Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Manual de
Nutricin Vegana
ndice
I.
Introduccin
II.
III.
56
IV.
Vitamina B12
78
V.
9 11
VI.
12 13
VII.
14 17
VIII.
18 20
IX.
Resumen de Recomendaciones
21
X.
Referencias Bibliogrficas
22 38
I.
Introduccin
II.
kcal
g
Carbohidratos
%
g
Protena
%
Grasa
g
total
%
Grasa
g
saturada
%
Omega-3
g
Fibra diettica
g
Vitamina A
mcg*
Vitamina B1
mg
Vitamina B2
mg
Vitamina B3
mg
Vitamina B6
mg
Vitamina B9
mcg
Vitamina B12
mcg
Vitamina C
mg
Vitamina D
mcg
Vitamina E
mg
Calcio
mg
Hierro
mg
Magnesio
mg
Fsforo
mg
Potasio
mg
Sodio
mg
Zinc
mg
M = Hombres F = Mujeres
Minerales
Vitaminas
Macronutrientes
Caloras
Unidad
IDR
M
-
F
130
45-65
56
46
10-35
20-35
1,6
1,1
38
25
900
700
1,2
1,1
1,3
1,1
16
14
1,7
1,5
400
400
2,4
2,4
90
70
15
15
15
15
1000
1000
8
18
420
320
700
4700
< 2300
11
8
* RAE
Omnvoros
Veganos
M
F
M
F
2186
1910
1907
1660
256
231
262
233
47
55
48
56
87
83
62
56
16
17
13
14
78
68
60
52
32
32
28
28
26
22
11
10
11
10
5
5
2,1
1,8
30
46
1016
930
498
501
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
25
23
24
21
2,3
2,2
2,2
2,1
329
321
431
412
7,3
7,0
0,4
0,5
119
138
155
169
3,4
3,3
0,9
0,9
11,8
10,7
16,1
14,0
1057
989
610
582
13,4
12,6
15,3
14,1
366
341
440
391
1359
1370
3487
4120
3272
3066
9,8
9,2
7,9
7,2
mcg de retinol + beta-caroteno
III.
Porcin
Contenido
de Protena (g)
Porotos de soja
Lentejas
Man
Tofu
Mantequilla de man
Porotos negros
Porotos blancos
Garbanzos
Habas
Yogur de soja
Leche de soja
Arvejas
taza
taza
taza
taza
2 cucharadas
taza
taza
taza
taza
2 unidades (240 g)
1 taza
taza
14,2
8,9
8,7
8,1 10,3
8,0
7,6
7,5
7,3
6,5
6,4
5,1 6,0
4,3
Porcin
Contenido
de Protena (g)
Amaranto
Pasta integral
Mote
Qunoa
Pasta blanca
Pan integral
Cuscs
Choclo
Arroz integral
Pan blanco
Avena
Arroz blanco
1 taza
1 taza
taza
1 taza
1 taza
2 rebanadas
1 taza
1 taza
1 taza
2 rebanadas
taza
1 taza
9,3
9,2
8,7
8,1
8,1
7,8
5,9
5,1
5,0
4,6
4,4
4,2
Porcin
taza
taza
taza
taza
Contenido
de Protena (g)
7,6
6,6
5,3
4,5
IV.
Vitamina B12
V.
Porcin
Contenido
de Omega-3 (g)
Aceite de lino
1 cucharadita cruda *1
2,1
Semillas de linaza
1 cucharada molidas *2
1,6
Nueces de nogal
4 enteras
1,4
Semillas de cha
1 cucharada molidas *2
1,3
*1 la coccin puede destruir las grasas poliinsaturadas5-6
*2 deben ser molidas o trituradas para poder absorber sus grasas 7-9
Si bien est establecido que las personas veganas en la mayora de los casos
no tienen ingestas de cidos grasos poliinsaturados de tipo omega-3 de cadena
larga (EPA y DHA), hasta el momento esto no ha demostrado ser perjudicial para la
salud.10-14 Por este motivo, existe la hiptesis de que la conversin de ALA a EPA y
Aceite
Grasa
saturada
(%)
Grasa monoinsaturada
(%)
Omega-3
(%)
Omega-6
(%)
Crtamo *1
Crtamo
Canola
Lino
Uva
Girasol *1
Girasol
Palta
Maz
Oliva
6,2
6,2
7,4
9,4
9,6
9,7
10,3
11,6
12,9
13,8
74,6
14,4
63,3
20,2
16,1
83,6
19,5
70,6
27,6
73,0
9,1
53,3
0,1
0,2
1,0
1,2
0,8
14,6
74,6
18,6
12,7
69,6
3,6
65,7
12,5
53,5
9,8
10
14,2
15,3
16,9
25,9
81,5
86,5
39,7
21,7
46,2
17,8
11,4
5,8
0,3
41,3
6,9
51,3
32,0
0,2
51,5
1,6
1,8
1
* versin alto oleico" (omega-9)
11
VI.
