waste avoids the release of carbon dioxide and methane. Every ton of MSW
incinerated, prevents about one ton of carbon dioxide equivalents from being released to the atmosphere[11].
Incineration of medical waste and sewage sludge produces an end product ash that is sterile and nonhazardous[citation needed].
[edit] The argument against incineration
The fly ash must be safely disposed of.
There are still concerns by many about the health effects of dioxin and furan emissions into the atmosphere
from old incinerators.
Incinerators emit varying levels of heavy metals such as vanadium, manganese, chromium, nickel,
arsenic,mercury, lead and cadmium, which can be toxic at very minute levels.
Alternative technologies are available or in development such as Mechanical Biological Treatment,

Anaerobic Digestion (MBT/AD), Autoclaving or Mechanical Heat Treatment (MHT) using steam or Plasma
arc gasification PGP, or combinations.
Building and operating an incinerator requires long contract periods to recover initial investment costs,
causing a long term lock-in.
Incinerators produce fine particles in the furnace. Even with modern particle filtering of the flue gases, a
fraction of these are emitted to the atmosphere. As an example, the baghouse filters in an incineration plant
planned for erection in the UK, are only specified to capture 65-70 % particulate smaller than
2.5 micrometres (PM2.5), if filtration in the filter cake is not accounted for.[18] PM2.5 is not separately
regulated in the European Waste Incineration Directive, even though they are suspected to be linked to
infant mortality in the UK [19], and PM2.5 emissions from local incinerators to be a significant PM2.5 source
here[20][21].
Local communities are often unpleased with the idea of locating incinerators in their own vicinity. (The Not
In My Back Yard phenomenon). Studies in Andover, Massachusetts linked 10 % property devaluations with
close incinerator proximity [22].
Prevention, minimisation, reuse and recycling of waste should all be preferred to incineration according to
the waste hierarchy. Supporters of zero waste consider incinerators and other waste treatment technologies
as barriers to recycling and separation beyond particular levels, and that waste resources are sacrificed for
energy producion[23] [24][25].
[edit] Trends in incinerator use

The history of municipal solid waste (MSW) incineration is linked intimately to the history of landfills and
other waste treatment technology. The merits of incineration are inevitably judged in relation to the
alternatives available. Since the 1970s, recycling and other prevention measures have changed the context
for such judgements. Since the 1990s alternative waste treatment technologies have been maturing and
becoming viable.
Incineration is a key process in the treatment of hazardous wastes and clinical wastes. It is often imperative
that medical waste be subjected to the high temperatures of incineration to destroy pathogens and toxic
contamination it contains.
[edit] Incineration in the United States
The first full-scale waste-to-energy facility in the US was the Arnold O. Chantland Resource Recovery
Plant, built in 1975 located in Ames, Iowa. This plant is still in operation and produces refuse-derived fuel
that is sent to local power plants for fuel[26]. The first commercially-successful incineration plant in the U.S.
was built in Saugus, Massachusetts in October 1975 by Wheelabrator Technologies, and is still in operation
today[15].
Several older generation incinerators have been closed; of the 186 MSW incinerators in 1990, only 112
remained by 2003, and of the 6200 medical waste incinerators in 1988, only 115 remained in 2003[27].
Between 1996 and 2005, no new incinerators were built. The main reasons for lack of activity have been:
Economics. With the increase in the number of large inexpensive regional landfills and, up until recently,
the relatively low price of electricity, incinerators were not able to compete for the 'fuel', i.e., waste. In
Europe, with the ban on landfilling untreated waste, scores of incinerators have been built in the last decade,
with more under construction. Recently, a number of municipal governments have begun the process of
contracting for the construction and operation of incinerators. A number of Canadian cities are likewise
working toward installation of incinerators.
Tax Policies. Tax credits for plants producing electricity from waste were rescinded in the 1990s. In Europe,
some of the electricity generated from waste is deemed to be from a 'Renewable Energy Source (RES)'. A
new law granting tax credits for such plants was implemented in the U.S. in 2004.
Landfill bias. In Europe and Japan, the public understands the hazards of landfills, but this awareness is less
developed in the U.S., where furthermore there is a lot of open land.
Despite these problems, there has been renewed interest in waste-to-energy in the U.S. Canada & the UK.
Projects to add capacity to existing plants are underway, and municipalities are once again evaluating the
option of building incinerators rather than continue landfilling municipal wastes.
[edit] Incineration in the United Kingdom
The technology employed in the UK waste management industry has been greatly lagging behind that of
Europe due to the wide availablility of landfills. The Landfill Directive set down by the European Union led
to the Government of the United Kingdom imposing waste legislation including the landfill tax and Landfill
Allowance Trading Scheme. This legislation is designed to reduce the release of greenhouse gases produced
by landfills through the use of alternative methods of waste treatment. It is the UK Government's position
that incineration will play an increasingly large role in the treatment of municipal waste and supply of
energy in the UK.
[edit] Small incinerator units
Small scale incinerators exist for special purposes. For example, the small scale [28] incinerators are aimed
for hygienically safe destruction of medical waste in developing countries. Simple, mobile incinerators are
becoming more widely used in developing countries where the threat of avian influenza is high[citation needed].
Small incinerators can be quickly deployed to remote areas where an outbreak has occurred to dispose of
infected animals quickly and without the risk of cross contamination[citation needed].

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Foam

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Sea foam on the beach

Soap foam bubbles

[edit] Family of products

Passive fire protection

Structural fire protection

Not to be confused with the element silicon.

Silicone caulk can be

Faulty Sakno Silicone Foam

Silicon dioxide (silica) used in

[edit] Silicone Industry Trade Organizations

Socks made from flame retardant cotton.

hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), tri-o-cresyl phosphate, tris(2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate (TRIS),

[edit] Mechanisms of function

Brominated flame retardant

High impact polystyrene 1115

DecaBDE, brominated polystyrene

DecaBDE, brominated polystyrene

DecaBDE, propylene dibromo styrene

Brominated polystyrene, TBBPA derivative

Brominated polystyrene, TBBPA derivative

[edit] How retardants work

GRUPA 14: Neagu , Tara, Chea

[edit] Drying oil composition

[edit] See also. Glue , Clamp (tool)

Toxic metal, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

[edit] Relationship to living organisms

Beryllium, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia [edit]

Iron, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

[edit] Nutrition and dietary sources

Cadmium, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Lead, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Mercury (element), From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Arsenic, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

GRUPA 15: Dolha, Drban, Png

Polonium, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Chromium, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Dimethylmercury, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Tetra-ethyl lead, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Bioaccumulation, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Food chain, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Barium, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Aluminium, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Lead poisoning, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

However, a Johns Hopkins report by Tomas Guilarte stated:

GRUPA 16: Stoica J., Popa, Minc

Mercury poisoning, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Mercury poisoning is caused by sufficient exposure to elemental mercury or mercury compounds.

[edit] Occurrences of mercury poisoning

Thallium, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

AntimonyFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Thorium, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Outdoor Air:Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs)

Outdoor Air: Industrial Pollution

Indoor Air Pollution

second-hand tobacco smoke;

Things You Can Do To Reduce Indoor Air Pollution

never allow smoking indoors;

drinking or washing with contaminated water;

eating crops watered with polluted water; and/or