IEEE ISGT Asia 2013 1569815481

Performance Requirements of Present-Day Distribution

Transformers for Smart Grid
N Maheswara Rao(1), Narayanan R(2), B R Vasudevamurthy(3), Swaraj Kumar Das(4)
(1), (3) & (4)

Central Power Research Institute & (2) Tata Consultancy Services

Bangalore, India
mahesh@cpri.in, narayanan.rajagopal@tcs.com, brvmurthy@cpri.in & skdas@cpri.in
Transformation of traditional grid to smart grid extends
additional demand on reliability and security of the grid.
Intelligent monitoring of various network components needs
large number of sensors to measure key parameters and
aggregate them to arrive at diagnostic measures. The costs of
communication network limits monitoring and control
applications based on wireless sensors. With affordable
solutions of last mile connectivity, more availability of GSM
band and possible additional utilization of AMI
communication network, wireless sensors are seen as a
promising alternative, particularly, in remote areas with
limitations for frequent human inspections [2].

Abstract One of the main objectives of Smart grid is to provide

service that is reliable, secure and efficient. As a part of smart
grid it is very essential to evaluate each and every element
separately in the grid level to ensure reliable operation of the
grid. In this paper, distribution transformer (DTR)
requirements for smart grid have been considered. Distribution
transformer is one of the most important elements of electrical
distribution network.
For smart grid to operate efficiently
there is a need for smartening the transformers, which are the
hub for collection and distribution of energy. As part of the
distribution network, there are millions of distribution
transformers in the national network that do not have any
monitoring and communication capabilities. Smartening the
transformers will require development and deployment of wide
range of technologies.

One of the objectives of smart-grid is increased efficiency

and reliability of the network. For smart grid to work
efficiently there will be a need for smartening the
transformers [1], which are critical infrastructures that enable
aggregation and distribution of electricity. There are many
DTRs in the country not having any monitoring and
communication capabilities. These features need to be
addressed for at least all critical DTRs w.r.t smart grid point
of view.

This paper attempts to present the features needed in

distribution transformers to realize a smarter grid. Required
technologies to transform the present day distribution
transformers to smart transformers are discussed. Analysis has
been carried out on the performance requirements and
evaluation of distribution transformers when they are integrated
to grid level. Some applications of wireless sensors and
communication to enhance condition monitoring and
maintenance practices in the distribution grid are
recommended.

Failure and replacement of DTRs is one of the

important subjects for all the utilities in electrical sector.
Failures of DTRs have been consistently increasing in
number and causing lot of hardships to the utilities in
repairing and replacing the DTRs. It is increasing the
operation and maintenance expenditure for the utilities and
causing inconvenience to the consumers leading to
resentment towards the distribution companies. In order to
increase the reliability and to reduce the failure rates of the
existing DTRs a sophisticated monitoring system is required
and it should be designed to meet the needs of smart grid
network. Different causes for DTR failures are clearly
mentioned in Table 1.
Required technologies to transform the present day
distribution transformers to smart transformers have been

The paper also studies compliance needed to the existing

standards such as IEC 60076-7 [3].
Index TermsSmart Grid, Distribution Transformer (DTR),
DTR failures, Emergency loading, Back feed voltage, Influence
of harmonics, Over current protection, Wireless sensor
technology, Monitoring system, Effective management of DTR
asset, Communication strategy

I.

INTRODUCTION

Number of initiatives towards integration of more and more

renewable energy resources are in progress. Several
challenges are faced due to geographically distributed energy
resources and the limitation of present infrastructure to
support customer owned generation [1].

II.

MAIN CAUSES FOR DTR FAILURES

From Table 1, we can understand that most failures in DTRs happen due to overloading. This is based on actual data from one
of the distribution utilities in India, collected over a period of 5 years.
Table 1: Causes of DTR failures
Sl. no

Cause of failure

Overloading

Approximate
failure rate
40%

Line faults

20%

Surges

10%

4
5

Unbalance loads
Oil leakages

5%
5%

Loose connections
at AB switches,
bushings etc.
Improper earthing
for DTRs feeding
Unbalance loads
Bad quality of
repairs