12
Porcin
Contenido
de Hierro (mg)
Legumbres:
Porotos de soja
taza
4,4
Lentejas
taza
3,3
Garbanzos
taza
2,4
Porotos blancos
taza
1,9
Porotos negros
taza
1,8
Yogur de soja
2 unidades
1,8
Tofu
taza
1,4 - 2,0
Arvejas
taza
1,3
Habas
taza
1,2
Cereales y tubrculos:
Amaranto
1 taza
5,2
Qunoa
1 taza
2,8
Mote
taza
2,7
Papa con cscara
1 mediana
2,5
Pasta fortificada
1 taza
2,4
Avena
taza
1,8
Pan integral
2 rebanadas
1,4
Camote con cscara
1 mediano
1,1
Arroz integral
1 taza
1,0
Verduras:
Espinaca
1 taza
3,2
Col berza
1 taza
2,2
Acelgas
1 taza
2,0
Col china (bok choy)
1 taza
1,8
Hojas de betarraga
1 taza
1,4
Zapallo
1 taza
1,4
Col rizada (kale)
1 taza
1,2
Brcoli
1 taza
1,1
Jugo de tomate
1 taza
1,0
Frutos secos y semillas:
Anacardos
taza
2,1
Man
taza
1,7
Pistachos
taza
1,3
Almendras
taza
1,3
Semillas de ssamo
1 cucharada molidas
1,2
IDR = 8 mg para hombres y 18 mg para mujeres en edad frtil
13
VII.
Calcio
A pesar de que por algn tiempo se crey que las dietas veganas deberan
tener requerimientos ms bajos de calcio segn la hiptesis de que la acidez de la
protena animal tendra un efecto negativo en la calcificacin de los huesos, esto
actualmente ya est descartado y no hay razn para pensar que una dieta libre de
protena animal es beneficiosa por s misma para los huesos. 16-23
Estando la recomendacin diaria para la ingesta de calcio hecha en base a
una tasa de absorcin promedio de un 30%, es relevante que el calcio obtenido a
travs de la dieta no tenga una biodisponibilidad promedio mucho menor a este
porcentaje.24 Algunas prcticas pueden ser empleadas para aumentar la
biodisponibilidad del calcio obtenido a travs de la dieta, o por lo menos para evitar
su inhibicin (ver captulo VI: Hierro y Absorcin de Minerales).
La siguiente tabla de contenidos de calcio en alimentos de origen vegetal
excluir, por consiguiente, a los alimentos con biodisponibilidades bajas tales como
la espinaca y la acelga que no pasan un 10% de absorcin. Todos los alimentos
listados a continuacin estn dentro de un rango de aproximadamente 1560% de
biodisponibilidad segn los estudios hechos al respecto y predicciones en base a su
contenido de oxalato, que es un inhibidor de la absorcin de minerales. 25-31
Alimento
Porcin
Contenido
de Calcio (mg)
Col berza
Leches vegetales *1
Jugos de frutas *1
Avena *1
Col china (bok choy)
Amaranto
Tahini
Yogur de soja *1
Col rizada (kale)
Hojas de mostaza
Nabos
Porotos de soja
Semillas de ssamo
Almendras
Brcoli
Semillas de cha
1 taza
1 taza
1 taza
taza
1 taza
1 taza
2 cucharadas
2 unidades (240 g)
1 taza
1 taza
1 taza
taza
1 cucharada molidas
taza
1 taza
1 cucharada molidas
270
200 300
200 300
170
170
120
120
120
100
100
100
90
90
90
80
60
14
taza
60
2 rebanadas
60
4 medianos
60
4 medianos
60
1 mediana
60
2 medianas
60
2 medianos
50
taza
50
1 mediano
40
taza
40
taza
30
taza
30 300
*1 slo con fortificacin, revisar etiqueta
*2 dependiendo de su preparacin, revisar etiqueta
Vitamina D
La vitamina D es un nutriente que permite la absorcin de calcio a nivel
intestinal adems del desarrollo seo y tambin cumple otras funciones como
participar en la funcin inmunitaria.41-43 Cantidades insuficientes de esta vitamina
estn relacionadas con problemas a nivel seo y a un riesgo mayor de padecer
cncer, artritis, esclerosis mltiple, diabetes y resistencia a la insulina. 44-61
Dentro de las dietas veganas las fuentes dietticas de vitamina D son muy
limitadas; siendo las leches vegetales fortificadas (con 1,02,0 mcg en 1 taza), las
