Master of Computer Applications (MCA)

Paper Code:
Paper Title:

MCA-106
Computer Networks & Internet Concept

Internal Assignment No. 2

Section-A

(i) Define IEEE 802.3(CSMA/CD).

IEEE 802.3 is a working group and a collection of IEEE standards produced by the working group
defining the physical layer and data link layer's media access control (MAC) of wired Ethernet. This
is generally a local area network technology with some wide area network applications. Physical
connections are made between nodes and/or infrastructure devices (hubs, switches, routers) by
various types of copper or fiber cable.
802.3 is a technology that supports the IEEE 802.1 network architecture.
802.3 also define LAN access method using CSMA/CD.
Short

for Carrier Sense Multiple Access

/ Collision Detection, a

set

of

rules

determining

how network devices respond when two devices attempt to use a data channel simultaneously (called a
collision). Standard Ethernet networks use CSMA/CD to physically monitor the traffic on the line at
participating stations. If no transmission is taking place at the time, the particular station can
transmit. If two stations attempt to transmit simultaneously, this causes a collision, which is detected
by all participating stations. After a random time interval, the stations that collided attempt to transmit
again. If another collision occurs, the time intervals from which the random waiting time is selected
are increased step by step. This is known as exponential back off.
CSMA/CD is a type of contention protocol. Networks using the CSMA/CD procedure are simple to
implement but do not have deterministic transmission characteristics. The CSMA/CD method is
internationally standardized in IEEE 802.3 and ISO 8802.3.

(ii) What is TCP/IP and UDP?

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a standard that defines how to
establish and maintain a network conversation via which application
programs can exchange data. TCP works with the Internet Protocol (IP), which
defines how computers send packets ofdata to each other. Together, TCP and
IP are the basic rules defining the Internet. TCP is defined by the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) in the Request for Comment (RFC) standards
document number 793.

TCP is a connection-oriented protocol, which means a connection is

established and maintained until the application programs at each end have
finished exchanging messages. It determines how to break application data
into packets that networks can deliver, sends packets to and accepts packets
from the network layer, manages flow control, andbecause it is meant to
provide error-free data transmissionhandles retransmission of dropped or
garbled packets as well as acknowledgement of all packets that arrive. In
the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) communication model, TCP covers
parts of Layer 4, the Transport Layer, and parts of Layer 5, the Session Layer.
Abbreviation of Transmission Control Protocol, and pronounced as separate
letters. TCP is one of the main protocols in TCP/IPnetworks. Whereas
the IP protocol deals only with packets, TCP enables two hosts to establish a
connection and exchange streams of data. TCP guarantees delivery of data
and also guarantees that packets will be delivered in the same order in which
they were sent.

UDP-

UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a communications protocol that

offers a limited amount of service when messages are exchanged between

computers in a network that uses the Internet Protocol (IP). UDP is an
alternative to the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and, together with IP, is
sometimes referred to as UDP/IP. Like the Transmission Control Protocol,
UDP uses the Internet Protocol to actually get a data unit (called a datagram)
from one computer to another. Unlike TCP, however, UDP does not provide the
service of dividing a message into packets (datagrams) and reassembling it at
the other end. Specifically, UDP doesn't provide sequencing of the packets
that the data arrives in. This means that the application program that uses
UDP must be able to make sure that the entire message has arrived and is in
the right order. Network applications that want to save processing time
because they have very small data units to exchange (and therefore very little
message reassembling to do) may prefer UDP to TCP. The Trivial File Transfer
Protocol (TFTP) uses UDP instead of TCP.

(iii) Define IP?