5%

5%

10%

Remarks
1) It increases the magnitude of the magnetic motive forces, temperature
of the windings & oil.
2) Minute displacements
of insulating materials used in the core and
winding assembly takes place with the increased MMFs.
3) Winding wires get weakened due to losing elasticity owing to higher
temperatures.
4) Insulating materials and transformer oil get deteriorated in quality due
to high temperatures.
1) Due to feeding fault currents, the magnitude of MMFs
increases
abnormally.
2) Disturbs the position of various insulating materials used in the
assembly of core and windings.
3) Generation of transient voltages due to symmetrical and asymmetrical
nature of, faults causes the core and windings to suffer.
4) Frequent exposure to line faults causes the cores to get saturated.
1) Surges may be switching and lightning.
2) Abnormal peak voltages penetrate the windings deeply and damage the
windings.
Flow of neutral current weakens the star formation at joints.
Transformer oil being the cooling medium causes the temperature of the
windings to raise leading to failure of the windings.
Develops transient voltages and affects the windings

Improper earthing increases the resistance between neutral to earth which

leads to potential rise of neutral point with respect to earth. It causes the
efficiency in the functioning of all electrical appliances to come down.
Quality in repairs

discussed.
Recommend steps for performance
improvement of DTRs when they are integrated to grid
level has been presented. This paper also studies the effect
of various factors like short-term overloading, reverse
power flow, influence of harmonic currents and protection
requirements on the DTRs.
III.

Wind

Main utility
Grid

PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS FOR

SMART GRID

Solar

Distributed
Generation
Battery
storage

Smart grid implementation will also lead to loading patters

which are close to the limits of the network. As seen in
Table 1, overloading is one of the major concerns. With
the advent of smart grid, available capacity of the network
should always be monitored to ensure effective utilization
of the network. By providing monitoring and
communication features to the existing DTRs, they can be
applied to the smart grid distribution network. The other
capabilities required are

DTR
Non-critical
loads
Figure 1: Typical DTR presence in integrated
distributed generation
Critical loads

D. OVER CURRENT PROTECTION

REQUIREMENTS OF DTR
Protection requirements for a smart grid are quite different
from those of conventional distribution systems. Smart
grid has to meet two sets of protection criteria, viz. (i) the
interconnection requirements imposed by the utility or
specified by appropriate technical standards and (ii) the
requirement of separating from the utility in time to
maintain the desired power quality and reliability. If there
is any conflict between these two criteria, then these must
be resolved. Reliable operation of the smart grid protection
system requires sufficient fault current capacity, so that all
the overcurrent devices within the grid get a fault current
magnitude at least the maximum load current. If fault
current to rated transformer current ratios are lower, then
these may violate the transformer protection requirements.
This can be achieved only if the grid contains a large
percentage of synchronous generation or inverters with
high fault current delivery capability. For too low-fault
currents, new protection schemes that are not entirely
based on overcurrent sensing must be developed and
installed, in spite of some uncertainty regarding their cost
effectiveness and efficiency [4] .

Allow two way power flow

Maintaining Voltage and frequency levels of the
connected distributed generation
Provide efficient routing of electricity
interconnecting utility grid, customer installations
and other transformers in the network

Figure 1 shows typical DTR presence in an integrated

solar and wind generated grid. The above factors lead to
the following concerns.
A. EMERGENCY LOADING EFFECT
IEC 60076-7 provides guidance for the specification and
loading of power transformers from the point of view of
operating temperatures and thermal ageing. This standard
is useful to infrastructure and outage planners to select
appropriate loading conditions for the transformers[3].
Loss of distribution generations like solar or wind cannot
be reconnected before the transformer reaches a new and
higher steady- state temperature. The loading will result in
a service condition having an increased risk of failure.
Short-time emergency overloading causes the conductor
hot-spot. This is likely to result in a temporary reduction in
the dielectric strength. This condition can be accepted for
short durations. When it occurs, this type of loading should
be reduced within short duration in order to avoid
permanent failure. The permissible duration of this load is
shorter than the thermal time constant of the whole
transformer. This also depends on the operating
temperature prior to increase in load. Typically, it would
be less than half-an-hour [3].
The present standard IEC 60076 -7 does not address shortterm emergency loading conditions for DTRs. It is
important for standards committees to derive guidelines
for emergency loading of DTRs from smart grid point of
view to support new points of coupling emerging from
integration of distributed generation and customer owned
generation.
B. EFFECT OF BACK FEED VOLTAGES
During the lightly loaded conditions there are chances of
flow of power from lower voltage level to higher voltage
level due to local generation. If the solar power converters
or wind power converters do not have adequate filters to
suppress the harmonics, then they may traverse to the
other sources also for which enough care has to be taken.
C. INFLUENCE OF HARMONICS

IV.

