Beamforming

(and LOFAR)

Andreas Horneffer
(Using Material from J. Anderson and M. Kuniyoshi)

Basic Antenna Parameters

Effective collecting
area A(,,) m2
On-axis response A0 = A
= aperture efficiency
Normalized pattern
(primary beam)
A(,,) = A(,,)/A0
Beam solid angle
A= A(,,) d
all sky

A0 A = 2

= wavelength, = frequency
2

Aperture-Beam Fourier
Transform Relationship
f(u,v) = aperture field distribution
u,v = aperture coordinates
(in wavelengths)
F(l,m) = far-field voltage pattern
l = sincos , m = sinsin

,  =  (
, ) exp 2(
 + ) 


,  =  F(l, m)exp 2(
 + )  
3

Pointing a Dish Antenna

Pointing Antenna Arrays?

Beamforming means pointing an antenna array

And shaping the beam
In short: by giving each antenna the right delay and weigth,
and then adding the signals.

Pointing Antenna Arrays?

Beamforming means pointing an antenna array

And shaping the beam
In short: by giving each antenna the right delay and weigth,
and then adding the signals.

The Principle of
Beamforming
Note: Antenna patterns are the same when transmitting or
receiving. Thus receiving works the same as the transmitting
case shown here.

Beam pattern

generator
7

The Principle of
Beamforming
Note: Antenna patterns are the same when transmitting or
receiving. Thus receiving works the same as the transmitting
case shown here.

Beam pattern

generator
8

The Principle of
Beamforming

Beam pattern
a

The coaxial cables have the same length.

generator
9

The Principle of
Beamforming
same phase

same phase

Beam pattern
a

The coaxial cables have the same length.

generator
10

The Principle of
Beamforming

Beam pattern

The coaxial cables have the same length.

generator
11

The Principle of
Beamforming

Beam pattern

The coaxial cables have the same length.

generator
12

The Principle of
Beamforming
same phase

different
phase

Resulting beam pattern

The coaxial cables have the same length.

generator
13

The Principle of
Beamforming

added cables

b
a sin
(a+b)sin

generator

The coaxial cables have the same length.

14

The Principle of
Beamforming

b
asin
(a+b)sin

generator

coaxial cable

15

The Principle of
Beamforming

different phase

b
a sin
(a+b)sin

coaxial cable
generator

16

The Principle of
Beamforming
same phase

Resulting beam pattern

different
phase

b
a sin

(a+b)sin

coaxial cable
generator

17

The Principle of
Beamforming

asin
(a+b)sin

generator

18

The Principle of
Beamforming
same phase

Resulting beam pattern

different phase

asin
(a+b)sin

generator

19

Digital Beamforming

A shift in time is a multiplication with a

phase gradient in frequency
(Fourier shift theorem)

If is small then the phase gradient is

a phase factor
ADC

ADC

S0(t)

i 0

ADC

S1(t)

i1

ADC

S2(t)

i 2

S3(t)

i 3

To other
beam
former

20

LOFAR High Band Antennas

(ASTRON)
http://www.astron.nl/~devoscm/rd-wiki/doku.php?id=report_projects_2008
21

HBA Tiles
Dipole Beam

generator
22

HBA Tiles
Tile Beam

generator
23

HBA Tiles
Station Beam 1

Added cable
generator
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HBA Tiles
Station Beam 2

Station beam outside the tile Beam

Added cable
generator
25

Single- and Double-Slit

Experiment

You see the main pattern from

the single slit
In the double slit experiment
the brightness of the doubleslit maxima is modulated with
the single-lit pattern
See same effect when
forming a station beam within
a tile-beam

Images from
Wikipedia

26

LOFAR Tile Beamformer

1) Delay Lines on Frontend Boards
5 bit (32 steps); 0.5 ns resolution

2) Analog signal Addition

+
27

LOFAR Station Beamformer

1) Polyphase Filterbank

3) Add to data on ring

Remote Station Processing board

28

HBA Multi-Beaming

Only one tile beam!

Can point several stations beams within the tile
beam.
Can point station beam outside the tile beam, but
with reduced sensitivity.

29

Grating Lobes
Intended Direction
Grating Lobe Direction

generator
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Grating Interferometer
with Isotropic Sources
Beam pattern
(sphere: Isotropic)

Array of n isotropic sources of equal amplitude E 0 and spacing d

31

Grating Interferometer
with isotropic sources

nd

2
nd

32

Grating Interferometer
with Dipoles

Array of the same spacing

33

Pseudorandom Spacing

Array of pseudorandom spacing

34

Grating vs Pseudorandom

L. Kogan

35

Crab Nebula

regular HBA
spacing creates
grating lobes
Position of grating
lobes changes
with frequency

by S. ter Veen

36

Grating Lobes in
LOFAR Visibilities

Two Baselines
One of the stations of the second baseline had a gratinglobe on a strong source.
37

Station Primary Beam

20MHz

Thats actually a LWA simulation.

38

Asymmetric Station Beam

The ratio of the HPBW of down side to up side

Thats actually a LWA simulation.

39

Pointing error
H = -100d (-6.7h)

(0,0)

Dec = 40.7d
El = +14.1d
Pointing error
(0,0)

40

Pointing error
H = -80d (-5.3h)

(0,0)

Dec = 40.7d
El = +27.7d
Pointing error
(0,0)

41

Pointing error
H = -60d (-4h)

(0,0)

Dec = 40.7d
El = +42.3d
Pointing error
(0,0)

42

Pointing error (degree)

Pointing error
20MHz

20

15

10

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Elevation (degree)
20MHz

50MHz

80MHz

Pointing error as a function of elevation angle (degree).

Pointing error

antenna reception pattern

Thats actually a LWA simulation.

43

Shaping the Beam

Shape the beam by giving different weights to the
elements
In this case: get a circular beam at all elevations

East

South
Thats actually a LWA simulation.

44

Shaping the Beam

East

Shape the beam by giving different weights to the

elements
In this case: get a circular beam at all elevations

South
Thats actually a LWA simulation.

45

Shaping the Beam

Disadvantage: loose a lot of sensitivity!

East

South
Thats actually a LWA simulation.

46

The End!

47

Beam Rotation on the Sky

Parallactic angle

48

Antenna Performance
Parameters
Primary Beam Shape

Dl

49

Antenna Performance
Parameters
Pointing Accuracy

= rms pointing error

3dB

Primary beam A()

50