Definition - What does IP Network mean?
An IP network is a communication network that uses Internet Protocol (IP) to send and receive
messages between one or more computers. As one of the most commonly used global networks, an

IP network is implemented in Internet networks, local area networks (LAN) and enterprise networks.
An IP network requires that all hosts or network nodes be configured with the TCP/IP suite.
The Internet is the largest and best known IP network.
Each host is assigned a unique logical IP address, which distinguishes it from other nodes and helps
initiate data communication with other hosts. IP network communication occurs when a host sends a
data packet to another host by addressing its IP address. Similarly, the recipient identifies the sender
by its IP address.
Moreover, an IP network requires that all connected devices - such as servers, switches, routers and
other devices - be configured with the TCP/IP suite and have a valid IP address to perform any
network communication.
The Internet Protocol (IP) is the principal communications protocol in the Internet protocol suite for
relayingdatagrams across network boundaries. Its routing function enables internetworking, and
essentially establishes theInternet.
IP has the task of delivering packets from the source host to the destination host solely based on
the IP addresses in the packet headers. For this purpose, IP defines packet structures
that encapsulate the data to be delivered. It also defines addressing methods that are used to label
the datagram with source and destination information.
Historically, IP was the connectionless datagram service in the original Transmission Control
Program introduced by Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn in 1974; the other being the connectionoriented Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). The Internet protocol suite is therefore often referred
to as TCP/IP.

(iv) What is Firewall? And Write the types of Firewall.

A firewall is a system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a
private network.
Firewalls
can
be
implemented
in
bothhardware and software, or a combination of both. Firewalls are
frequently used to prevent unauthorized Internet users from accessing
private networks connected to the Internet, especiallyintranets. All
messages entering or leaving the intranet pass through the firewall, which
examines each message and blocks those that do not meet the
specified security criteria.
Conceptually, there are two types of firewalls:
1.
Network layer
2.
Application layer

3.2.1 Network layer firewalls

These generally make their decisions based on the source, destination addresses and ports
(see Appendix C for a more detailed discussion of ports) in individual IP packets. A simple
router is the ``traditional'' network layer firewall, since it is not able to make particularly
sophisticated decisions about what a packet is actually talking to or where it actually came
from. Modern network layer firewalls have become increasingly sophisticated, and now

maintain internal information about the state of connections passing through them, the
contents of some of the data streams, and so on. One thing that's an important distinction
about many network layer firewalls is that they route traffic directly though them, so to use
one you either need to have a validly assigned IP address block or to use a ``private
internet'' address block [3]. Network layer firewalls tend to be very fast and tend to be very
transparent to users.

Figure 1: Screened Host Firewall

In Figure 1, a network layer firewall called a ``screened host firewall'' is represented. In a

screened host firewall, access to and from a single host is controlled by means of a router
operating at a network layer. The single host is a bastion host; a highly-defended and
secured strong-point that (hopefully) can resist attack.

Figure 2: Screened Subnet Firewall

Example Network layer firewall: In figure 2, a network layer firewall called a ``screened
subnet firewall'' is represented. In a screened subnet firewall, access to and from a whole
network is controlled by means of a router operating at a network layer. It is similar to a
screened host, except that it is, effectively, a network of screened hosts.

3.2.2 Application layer firewalls

These generally are hosts running proxy servers, which permit no traffic directly between
networks, and which perform elaborate logging and auditing of traffic passing through them.
Since the proxy applications are software components running on the firewall, it is a good
place to do lots of logging and access control. Application layer firewalls can be used as
network address translators, since traffic goes in one ``side'' and out the other, after having
passed through an application that effectively masks the origin of the initiating connection.
Having an application in the way in some cases may impact performance and may make the
firewall less transparent. Early application layer firewalls such as those built using the TIS

firewall toolkit, are not particularly transparent to end users and may require some training.
Modern application layer firewalls are often fully transparent. Application layer firewalls tend
to provide more detailed audit reports and tend to enforce more conservative security
models than network layer firewalls.

(v) What is Virus? and Write the various types of Viruses.