margarinas fortificadas (con 0,51,5 mcg en 2 cucharadas) y los championes (con
0,5 mcg en 5 unidades grandes) las nicas alternativas existentes.30-31 Al ser el
requerimiento diario mnimo de vitamina D correspondiente a 15 mcg, el
aporte de estos alimentos es limitado pero a la vez importante en personas que se
vean con complicaciones para obtener esta vitamina de otras formas.24
Si bien es posible obtener cantidades significativas de vitamina D a partir de
la exposicin solar o el uso de camas solares, la produccin subcutnea de sta se
ve desfavorecida por mltiples factores que deben ser tomados en consideracin si
se desea utilizar esta estrategia para obtener vitamina D. Las estaciones del ao, la
15
Descripcin
Latitud
( N/S)
Tiempo (m)
en Invierno
Tiempo (m)
en Verano
Caucsica, rubia/pelirroja,
0 12
10
5
ojos azules, muy sensible,
12 30
20
5
I
se quema fcilmente y
30 42
75
5
nunca se broncea.
42 60
10
Caucsica, rubia/pelirroja,
0 12
10
5
ojos azules o verdes, muy
12 30
25
5
II
sensible, se quema y
30 42
90
5
difcilmente se broncea.
42 60
10
Caucsica oscura o asitica
0 12
10
5
clara, sensible, puede
12 30
30
5
III
quemarse y se broncea
30 42
110
5
gradualmente.
42 60
10
Mediterrnea, hispnica o
0 12
15
10
asitica oscura; no suele
12 30
45
10
IV
quemarse y se broncea
30 42
160
10
fcilmente.
42 60
20
rabe, turca, latina, iran o
0 12
20
10
india; poco sensible,
12 30
55
10
V
difcilmente se quema y se
30 42
10
broncea fcilmente.
42 60
25
Piel profundamente
0 12
30
20
pigmentada, no es sensible
12 30
85
20
VI
y nunca se quema ni
30 42
20
tampoco se broncea.
42 60
40
Latitud 0-12:
de Managua (Nicaragua) a Lima (Per).
Latitud 12-30: de Managua (Nicaragua) a San Diego (EEUU California) y
de Lima (Per) a Coquimbo (Chile).
Latitud 30-42: de San Diego (EEUU California) a Salem (EEUU Oregn) y
de Coquimbo (Chile) a Puerto Montt (Chile).
Latitud 42-60: de Salem (EEUU Oregn) a Juneau (EEUU Alaska) y
de Puerto Montt (Chile) a Puerto Williams (Chile).
La estrategia ms segura y al mismo tiempo efectiva para la obtencin de
vitamina D es el uso de suplementos de sta. A pesar de que la recomendacin
diaria es de 15 mcg, se estima que cantidades entre 20 y 30 mcg seran
ideales en base a los niveles sricos de vitamina D.74-76 Siendo la ingesta
mxima establecida correspondiente a 100 mcg, estos nmeros no deberan causar
preocupacin.25 El uso de suplementos es especialmente esencial para las personas
que eviten la exposicin solar, vivan a altas latitudes, se encuentren en climas
generalmente nublados, sean adultos mayores, tengan un peso corporal elevado y
posean piel oscura de tipo VI especialmente en invierno.62-66
16
17
VIII.
Vitamina A
La vitamina A cumple mltiples funciones en el organismo, dentro de las
cuales destacan su rol en el sistema inmunolgico, el mantenimiento celular y la
visin.1-4 Una deficiencia de vitamina A tiende a estar asociada a un mayor riesgo
de ceguera, infecciones y anemia ferropnica.5-8
Si bien sus formas activas corresponden a retinoides slo encontrados en
alimentos de origen animal, existen algunos carotenoides vegetales que pueden ser
transformados en vitamina A con diferentes tasas de conversin por el ser humano;
tales como beta-caroteno, alfa-caroteno y beta-criptoxantina.9 Por esto la unidad
que se utiliza para expresar la cantidad de vitamina A en un alimento corresponde
al mcg RAE, el cual estima el valor equivalente a la forma activa de todos los
componentes tanto pro-vitamina A como vitamina A preformada.
