Radiography Test

3/10/2009
2009/03/11 - Start
Radiographic Testing (RT)

Introduction
Radiation
Sources
Attenuation
Recording
RT Procedures & Safety
Title 1Page
ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control
Principles of Radiographic Testing

Radiation
Source
Test Object: Absorbs,

scatters and transmits
th radiation
the
di ti
Recording Film
The shadow
of the thin section
The shadow
of the discontinuity
Introduction
3/10/2009
Examples
Pores
Transverse &
Longitudinal
Cracks
Lack of
Penetration
[http://www.ndted.org/EducationResources/
CommunityCollege/Radiography]
Introduction
The Electromagnetic Wave Spectrum

High
Energy
Ionizing Radiation
(Health Hazard)
Low
Energy
The energy of a photon (unit [J] or [eV]) is given by : E = h . f = h . c/ =1.24 / (1 eV = 1.602E-19 J)

where the number 1.24 has the dimension [eV m]
h ... Plancks constant (6.626x10-34 J . s),
f ... the frequency of the photon,
c ... the speed of light (3.0x108 m/s) and
... the wavelength [m]
The Radiation Source
3/10/2009
Generation of X-rays
X-ray source from

g
g
Golden Engineering,
5.4 kg with battery,
36 cm long
[www.tedndt.com]
[ASM Handbook, Vol. 17, Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control, 1989]
Radiation Sources
X-ray Radiographic Testing

HV Power Supply
X-ray Film
X-ray Generator
3/10/2009
X-ray Source Spectra

at max intensity 1.5 min
min
min = 1.24 /E
Radiation Sources
[ASM, Vol.17, Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control, 1989]
Effect of X-ray Tube Settings
High filament
heating current
Intensity
Intensity
High
acceleration
voltage
Wavelength
Wavelength
Radiation Sources
3/10/2009
-rays
Gamma-rays are emitted during the radioactive decay (disintegrating)
of unstable atomic nuclei and are at discrete wavelengths.
Commonly used radioisotopes:
Cobalt 60 (emits -rays at 1.17 and 1.33 MeV)
Cesium 137 (at 0.66 MeV)
Iridium 192 (at about 0.31 and 0.47 MeV)
There is a continuous reduction in activity

(the number of decays in a radioactive isotope sample):
Nt = N0 exp(-t)
where Nt, and N0 are the number of atoms at t = t and 0, is the decay constant.
Half-life constant = t (when Nt = 0.5 N0) = - ln 0.5 /

( - ln 0.5 = 0.693 )
Radiation Sources
Radiation Sources
10
Gamma--ray Source
Gamma
Hand crank
[ASNT CT-6-6, Radiographic Testing]
3/10/2009
Gamma--ray Spectrum of Iridium

Gamma
Iridium--192
Decay of Ir-192
100
Relative Intensity
80
60
40
[R Nath,
[R.
Nath Yale Univ.,
Univ 2005 AAPM Summer School]
20
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Energy (MeV)
[L. Cartz, Nondestructive Testing, 1995]
Radiation Sources
11
Characteristics of -ray Sources
Radiation Sources
12
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Penetrating Ability
X-rayy tube
voltage, kV
Thickness
limitation of
steel for
inspection, mm
X-rayy
min, m
1.24x10-2
0.62x10-2
1.55x10-3
1 24x10-3
1.24x10
0.62x10-3
100
200
800
1000
2000
8
25
110
125
200
Approx.
pp
-rayy
equivalent
Ir-192, 0.31 MeV

Ce-137
Ce
137, 0.66
0 66 MeV
Co-60, 1.17 MeV
Radiation Sources
13
Comparison of XX- rays and -rays

-rays
X-rays
Advantages:
Variable/changeable
wavelengths
Fixed wavelengths with high

penetrating power
Usable for all materials
Usable for all materials
Good radiographic contrast &

sensitivity
Intensity decays with time
Adjustable Penetration
Low initial cost & maintenance
Can turn it on & off
Small, portable and provides

access into small cavities
it's a disadvantage
Advantages
High
g initial cost
Disadvantages:
g
Requires power source

Disadvantages
Constant radiation hazard,

Can not turn it off,
can only shield it
Requires intensity calibration
Less portable and more fragile Generally less contrast