DTR MONITORING SYSTEM FOR SMART GRID

The previous section covered the performance

requirements for smart grid and system conditions against
which the DTRs should be secured. Apart from this,
efficient monitoring of critical components is a main
requirement. The following are the main elements of the
DTR, which are responsible for smooth operation:
Windings
Insulating Oil
Core
The regular health check of the above components using
continuous monitoring leads to the reliable and extended
life of DTR. Table 2 shows typical DTR measurement
sensor system parameters.
Table 2: DTR Monitored parameters
Basic parameters
Current
Voltage
Temperature
True power
Phase and frequency
Average, RMS, Peak

Non-linear loads, such as power electronic converters,

such as variable speed drives, IT infrastructure, UPS
systems, etc. cause harmonic currents in the network.
Harmonic voltages are generated due to harmonic load
currents. Harmonics increase both load and no-load losses
due to increased skin effect, eddy current, stray and
hysteresis losses. The effect of the harmonics depends on
the harmonic order and the magnitude. Transformers
subjected heavy harmonic loads become vulnerable as heat
is generated in the windings [7]. It may result in reduction
in transformer life span and can cause damages and fire.

V.

Derived parameters
Aparant power
Power factor and VAR
Accumulated energy
(watt-hours)
Harmonics and
Sub-harmonics
Thermal image

SENSORS AND MEASUREMENT

These contribute to collection of physical metrics across

the grid. These sensors enable collection of measurement
data in digital form and they can be aggregated to conduct
meaningful analysis. Then it becomes easy to evaluate the
health of the equipment, support integration with grid and
advanced control and protection. Demand response
implementation in smart grid requires current status of the
network and available capacity. Sensors enable collection

Advanced sensors capable of performing local data

analysis and filtering are under development. Networked
sensors across the system support improvement in system
performance assessment [11].
The reliability of the wireless sensor based approach has
major dependence with communication medium and the
environment. VIII gives the approach to select the right
communication medium for the application. As most
DTRs are connected with a Smart Meter as part of a Smart
Grid, Voltage and Current measurements are directly
available to the monitoring application. Otherwise, this can
be achieved through advanced instrument transformers
mentioned in Table 3.

of this information periodically for analysis and triggering

demand response events. The typical generic sensors can
be, temperature sensor, light sensor, camera. Electrical
parameters voltage, current, frequency etc. are measured
by conventional measuring equipment at all important
locations. However, with wireless sensors the measuring
points can be wide spread across the network.
Conventional measurements can also be converted to
digital form and communicated over the network to
monitoring systems.
Sensors provide data for effective automation of the
network. This reduces the human intervention in the
operation of the network [11]. Based on the sensor data
collected from different nodes in the system, the assets can
be optimally utilized. The life of the assets can also be
extended by managing the loading patterns better. Due to
continuous monitoring timely steps can be ensured to
avoid failures and outages of equipment. Maintenance
costs and savings due to deferred capital expenditure due
to asset life extension are direct benefits of sensor based
monitoring of network equipment [5].
The sensors used in the power system application can be
broadly categorized based on their location as:
Sensors mounted external to the equipment: Sensors
for measuring electrical parameters such as voltage,
current etc. are housed external to the equipment.
These can also be wireless nodes which are connected
to conventional measuring devices like CTs and PTs.
These have good powering options as they can be
powered from the very electrical equipment they
monitor.
Internally housed sensors: Examples can be sensors
housed inside the equipment such as moisture, hotspot
temperature measurement sensors etc. The challenges
here are for the auxiliary power requirement for
operation of the sensors. Technologies for extracting
the power needed from the measurement node are
available such as charging the sensors from vibrations
in the equipment.

The other important sensors like Temperature and

Moisture measurements can be mounted internally in
cooperation with transformer manufacturers. Their optimal
placements have to be arrived based on Laboratory level
experiments followed by Pilots covering limited part of
distribution area. Wireless sensors have been successfully
deployed in other applications like Defense and
Telecommunications. Utility industry is yet to leverage
this technology. Hence Pilot scale deployment and
analysis is necessary before network level deployment.
The cost of wireless sensors depends mainly on the
number sensors produced. The major hurdle used to be in
providing communication infrastructure. With the
implementation of Smart Grid and AMI, available
communication backbone can be effectively utilized for
sensor data traffic.
VI.