What are computer viruses and its types?
Computer Viruses are malicious software programs that damage computer program entering
into the computer without the permission of the users, and also run against the wishes of the
users. They are replicated by themselves. Viruses are so dangerous and malicious that they can
be automatically copied and pasted from memory to memory over and over; the transmitting
power is too much quick from network to network that can simply hang smoothly running
computer, sometimes damage the important programs of the computer. Viruses are very
dangerous program can go on their activities automatically and can do a great loss of the users.
All of the users of the computer dont like computer virus and also dont like to hear of it. But its
a great mistake. You need to know much about the viruses as they are the enemies of your
computer. The clear knowledge of the enemies will protect you from upcoming harm committed
by the enemies.
It is quite impossible to give the proper information about the types of viruses. The types of
viruses are changing day by day. Therefore on the basis of their origin, hiding, damaging types,
operating system etc their types as follows:
Boot Sector Virus: Boot sector virus infects the boot sector on floppy disks, hard disks and
other bootable media like DVD or CD. The examples of boot sector viruses are Form,
Michelangelo, and Stoned.
Macro Virus: A macro virus is an original individual amongst the types of computer virus, and
contaminates the macros inside a pattern. As soon as you release a spreadsheet or word
processing text, the macro virus gets into typical pattern. The examples of Macro viruses are
Relax, Babbles, and Melissa.
Companion Viruses: Companion viruses are as same as direct action types or resident types.
They are companion viruses as because sometimes they get into the method and accompany
the other existing files. The example of accompany viruses are Asimov.1539, Terax.1069.

Section-B
Q.1. Explain the media access control.
In the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking, media access
control (MAC) data communication protocol is a sub layer of the data link layer (layer
2). The MAC sub layer provides addressing and channel access control mechanisms
that make it possible for several terminals or network nodes to communicate within
a multiple access network that incorporates a shared medium, e.g. an Ethernet network.
The hardware that implements the MAC is referred to as a media access controller.
The MAC sub layer acts as an interface between the logical link control (LLC) sub layer
and the network's physical layer. The MAC layer emulates a full-duplex logical
communication channel in a multi-point network. This channel may provide
unicast, multicast or broadcast communication service.

The Media Access Control Layer is one of two sublayers that make up the Data Link
Layer of the OSI model. The MAC layer is responsible for moving data packets to and
from one Network Interface Card (NIC) to another across a shared channel.

In the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model of communication, the

Media Access Control layer is one of two sublayers of the Data Link Control
layer and is concerned with sharing the physical connection to the network
among several computers. Each computer has its own unique MAC
address. Ethernet is an example of a protocol that works at the Media Access
Control layer level.

Functions performed in the MAC sub layer

According to IEEE Std 802-2001 section 6.2.3 "MAC sub layer", the primary functions
performed by the MAC layer are:[1]

Frame delimiting and recognition

Addressing of destination stations (both as individual stations and as groups of

stations)

Conveyance of source-station addressing information

Transparent data transfer of LLC PDUs, or of equivalent information in the

Ethernet sub layer

Protection against errors, generally by means of generating and checking frame

check sequences

Control of access to the physical transmission medium

In the case of Ethernet, according to 802.3-2002 section 4.1.4, the functions required of
a MAC are:[2]

receive/transmit normal frames

half-duplex retransmission and back off functions

append/check FCS (frame check sequence)

inter frame gap enforcement

discard malformed frames

prepend(tx)/remove(rx) preamble, SFD (start frame delimiter), and padding

half-duplex compatibility: append(tx)/remove(rx) MAC address

Q.2.Explain the following in brief:

(A) SMTP (B) FTP (C) DHCP (D) URL
ANS.
(A) SMTP

hort for Simple Mail TransferProtocol, a protocol for sending e-mail messages

betweenservers. Most e-mail systems that send mail over the Internet use SMTP to send messages
from one server to another; the messages can then be retrieved with an e-mail client using
eitherPOP or IMAP. In addition, SMTP is generally used to send messages from a mail client to a
mail server. This is why you need to specify both the POP or IMAP server and the SMTP server
when you configure your e-mail application. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is an Internet
standard for electronic mail (e-mail) transmission. First defined by RFC 821 in 1982, it was last
updated in 2008 with the Extended SMTP additions by RFC 5321 - which is the protocol in
widespread use today.
SMTP by default uses TCP port 25. The protocol for mail submission is the same, but uses port 587.
SMTP connections secured by SSL, known as SMTPS, default to port 465 (nonstandard, but
sometimes used for legacy reasons).
Although electronic mail servers and other mail transfer agents use SMTP to send and receive mail
messages, user-level client mail applications typically use SMTP only for sending messages to a
mail

server

for relaying.