High voltage electrical hazard
Penetrating power is not

adjustable
[AWS Handbook, 9th ed., Vol. 1, Table 14.4]
Radiation Sources
14
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Attenuation of Electromagnetic Radiation

z
z
z
There is a reduction of intensity of a beam of X-ray or -rays

as it passes through matter due to interaction between the
beam and the material.
material
Attenuation characteristics of materials depend on:
Type (Electromagnetic? Ultrasonic? ... )
Radiation intensity and energy (frequency)
Density and atomic structure of the material
Decrease in intensity from I0 to I depends on thickness, t ,

of material, i.e., I = I0 exp ( - t )
Material constants
[cm-1] ... linear absorption coefficient of the material
m= / [cm2/g] ... mass absorption coefficient ( ... material density)
Attenuation
15
Atomic Attenuation Processes

z
Thomson/Rayleigh
The photoelectric effect
Same
energy
photon
electron
electron
Compton scattering
photon
Pair production
positron
electron
[www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Radiography/Physics/radmatinteraction.htm]
16
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Mass Attenuation Coefficients
[ASM Handbook, Vol. 17,

Nondestructive Evaluation ]
and Quality Control, 1989]
Attenuation
17
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2009/03/12 - Start
Mass Absorption Coefficients
Attenuation
18
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Mass Absorption Coefficients (cont'd)
Attenuation
19
Half--Value Thickness and Subject Contrast

Half
Half-value Thickness (HVT) or half-value layer (HVL):
the thickness that decreases the radiation intensity by
one-half
one
half
Subject Contrast:
ratio of transmitted
radiation intensities at two
locations of the workpiece
Affected by:
nature of the specimen
energy of the radiation
intensity and distribution of the scattered radiation
Not affected by:
time, distance, characteristics of the radiographic film
Attenuation
20
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Experimental and Calculated HVT
Attenuation
21
Subject Contrast
I0
Pb
Cu
Steel
Al
It
Film
Contrast due to
Differences in
Specimen Thickness
Contrast due to
Differences in
Specimen Composition
Attenuation
22
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Absorption Edges and Subject Contrast

Attenuation
23
Subject Contrast
Void
Dense Inclusion
(e.g., W)
24
12
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Subject Contrast
25
Viewing or Recording Medium

Film Radiography
Exposing a sheet of film to unabsorbed radiation
Two-dimensional
T di
i l llatent
t t iimage ffrom th
the projected
j t d
radiation
Subsequent development of the exposed film to
convert the latent image into a fixed, visible image
Real-time Radiography (radioscopy)
Unabsorbed radiation converted into an optical or
electronic signal, which can be viewed immediately or
can be processed in near real time with electronic and
video equipment
Recording
26
13
3/10/2009
Photographic Films
Thin, transparent plastic base with emulsion Cross sectional view of industrial x-ray film
Emulsion consisting mainly of grains of
silver bromide (AgBr) dispersed in gelatin
Exposure to X-rays or daylight reduces
AgBr to silver, forming a latent image (which
cannot be detected visually or by ordinary
physical measurement)
Developing
D l i th
the exposedd fil
film
Selective chemical reaction converts the exposed AgBr
grains in the latent image into black metallic silver. The
metallic silver remains suspended in the gelatin, blackens
(part of) the developed (visible) image.
Recording
27
Film Characteristic Curve

D
D1
G = tan
= dD / d(log E)
D2
Fog
level
Film speed
Log (E)
Measure of the dose of radiation

exposure (E):
the radiation intensityy ((I))
multiplied by time (t)
Measure of film blackening
Radiographic density (D)
D = log (Iin/Iout)
I
Iout
depends on E and film in
development
film
Film gradient (g): slope of
characteristic curve
Average gradient (G)
(e.g., for D from 1.5 to 3.5)
G = (D1-D2) / log (E1/E2)
Recording
28
14
3/10/2009
Radiographic Contrast, CR
CR is determined by the subject contrast I1/I2 and film
gradient G
CR = D1 - D2 = G log (I1/I2) = 0.4343 G ln (I1/I2)
For example, when an inclusion is present of thickness i
and with a linear absorption coefficient, i, in a matrix with
linear absorption coefficient, M, the contrast due to the
presence of the inclusion is CR = 0.4343
0 4343 G (M - i)i .
A minimum of CR = 0.2 is desired in radiography even
though the eye is sensitive to contrast changes as low as
0.05 of photographic film blackening
Recording
29
Intensifying Screens
Used to improve image contrast and reduce
exposure time, particularly when the radiation
intensity is low or when the radiation energy
(frequency) is high
Metal foil intensifying screens (such as lead), when
irradiated by X-rays, emit electrons that affect the silver
halide grains.
Fluorescent salt intensifying screens emit visible light
photons when irradiated by X-rays. Photographic
emulsion
l i iis muchh lless sensitive
iti tto X-rays
X
photons
h t
th
than
to visible light photons.
A second lead screen is also added at the back of

the film to reduce back-scattered X-rays affecting
the film.
Recording
30
15
3/10/2009
Metal Foil Intensifying Screens
0.05
Recording
31
Factors Affecting Quality of Radiographic Image

