Midterm 1 Material

What is science?
-collection of facts that describe world around us
-discovery the world is inherently understandable and we can
understand it by observing it
-creation of new knowledge
-knowledge what you accept as sufficiently real to take action upon
and live your life
-belief knowledge vs research knowledge
-belief knowledge knowledge about world is inherent and
unique in each human being
-attained by individual revalation
-i.e. supernatural personal belief not observable by others
-research knowledge way of gathering knowledge that is
universal, not individual
-involves natural phenomena observable and
measureable by multiple humans
-repeatable
-scientists make choice to believe in research knowledge
methodology of science
-belief knowledge cannot be used to comment on research
knowledge and vice versa
-Facts a thing that is indisputably the case
-belief and research knowledge both generate facts
How does science work?
-science is a process
-observations (data)
-interpretations (hypothesis)
-good science
-hallmark of good science = doubt
-good scientists question everything all the time
-good science recognizes that new facts may terminate old ideas
-also recognizes that observations are potentially biased
-several theories can also be raised to explain one observation
-willingness to accept uncertainty
-bad science
-science not infallible practiced by humans
-humans can exhibit greed, malice, etc
-ugly science
-an attempt to borrow the clothing of science in order to cloak a
message whose content is not based on science - pseudoscience

-how to spot pseudoscience

-repeated reference to authority rather than observation
-unwillingness to try to disprove own hypothesis or seek
contradictory examples
-consistent presentation of hypotheses in a simplistic manner
-or in non-professional venues where success of argument
equated with popularity of presentation
-failure to add new arguments and data
-consistent reliance on existing arguments
-society and science
-society cannot operate on science alone
-research knowledge is without a value system
-society and belief
-society cannot operate on belief alone
-many advancements in everyday life result of science
Prove/proof
-don't prove a theory/hypothesis, try to falsify it
-good hypothesis presented so that there is some experiment or
possible discovery that could falsify it
Truth
-truth is moral judgment, not scientific concept
-science is constantly changing as old hypotheses are falsified and new
ones take their place
-hypotheses that have withstood many attempts at falsification are
elevated to the rank of theory or even law
-they are commonly thought of as true, although this may be incorrect
use of the word true
Peer Review
-people publishing articles scientist revise other scientists articles
-hierarchy of journals = intensity of peer review
-fame and glory can come from falsification of long standing
hypotheses
-einstein
Observation vs Interpretation
-obervations facts that should be repeatable from one person to the
next
-interpretations hypotheses you invent to explain observations
-subject to change with new observations

Minerals

-What is a rock?
-an aggregate of minerals or mineraloids
Minerals
-naturally occurring
-inorganic solid
-orderly internal structure
-crystalline
-crystal lattice
Identification of Minerals
-characterize using chemical formula
-determined by use of expensive machines
-determine lattice spacing
-xray defraction
-xrays able to pass through crystal lattice
The silicate Minerals
-silicates all contain silicon and oxygen
-silicon and oxygen atoms are covalently bonded together
-most common rock-forming minerals
-silica oxygen tetrahedral
-looking for other elements to bond with
-common elements like Al, Fe, Mg, Ca, K, Na
-and other Si-O tetrahedral
Individual tetrahedral
-isolated SiO4 tetrahedra bond to cations
-olivine green, found in volcanic rocks, decomposes/weathers quickly
-silicon-oxygen ratio of 1:4
Chains
-SiO4 tetrahedra bond together to form single chains
-Silicon-oxygen ratio of 1:3
-Pyroxene dark green/black
Double chains
-SiO4 tetrahedra chain bonds to another chain to form double chains
-silicon-oxygen ratio of 1:2.75
-amphibole black
Sheets
-SiO4 tetrahedra bond together to form sheets
-silicon-oxygen ratio of 1:2.5
-clay/micas
-micas biotite/muscovite