Siendo las ingestas diarias recomendadas de vitamina A correspondientes a
900 y 700 mcg RAE para hombres y mujeres respectivamente, no es difcil
obtener el requerimiento diario si se incluyen 2-3 porciones diarias de alimentos
ricos en carotenoides pro-vitamina A en la dieta.10 Los siguientes alimentos de
origen vegetal en particular se destacan en cuanto a aportes de vitamina A. 11-12
Alimento
Porcin
Contenido de
Vitamina A (mcg RAE)
Zanahoria
Camote
Calabaza
Espinaca
Col rizada (kale)
Col berza
Zapallo
Hojas de betarraga
Nabos
Meln calameo
Acelgas
Hojas de mostaza
Lechuga romana
Col china (bok choy)
Papaya
Brcoli
taza
unidad
taza
taza
taza
taza
taza
taza
taza
1 taza
taza
taza
1 taza
taza
unidad
1 taza
665
594
572
470
443
368
306
276
274
270
268
221
205
180
167
120
18
Yodo
El yodo es un mineral que cumple un rol vital dentro de la glndula tiroides;
al ser indispensable para la produccin de las hormonas tiroideas, tanto una ingesta
baja como alta pueden afectar su funcionamiento.22-23 Una alteracin como
hipotiroidismo e hipertiroidismo puede tener efectos en el metabolismo e incluso
afectar el rendimiento acadmico de nios con ingestas deficientes de yodo. 24-26
Siendo este mineral bastante escaso en los alimentos de origen vegetal y,
por consiguiente, al estar los veganos en mayor riesgo de deficiencia; es
importante que se tomen medidas de precaucin al respecto.27-30
La estrategia ms efectiva para obtencin de yodo es el uso de sal de mesa
yodada, con la cual no es necesario consumir ms de cucharadita al da para
cumplir el requerimiento diario de yodo correspondiente a 150 mcg.10, 31-33 Es
importante tener presente que la sal de mar y otras alternativas tienden a poseer
ms metales pesados y no vienen con la fortificacin de yodo por lo que su uso
debera ser ocasional y no diario como el de la sal de mesa yodada. 34-35
Si bien las algas marinas podran considerarse fuentes de yodo; no es
recomendable el consumo prologando de ellas debido a sus cantidades excesivas de
yodo y otros nutrientes como sodio, calcio y fibra diettica; adems de la presencia
significativa de metales pesados como arsnico, mercurio y plomo en ellas.36-41 La
ingesta de ellas debiese ser limitada tanto en la cantidad administrada (porciones
de mximo 40 g) como en la periodicidad en que se consumen (no ms de 2-3
veces a la semana).
As, podemos concluir que el uso de sal de mesa yodada debera ser
diario, otras sales como la de mar deberan utilizarse slo ocasionalmente
y el consumo de algas marinas debiese ser limitado en el caso particular de
los veganos para la obtencin de yodo.
Zinc
El zinc es un mineral involucrado en mltiples funciones metablicas y est
especialmente ligado al crecimiento, sistema inmunolgico y mantenimiento
celular.42-46 Una deficiencia de zinc puede causar problemas en el crecimiento,
regeneracin de heridas y respuestas inmunolgicas adems de provocar la cada
del cabello y tambin dermatitis en algunos casos.47-49 Adems, este nutriente ha
demostrado ser efectivo al momento de tratar infecciones que puedan causar
malestares tales como un resfriado o una diarrea.50-55
Debido a que la biodisponibilidad del zinc tiende a ser menor en las dietas
veganas y a que la ingesta de ste puede verse moderadamente limitada en ellas,
es recomendable adoptar prcticas que aumenten su absorcin a nivel intestinal
(ver captulo VI: Hierro y Absorcin de Minerales) y a su vez tambin
asegurarse de incluir alimentos con aportes significativos de zinc en la dieta. 56-57
19
Porcin
Contenido de
Zinc (mg)
taza
2,2
1 taza
2,1
1 taza
2,0
taza
1,9
1 cucharada
1,6
1 cucharada
1,5
taza
1,5
taza
1,3
taza
1,3
taza
1,2
taza
1,2
1 taza
1,2
1 taza
1,1
taza
1,0
taza
1,0
taza
1,0
2 cucharadas
1,0
2 rebanadas
1,0
1 taza
1,0
taza
1,0
taza
1,0 2,0
1 taza
1,0 2,0
1
* slo con fortificacin, revisar etiqueta
20
IX.