EVOLUTION OF MONITORING SYSTEMS

Sophisticated monitoring tools are now commercially

available that combine several measurements like
temperature, current and voltage measurements to
dynamically determine the performance condition of
transformers. Most of the present monitoring systems are
used for specific on demand evaluation of the condition of
DTRs. Many transformer manufacturers have invested in
technologies for condition monitoring and diagnostic tools.
This results in improved grid reliability and reduction in
outages [1]. Both established and technologies under
development for transformer monitoring are shown in
Table 3.

Sensors for distribution applications have to be energy

efficient. Frequent replacement of battery is not possible.
Long life batteries with energy harvesting, charging
options need to be incorporated in these sensors. The
various charging options available are:
1. Solar
2. Vibration harvesting
3. RF Power harvesting
4. Electromagnetic (induction) charging
For electrical parameter measurements such as voltage and
current, induction based charging will be more efficient.
Lithium based battery technologies with solar charging
options have a typical life time of 10 years.

Development of various monitoring modules without

standardization leads to integration problems with the
smart grid. The standard under development IEC 61850
90-3 addresses the needs of Condition Monitoring
Diagnostics and analysis. Though, monitoring application
standards generally treat both Power transformers and
DTRs generically, it is important for optimal adoption of
the standards for DTR application.

Table 3: Sensors availability for smart grid

Brief Description [8]
Fiberoptic PT and CT sensors are available and are cost effective for EHV. Will be cost
effective for lower voltages in future.
Optically powered CT sensors with up to 500 mW delivered to sensor head over
multiplexed fiber optic link
Advanced
> 5 Years
The measurement with a current sensor and the associated electronics module. Based on
instrument
elastic (mechanical) waves generated by the magnetic field induced by primary current.
transformers
Have an emitter, transmission structure and a receiver. Receiver converts elastic waves
back to electrical signals.
Monitoring systems to detect hotspots based on temperature and current measurements
Transformer Available now
Monitoring
Monitoring systems to measure dissolved gas in oils and predict transformer and tap
Systems
changer health. Latest generation extends previous EPRI work to develop a low cost
solid-state gas-in-oil monitor.
Commercially available gas chromatograph to give precise gas concentration
measurements without the need for timely and costly oil sampling/lab analysis currently
in use by utilities
can be through already established networks such
as GSM, Fiberoptic network.
VII. APPROACH FOR EFFECTIVE
3. Interconnection of monitoring systems for
MANAGEMENT OF DTR ASSETS
interchange of data. This will be through WAN
The central DTR Monitoring and Diagnostics application
across the substations / monitoring nodes
will aggregate the sensor data and process through specific
Table 4 shows communication strategy for a distribution
applications for analysis of
grid. This should be developed commonly covering other
1. Loading history
smart grid applications such as AMI, SCADA and
2. Identifying sections were DTRs have to be
Distribution Automation functions. It is also important to
upgraded
monitor the health of the communication system and
3. Detect early warnings based on temperature and
healthiness of the sensor nodes.
moisture profile
Table 4: Communication Strategy
The purpose of these applications will be to shift the
Application
Type of
Remarks
maintenance approach from Periodic to Preventive
communica
maintenance. Figure 2 shows effective management of
tion
DTR asset for smart grid visibility. The monitoring
ZigBee: up to 250
Sensor nodes Wireless:
systems increase observability of the DTRs resulting in
Optimal
Radio
/ kbps,
Gateway,
reliability and time maintenance measured to increase
auxiliary
power
Zigbee
Aggregator
longevity of the DTR and the connected network [9].
requirement.
Sensor nodes are located on the transformer and gateways
Fiberoptic
Gateway
to GSM
Installed
which collect sensor data take care of multiple
network
can
be
Substation
Cellular
transformers in a single area. These gateways can be
leveraged
Fiberoptic
connected to a central monitoring center located at major
GSM
Already
established
Substation to
substations. The network implemented for AMI
VSAT
networks
for
SCADA
Network
(Automatic Metering Infrastructure) or Distribution
can
be
used
Control
Center
automation / SCADA can be used as the backbone
network for collecting DTR sensor data also.
Wireless radio communication is the best option for low
VIII. COMMUNICATION
cost sensor networks. It benefits in terms of easy
installations on existing equipment. Challenges using
The communication architecture consists of 3 distinct
wireless radio communication are in terms of security and
communication networks
reliability [11].
1. Sensor network and its connectivity to Gateway.
This is normally met by wireless radio network
Internet protocol based (IP) networks can be used for data
2. Gateway to the sensor data integration platform
communication [10].
connected to the central monitoring system. This
Title
Advanced
instrument
transformers

Time to market
Available now

Gateways
Radio

Zigbee

Sensor
node 1

Ethernet

Cellular

...