Framework
SiO4 bond together in all dimensions
-silicon-oxygen ratio of 1:2
-quartz/feldspar
-feldspar most common mineral group
Other common non-silicate minerals
-carbonates
-minerals with CO3
-calcite (CaCO3) makes up limestone
-Oxides
-metal plus oxygen
-hematite
-Halides (Salts)
-ionic bonds with Cl
-Halite
-element class
-minerals composed of one element
-gold copper sulfur
-sulfates
-minerals with SO4
-gypsum, anhydrite
-sulfides
-metal plus sulfur
-pyrite
Are these minerals?
-coal formed from compaction and hardening of variously altered plan
remains
-amber fossilized tree sap, not a mineral
-obsidian volcanic glass, lava cools rapidly and not enough time to
form mineral structure
-not a mineral
Mineral Stability
-minerals form and are most happy at particular temperatures and
pressures
-think about water
-crystallize from fluids when conditions are right
-high temps melt
-solid state when conditions are right
Feldspars
-most abundant mineral in earths crust

-three main kinds

-K (orthoclase)
-potassium feldspar
-Na (albite)
-sodium feldspar
-Ca (anorthite)
-calcium feldspar

Rocks
-What is a rock?
-aggregate of minerals or mineraloids
-3 types
-igneous
-seditmentary
-metamorphic
Igneous rocks
-born from melts
-form deep within the earth at high temperatures
-magma molten rock beneath the surface
-magma rises since it is less dense than surrounding rock
-lava molten rock erupted onto the surface
-two main types of igneous rocks
-intrusive cools slowly beneath the surface of the earth
-extrusive cools quickly on surface of the earth
-intrusive igneous rocks - magma cools within the earth
-pluton large body of cooled magma
-sills skinny horizontal sheet of magma
-dikes skinny sheet of magma, not horizontal
-sills and dikes like sheets that go through weakness in
rocks
-extrusive rocks
-lava molten rock extruded onto surface
-aa (lava) very crusty, not smooth, rough, more viscous
-pahoehoe fluid, ropey texture, smoother
-can have both types of lava flows in same flow
-pillow lava when lava cools underwater
-blobs, kind of looks like pillows
-flood basalts eruptions that coat large stretches of land
with basalt lava
-tuff loose volcanic debris welded together to form a rock
-Mt. st Helens
-cooling rate determines texture

-cools fast glassy/lacks internal organized structure

-obsidian
-cools slowly more organized internal structure, bigger
interlocking crystals
-granite
-chemistry determines the minerals
-mafic magnesium and iron
-olivine, pyroxene
-intermediate has mg and fe but not enough to be mafic
-amphibole and mica
-felsic feldspar and silica
-quartz and feldspar
-same chemical composition different cooling rates
-basalt extrusive, mafic
-gabbro intrusive mafic
-andesite extrusive intermediate
-diorite intrusive, intermediate
-rhyolite extrusive, felsic
-granite intrusive felsic
-magma cools as it rises and crystals form
-minerals form as they reach their happy zone
-temperature and pressure
-fractional crystallization
-as minerals form (elements are removed), chemistry of
magma changes
-minerals crystalize from cooling magma in particular order
-know bowens reaction series
Sedimentary Rocks
-made of disaggregated bits of other rock
-form at earths surface
-underwater counts
-weathering produces sediment
-piecs of igneous, metamorphic, and even other sedimentary
rocks
-sedimentary structures
-evidence they formed at the surface
-i.e. ripple marks
-types of sedimentary rocks clastic, chemical
-clastic made of actual little pieces of other rocks
-defined by grain size
-gravel conglomerate
-sand sandstone
-silt siltstone
-clay shale

-chemical made from chemicals that came from the disintegration of

rocks
-precipitate from fluids (ocean, lakes, etc)
-carbonates
-evaporites (gypsum, etc)
-dry lake beds
Metamorphic rocks
-heat and pressure cause pre existing rocks to change
-formed deep within earth, not melted occurs in solid state
-bread analogy
-dough represents protolith (original rock)
-oven represents heat and pressure
-bake bread = metamorphic rock
-textures of metamorphic rocks foliated/non-foliated
-foliated
-preferential alignment of minerals
-formed under differential stress (pressure)
-slate, schist, gneiss
-non-foliated
-no preferential alignment of minerals
-marble metamorphosed limestone, quartzite
metamorphosed sandstone, alabaster metamorphosed gypsum
-migatites mixed rocks
-in between metamorphic and igneous
-evidence for metamorphism and partial melting