[AWS Welding Handbook, 8th ed.,
Vol. 1, 1987]
Recording
32
16
3/10/2009
Radiographic Definition
Radiographic Definition is the sharpness of the edge of the image
(resolution)
Geometrical Unsharpness occurs because the radiation source is

not a true point source but has a finite size
Spatial Resolution of the image-detecting system

Film unsharpness Uf - film grain size, development process, radiation
energy level (worse at higher energy level)
Screen unsharpness - grain size and thickness of the screen, detection
efficiency and the energy and intensity of the radiation
Scattered Radiation - back scatter and forward scatter

Recording
33
2009/03/12 - End
2009/03/16 - Start
Radiographic Definition
The loss of image outline sharpness/definition is a function of focal spot
size of the source, source-to-film distance, and specimen-to-film distance.
Unsharpness ( or Ug) = Source Focal Spot Size b/a
High definition requires a small focal spot size of the radiation source,
the source-to-film distance be as large as practical and specimen-to-film
distance should be as small as practical.
[NDT Resource Center]
34
17
3/10/2009
Maximum Geometric Unsharpness Allowed
Ug
Recording
[CSA W59-M1989 Welded Steel Construction (Metal Arc Welding)]
35
Effect of X
X--Ray Voltage on Uf
Uf [mm]
As the radiation strikes the film, free

electrons are released which affect
the film in the surrounding areas.
This type of unsharpness cannot be
avoided.
X-ray generator voltage [MV]

Recording
36
18
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Three Types of Scattered Radiation
Side Scatter
Internal Scatter
Back Scatter
Recording
37
Effects of Scatter & Solutions

Effects of
Scatter
Solutions
38
19
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Scattered X-rays
Scattered X-rays give rise to a general fogging of the film,
thereby reducing the sharpness and contrast
Methods to reduce scattering effects on the X-ray film:
Increased object-to-film distance reduces scattered
rays reaching the image
Secondary X-rays are of lower energy (frequency) and
can be filtered ((absorbed)) byy a thin metal screen in
front of the film
The edges and holes scatter X-rays very badly, fogging
the film unnecessary. Blocking materials or masks can
be used reduce this problem.
Recording
39
Image Quality Indicator (IQI) or Penetrameters

ASTM-ASME
Standard
Wire Penetrameters
Hexagonal
Standard
Recording
40
20
3/10/2009
Penetrameter Designs
Recording
[CSA W59-M1989 Welded Steel Construction (Metal Arc Welding), p. 48]
41
Standard Penetrameter Thickness
Recording
42
21
3/10/2009
IQI Location on Approx. Equal Thickness Joints
Recording
43
Radiographic Exposure
X-rays
X-ray tube voltage
X-ray tube amperage
exposure time
source-to-film distance
-rays
wavelength
l
th
radioisotope activity
exposure time
source-to-film distance
Recording
44
22
3/10/2009
Exposure Charts
Provide an estimate of the exposure in terms of X-ray tube
current (resp. -ray activity) multiplied by time (e.g., mA-s or Cimin) for radiographs of aluminum and steel,
steel depending on the
thickness of the specimen and on the applied voltage (X-ray).
Usually provided for a particular X-ray generator, using
specified film-source distance, X-ray film type, film developingprocessing.
E
Exposure for
f other
th materials
t i l can be
b derived
d i d using
i equivalent
i l t
thickness factors.
Intensifying screens are used to shorten the exposure time, but
affect the unsharpness.
Recording
45
Typical X-ray Exposure Charts

Andrex 160-kV directional X-ray machine, AA film (Eastman Kodak), 2.0 density, no screens,
910mm source-to-film distance, PIX developer (Picker), 7 min manual developing time
Aluminum
Steel
Recording
46
23
3/10/2009
Exposure Curves for -Ray Sources
A - Iridium-192 source, lead screens,

500 mm source-to-film distance;
B - Cobalt-60, copper screens,
C - Ytterbium-169, lead screens,
D.7 film, 2.0 density, 5 min
development in Agfa-Gevaert
VC developer at 20oC,
Aluminum
Recording
[ASM Handbook, Vol. 17, Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control, 1989] 47
Equivalent Radiographic Absorption
Recording
48
24
3/10/2009
Estimated Exposure if Source Distance Changes