For

receiving

messages,

client

applications

usually

use

either POP3 or IMAP.

Although

proprietary

systems

(such

as Microsoft

Exchange and Lotus

Notes/Domino)

and webmail systems (such asHotmail, Gmail and Yahoo! Mail) use their own non-standard
protocols to access mail box accounts on their own mail servers, all use SMTP when sending or
receiving email from outside their own systems.

(B) FTP The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used to
transfer computer files from one host to another host over a TCP-based network, such
as the Internet.
FTP is built on a client-server architecture and uses separate control and data
connections between the client and the server. [1] FTP users may authenticate
themselves using a clear-text sign-in protocol, normally in the form of a username and
password, but can connect anonymously if the server is configured to allow it. For
secure transmission that protects the username and password, and encrypts the

content, FTP is often secured with SSL/TLS (FTPS). SSH File Transfer Protocol(SFTP)
is sometimes also used instead, but is technologically different.
The first FTP client applications were command-line applications developed
before operating systems had graphical user interfaces, and are still shipped with most
Windows, Unix, and Linux operating systems.[2][3] Many FTP clients and automation
utilities have since been developed for desktops, servers, mobile devices, and
hardware, and FTP has been incorporated into productivity applications, such as Web
page editors.

(C) DHCP

The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a

standardized network protocol used on Internet Protocol (IP) networks for dynamically
distributing network configuration parameters, such as IP addresses for interfaces and
services. With DHCP, computers request IP addresses and networking parameters
automatically from a DHCP server, reducing the need for a network administrator or a
user to configure these settings manually.
Computers use the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol for requesting Internet
Protocol parameters from a network server, such as an IP address. The protocol
operates based on the client-server model. DHCP is very common in all modern
networks[1] ranging in size from home networks to large campus networks and
regional Internet service provider networks. Most residential network routers receive a
globally unique IP address within the provider network. Within a local network, DHCP
assigns a local IP address to devices connected to the local network.
When a computer or other networked device connects to a network, the DHCP client
software in its operating system sends a broadcast query requesting necessary
information. Any DHCP server on the network may service the request. The DHCP
server manages a pool of IP addresses and information about client configuration
parameters such as default gateway, domain name, the name servers, and time
servers. On receiving a request, the server may respond with specific information for
each client, as previously configured by an administrator, or with a specific address and
any other information valid for the entire network, and the time period for which the
allocation (lease) is valid. A host typically queries for this information immediately
after booting, and periodically thereafter before the expiration of the information. When
an assignment is refreshed by the client computer, it initially requests the same
parameter values, but may be assigned a new address from the server, based on the
assignment policies set by administrators.

(D) URL

A uniform resource locator (URL) is a reference to a resource that

specifies the location of the resource on a computer network and a mechanism for
retrieving it. A URL is a specific type of uniform resource identifier (URI).[1] although
many people use the two terms interchangeably.[2] A URL implies the means to access
an indicated resource, which is not true of every URI. [2][3] URLs occur most commonly to
reference web pages (http), but are also used for file transfer (ftp), email (mailto),

database access (JDBC), and many other applications.

Most web browsers display the URL of a web page above the page in an address bar. A
typical URL has the formhttp://www.example.com/index.html, which indicates the
protocol type (http), the domain name, (www.example.com), and the specific web page
(index.html).
The Uniform Resource Locator was standardized in 1994 [4] by Tim Berners-Lee and the
URI working group of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) as an outcome of
collaboration started at the IETF Living Documents "Birds of a Feather" session in 1992.
[5][6]
The format combines the pre-existing system of domain names (created in 1985)
with file path syntax, where slashes are used to separate directory and file names.
Conventions already existed where server names could be prepended to complete file
paths, preceded by a double-slash (//).
Berners-Lee later regretted the use of dots to separate the parts of the domain
name within URIs,
wishing
he
had
used
slashes
throughout. [7] For
example,http://www.example.com/path/to/name would
have
been
written http:com/example/www/path/to/name. Berners-Lee has also said that, given the
colon following the URI scheme, the two slashes before the domain name were also
unnecessary.