Statigraphy and Cross Cutting Relationships

Nicolaus Steno
-major founder of statigraphy
-found superposition, original horizontality, lateral continuity
-superposition oldest layer at bottom, younger layers above
-original horizontality sedimentary rocks form horizontal layers
-inclined sed rocks suffered subsequent disturbance
-lateral continuity sedimentary rocks are laterally continuous
-to certain extent (not forever)
Cross Cutting Relationships
-Hutton
-something that cuts across or affects another must be younger than
material that's being affected
-rock that was cut is older than rock cutting across
-faults, folds, igneous intrusions

-faults
-strike slip transform
-normal hanging wall below footwall
-reverse/thrust hanging wall above footwall
-folds bent, rocks had to be there before being folded
-anticline older rock at top, looks like n
-syncline younger rock at top, looks like u
-intrusions molten nature of igneous rock allows it to burn its way
through stones
Unconformities
-missing time in rock record
-rocks formed episodically, not continuously
-gaps called unconformities
-nonconformity
-disconformity
-angular unconformity
-nonconformity erosional contact between igneous or metamorphic
units below and sediments above
-implications uplift of igneous/metamorphic rock followed by
deposition of sedimentary rock
-tectonic time scales
-disconformity missing time between two sedimentary units
-implications erosion or non-deposition took place across the
unconformity
-angular unconformity displays angular discordance across
unconformity
-implication deposition of unit 1
-uplift/tilting/erosion of unit 1
-deposition of unit 2
-grand canyon has it all
How do we tell if there is an unconformity?
-angular look for the angle between sed rocks angular not parallel
-nonconformity between seds and igneous/metamorphic rocks
-disconformity need marker that will tell us age of the sed rocks
-fossil succession
Robert Hooke
-fossils might be useful for correlating rocks from place to place
-roman coins were used to date successive human historial
events

-fossils could be used same way

-largely ignored
Cuvier
-demonstrated extinction occurred
-showed past elephants werent same as modern elephants
William Smith
-rock types change from place to place
-succession of fossils was the same
Fossil Succession summary
-no two species are exactly alike
-species become extinct and never reappear
-like coins
-thus fossils can be diagnostic of certain age
-index fossils
-widespread
-short-lived
How geologists display geologic info
-geologic map
-two dimensional plan view
-statigraphic columns and cross sections
-two dimensional vertical view
Formation
-a formation is a mappable unit of rock usually distinctive from other
units of rock and regional in extent
-formations can be composed of members
-formations can be grouped together to form groups
Geologic time
Organization of time scale
-time vs rock units
-time is continuous abstract
-rocks are not continuous
-riddled with unconformities
-tangible
-thus a distinction is made between t ime units and time-rock
units

Geologic time scale is a hierarchy

-eon, era, period, epoch, age
-geologic time scale is a relative time scale
-the time scale was constructed using basic geologic principles,
not dates
-superposition, lateral continuity, original horizontality,
fossil succession, cross-cutting relationships
-base of a geologi time unit is usually defined by first occurrence
of fossil or groups of fossils
Absolute time vs relative time
-relative time
-sequence of events, without dates
-chronostratigraphic
-absolute time
-sequence of events with dates
-radiometric age dating
-chronometric
Fossils vs Radioactivity
-most igneous and metamorphic rocks can be dated radiometrically
-few sedimentary rocks can be dated
-grain probably not formed when rocks formed
-but this is where fossils are found (can be dated)
Whole time scale
-precambrian 87% of earths history
-precambrian subdivided using chronometric means
-archean and Proterozoic eons
-pahnerozoic eon subdivided using chronostratigraphic means
-fossil succession