The far-field intensity varies inversely
with the square of the distance from
the source,, mathematically,
y,
Newton's Inverse Square Law
I1 : I2 = (d2)2 : (d1)2
where I is the intensity of radiation

at a given distance, d, from a source
Equivalent exposure can be estimated

using :
t . mA
A = constant,
t t
[www.ndt-ed.org]
t ... exposure time, mA ... tube current (X-rays) or source strength (-rays)
Combining the above two equations, we have

(mA1 . t1 ) : (mA2 . t2 ) = (d2)2 : (d1)2
Recording
49
X-ray,
ray, -ray Radiation Safety
Ionizing Electromagnetic Radiation
can damage human blood cells and tissues resulting in acute or
long-term health effects.
Licensing
The use of -ray inspection is controlled by the Federal

Government through the Atomic Energy Control Board.
The use of industrial X-ray machine is controlled by the Provincial
Ministry responsible for the respective Industrial and Occupational
Health and Safety Act.
Controlling
C t lli Exposure
E
Increase distance - doubling the distance from a source reduces the

radiation by four times (inverse square law)
Reduce exposure time - using faster film speed
Shielding - heavier materials (such as lead or depleted uranium)
absorb more radiation
Safety
50
25
3/10/2009
Radiation Safety
Detecting and Measuring Radiation Exposure
Radiation Survey Meter
Personal Dose Meter
TLD
Thermoluminescent Dosimeter (TLD) traps radiation energy which can
later be released by slow heating and the released energy is measured
and recorded.
The monitoring of radiation exposure is controlled by the Federal
Government through the Department of Health and Welfare. The TLDs
are issued and read and a lifelong history of radiation doses received is
maintained by the Bureau of Radiation and Medical Devices.
Devices
Direct Reading Dosimeter (DRD) contains a charged quartz fibre which
moves when struck by radiation.
Warning Signs
"CAUTION, X-RAYS : NO UNAUTHORIZED USE"
"ATTENTION, RAYONS X: UTILISATION NON AUTORISEE"
Safety
51
Radiography: Advantages and Limitations

Advantages
Can detect internal discontinuities
Provides a physical record of inspection
Film can be viewed by others for repair, review,
etc., and can be evaluated later
Suitable for all weld geometries
Disadvantages
Radiation hazard
Less sensitive to cracks
Requires highly trained inspectors
Relative high capital cost
Sensitivity decreased on thicker test pieces
Two-side access needed
Summary
52
2009/03/16 - End
26

Radiography Test

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3/10/2009

Radiographic Testing (RT)

RT Procedures & Safety

ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control

Principles of Radiographic Testing

Test Object: Absorbs,

The Electromagnetic Wave Spectrum

The energy of a photon (unit [J] or [eV]) is given by : E = h . f = h . c/ =1.24 / (1 eV = 1.602E-19 J)

The Radiation Source

X-ray source from

X-ray Radiographic Testing

ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control

X-ray Source Spectra

[ASM, Vol.17, Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control, 1989]

Effect of X-ray Tube Settings

There is a continuous reduction in activity

Half-life constant = t (when Nt = 0.5 N0) = - ln 0.5 /

ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control

[ASNT CT-6-6, Radiographic Testing]

Gamma--ray Spectrum of Iridium

[L. Cartz, Nondestructive Testing, 1995]

Characteristics of -ray Sources

Ir-192, 0.31 MeV

ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control

Comparison of XX- rays and -rays

Fixed wavelengths with high

Usable for all materials

Usable for all materials

Good radiographic contrast &

Intensity decays with time

Low initial cost & maintenance

Can turn it on & off

Small, portable and provides

Requires power source

Constant radiation hazard,

Less portable and more fragile Generally less contrast

Penetrating power is not

[AWS Handbook, 9th ed., Vol. 1, Table 14.4]

Attenuation of Electromagnetic Radiation

There is a reduction of intensity of a beam of X-ray or -rays

Type (Electromagnetic? Ultrasonic? ... )

Radiation intensity and energy (frequency)

Density and atomic structure of the material

Decrease in intensity from I0 to I depends on thickness, t ,

[cm-1] ... linear absorption coefficient of the material

m= / [cm2/g] ... mass absorption coefficient ( ... material density)

ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control

Atomic Attenuation Processes

The photoelectric effect

Mass Attenuation Coefficients

[ASM Handbook, Vol. 17,

ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control

Mass Absorption Coefficients

ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control

[L. Cartz, Nondestructive Testing, 1995]

Mass Absorption Coefficients (cont'd)

ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control

[L. Cartz, Nondestructive Testing, 1995]

Half--Value Thickness and Subject Contrast

Experimental and Calculated HVT

ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control

Absorption Edges and Subject Contrast

[L. Cartz, Nondestructive Testing, 1995]

ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control