Resumen de Recomendaciones
las
siguientes
21
21
X.
I.
Referencias Bibliogrficas
Introduccin
1.
American Dietetic Association (ADA). Position of the American Dietetic Association: vegetarian diets.
J Am Diet Assoc. 2009 Jul.
2.
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) & U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
(USDHHS). Dietary Guidelines for Americans. 2011 Jan.
3.
British Dietetic Association (BDA). Food Fact Sheet: vegetarian diets. 2014 Oct.
4.
Canadian Paediatric Society (CPS). Vegetarian diets in children and adolescents. 2010 Jun.
II.
1.
Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy,
Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients).
National Academies Press. 2005 Oct.
2.
Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K,
Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon,
Vanadium, and Zinc. National Academy of Sciences. 2002 Jun.
3.
Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin,
Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline. National Academy of
Sciences. 2000 Jun.
4.
Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E,
Selenium and Carotenoids. National Academy of Sciences. 2000 Jul.
5.
Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus,
Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride. National Academy of Sciences. 1997 Sep.
6.
Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin
D. National Academy of Sciences. 2011 Mar.
7.
Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium,
Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. National Academy of Sciences. 2005 May.
8.
Davey GK, Spencer EA, Appleby PN, Allen NE, Knox KH, Key TJ. EPIC-Oxford: lifestyle
characteristics and nutrient intakes in a cohort of 33 883 meat-eaters and 31 546 non meat-eaters
in the UK. Public Health Nutr. 2003 May.
9.
Rizzo NS, Jaceldo-Siegl K, Sabate J, Fraser GE. Nutrient profiles of vegetarian and nonvegetarian
dietary patterns. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2013 Dec.
10. Remer T, Neubert A, Manz F. Increased risk of iodine deficiency with vegetarian nutrition. Br J
Nutr. 1999 Jan.
11. Elango R, Humayun MA, Ball RO, Pencharz PB. Evidence that protein requirements have been
significantly underestimated. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2010 Jan.
12. Sarwar G. Digestibility of protein and bioavailability of amino acids in foods. Effects on protein
quality assessment. World Rev Nutr Diet. 1987.
13. Register UD, Inano M, Thurston CE, Vyhmeister IB, Dysinger PW, Blankenship JW, Horning MC.
Nitrogen-balance studies in human subjects on various diets. Am J Clin Nutr. 1967 Jul.
14. Sanders TA, Roshanai F. Platelet phospholipid fatty acid composition and function in vegans
compared with age- and sex-matched omnivore controls. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1992 Nov.
15. Alexander D, Ball MJ, Mann J. Nutrient intake and haematological status of vegetarians and age-sex
matched omnivores. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1994 Aug.
22
1.
Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy,
Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients).
National Academies Press. 2005 Oct.
2.
Young VR, Pellett PL. Plant proteins in relation to human protein and amino acid nutrition. Am J Clin
Nutr. 1994 May.
3.
Rand WM, Pellett PL, Young VR. Meta-analysis of nitrogen balance studies for estimating protein
requirements in healthy adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003 Jan.
4.
Elango R, Humayun MA, Ball RO, Pencharz PB. Evidence that protein requirements have been
significantly underestimated. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2010 Jan.
5.
Sarwar G. Digestibility of protein and bioavailability of amino acids in foods. Effects on protein
quality assessment. World Rev Nutr Diet. 1987.
6.
Register UD, Inano M, Thurston CE, Vyhmeister IB, Dysinger PW, Blankenship JW, Horning MC.
Nitrogen-balance studies in human subjects on various diets. Am J Clin Nutr. 1967 Jul.
7.
Vargas E, Bressani R, Navarrete DA, Braham JE, Elas LG. A new alternative for estimating
recommendations of protein intake in humans. Protein requirements of an adult population fed with
a diet based on rice and beans. Arch Latinoam Nutr. 1985 Sep.
8.
Vargas E, Bressani R, Navarrete DA, Braham JE, Elas LG. Protein digestibility and energy in diets
based on rice and beans in human adults. Arch Latinoam Nutr. 1984 Mar.
9.
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