Sensor
node n
Central Monitoring
System

Transformer 1

Transformer n

Oil temperature sensor

Current sensor
Voltage sensor
Moisture sensor

Oil temperature sensor

Current sensor
Voltage sensor
Moisture sensor

Algorithms
Load Cycle Recording
Over Loading Patterns
Winding temperature cal.
Life assessment
Maintenance alarms

Figure 2: Effective management of DTR assets for smart grid

medium and networking. The paper also studied adoption
of standards such as IEC 60076 -7.
Scope of the
emerging standards for condition monitoring of
distribution equipment, IEC 61850 90 -3 was also
discussed.

The characteristics of the communication network are:

Acts as a bridge between application and underlying
sensor networks
Uses both private (dedicated) and public networks
Uses also wireless networks for connecting sensors to
gateway
Data carried as payload will be formatted by specific
standards such as SCADA related standards
Example configuration
Considering a typical urban distribution network, densely
populated areas will have about 7 distribution transformers
in 1 sq. km area. Considering about 3 sensor nodes per
transformer, about 20 sensor nodes need to be networked
in 1 sq. km. Wireless mesh networks will be ideal for such
a configuration. A gateway that aggregates the data from
these sensor nodes can be connected to the Substation
level control center through GSM or equivalent medium.
When other network objects are monitored like
underground lines additional nodes will be networked.
IX.

REFERENCES
[1]

A technical report on Transformers and the smart grid from Pacific

Crest Transformers
[2] Research on Monitoring Power System Faults by Wireless Sensor
Network, ISBN 978-952-5726-11-4, Proceedings of the Third
International Symposium on Electronic Commerce and Security
Workshops(ISECS 10)
[3] IEC 60076-7 Power Transformers: Part 7: Loading guide for oilimmersed power transformers` : 2005-12
[4] IET RENEWABLE ENERGY SERIES 6: Microgrids and Active
Distribution Networks by S. Chowdhury, S.P. Chowdhury and
P.Crossley
[5] Wireless Sensor Networks in the Smart Power Grid, Melike ErolKantarci and Hussein T. Mouftah, School of Information
Technology and Engineering University of Ottawa, IEEE Ottawa
Section Seminar, November 22, 2010
[6] IEC 61850-90-3 :Draft IEC TR 61850-90-3 Using IEC 61850 for
condition monitoring diagnosis and analysis
[7] Selecting Energy Efficient Distribution Transformers (SEEDT) A
Guide for Achieving Least-Cost Solutions, Prepared for Intelligent
Energy Europe Programme Strategies for Development and
Diffusion of Energy Efficient Distribution Transformers, First
Published June 2008
[8] NETL Modern Grid Initiative Powering our 21st-Century Economy
on a compendium of modern grid technologies conducted by the
National Energy Technology Laboratory for the U.S. Department of
Energy Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability June
2007
[9] Transformer IQ: Cost-effective smart grid monitoringright down
to the distribution transformer A Technical product document by
GRIDSENSE
[10] A Technical presentation on Network Sensors for the Smart Grid:
Dr. Darold Wobschall President, Esensors Inc. Sensors Expo 2010
[11] Sensors for Integrated Monitoring, Communication, Command and
Control Scoping Study, EPRI Report

SUMMARY

This paper summarizes the performance requirements of

the DTR for smart grid applications. To meet these
requirements, wide range of sensor technologies are
available or under development. This paper identified key
parameters that need to be monitored for DTRs. The
parameters have been arrived at, based on typical survey
of failure analysis records reported by utilities. Reliability
and Cost aspects of the Wireless Sensor based approach
have been discussed. Embedding the sensors to the DTR
and their optimal placements have to be achieved through
collaboration with manufacturers. The paper presents
communication technologies that are available. The paper
presents an approach to select the right communication