Geologic rates
-gradualism, catastrophism
-gradualism hutton, lyell
-a cyclic view, rock units formed by continuous rock cycle
-no vestige of beginning, no prospect of end
-rock cycle
-suggested eart was old
-dominated many areas of science for 100 yrs
-no directional component in earth history
-a kind of steady state
-caused lyell to doubt darwins theory of evolution since it
implied a directional component
-catastrophism - cuvier
-rock units caused by series of catastrophic events
-long periods of stasis with short periods of upheaval
-lake Missoula/scablands catastrophes do occur
-peak discharge is estimated at 20 time flow of amazon
-more than total discharge of all rivers in the world
-300 meters deep, 100 km/hr
-1000 ft deep w/ force of fire hose
actualism
-elements of gradualism and catastrophism are correct
-uniformity in process, but not rate
-inviolable laws of nature have operated since beginning of time
-geological processes are governed by these laws
-combination of hutton/lyell, Darwin, and cuviers viewpoints
Rates of geologic events
-most are so slow they are nearly imperceptible and take millions of
years to show effects
-some events are instantaneous

Plate Tectonics
Fossil distribution
-fossils can appear in sed rocks
-same animal and plant fossils found in different continents
-can fit all the continents back together into one
-similar fossils on different continents were close together
when continents put together
First theory continental drift
-idea that continents move horizontally over earths surface

-wegener
-major problem no mechanism, how could continents move?
New Data to address old ideas
-ocean floor bathymetry
-crustal densities
-continental
-oceanic
-first map of ocean bottom created by heezen and tharp, mid ocean
ridge went all around the world
Ocean Bathymmetry
-mid ocean ridges
-underwater mountain ranges
-avg depth 2500m
-trenches
-deepest parts of the ocean
-deepest over 11000m
-abyssal plains
-vast flat areas in between ridges and tenchres
Crust: two kinds
-continental crust higher than ocean crust since it is less dense
-felsic
-2.67 g/cm3
-ocean crust
-mafic
-3.0 g/cm3 (more iron so more dense)
Second theory Plate tectonics
-harry hess
-american ship captain during war/Princeton professor after
-record of seafloor as he sailed around pacific
-plate tectonics harrys idea
-ocean crust must be created and destroyed
-sedimentary cover too thin for 4Gaof accumulation
-created at ridges, destroyed at trenches
-continens are passive riders on conveyor belt
New Data to address old ideas
-geomagnetics
-geodynamo produces magnetic field
-field behavior used to trace tectonics
-distribution of earthquakes
-shallow vs deep used to trace tectonics
-hot spot volcanism

geomagnetics
-geodynamo produces magnetic field
-paleomagnetism
-magnetic minerals in volcanic rocks record earths magnetic
field as they cool
-600 C curie point for rocks
-like little compasses
-magnetic field flips polarity from time to time
-magnetic nort becomes magnetic south and vice versa
-on average, every 200,000 yrs
-not periodic
-key observations from paleomagnetism
-paleomag at mid ocean ridges shows new crust created at
ridges
-symmetric magnetic pattern about ridge crest
-distribution of earthquakes
-shallow mostly associated with midocean ridges
-intermediate/deep are mostly associated with trenches
-benioff zones
-plotted earthquakes and found deep earthquakes werent
randomly distributed
-deep earthquakes occurred at trenches
-crust pushed down into mantle at trench benioff zones
-volcanos can be created at benioff zones due to magma rising as crust
being subducted, creates felsic magma
-key observations
-shallow earthquakes associated with mid ocean ridges
-deep earthquakes are only associated with trenches
Hot spots
-some volcanoes not near trenches Hawaii
-hot spots are fixed, plates move over them
-hot spot tracks reveal plate motions
-emperor Hawaiian seamount chain for example
plate tectonics unifying theory
-outer portion of earth is broken into plates
-lithosphere the crust plus upper mantle
-plates are portions of lithosphere that behave as a unit
-has strength
-asthenosphere underlies lithosphere
-behaves plastically
-less strength
-lith plates float along asthenosphere

-strength terms not chemical

-new oceanic crust is created at mid ocean ridges
-magma wells up to fill the crack as plates diverge
-plates are recycled at trenches where they dive deep into the earth
-continents ride along with the plates
-they do not drift around, they are carried around
-hotspot volcanoes reveal plate motions
-plate tectonics
-divergent margin plates come apart
-leads to passive margin in contrast with active margin
-transform margin plates slide past
-convergent margins plates smash together
-ocean-ocean, ocean continent, continent-continent
-mechanism
-this pattern is consistent with convection in the mantle
-interior of the earth is much hotter than surface, allowing
for convection
-newly subducted crust more dense so sinks, then
rises as its melted