CHAPTER 7

ENVIRONMENTAL
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

Ideas for the Chapter

Variety of methodologies that may be employed
at different design stages will be discussed in
this chapter :
Section A : Tier 1 Environmental Performance
Tools
Section B : Tier 2 Environmental Performance
Tools
Introduction to Tier 3 Environmental
Performance Tools.

Environmental Performance Evaluation

(EPE) Goals
An internal management process that provides information
to facilitate management decisions regarding an
organizations environmental performance
Supported by ISO 14001 Environmental management systems
Specifications with guidance for use, 1996, 2003.
By means of the tool ISO/TC 207/SC 4 - develops international guidance
on EPE, and,
ISO 14031 Environmental management Environmental performance
evaluation Guidelines, 1999
ISO/TR 14032 Environmental management - Examples of EPE, 1999

The EPE in context of the ISO 14000 Series:

Environmental Management

ENVIRONMENTAL
MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
ISO 14001/ 4

ENVIRONMENTAL
AUDITING 14010 SERIES
(19011)
ENVIRONMENTAL
PERFORMANCE
EVALUATION 14030
SERIES

FOCUS: Organizations

LIFE CYCLE
ASSESSMENT 14040
SRIES
DESIGN FOR
ENVIRONMENT TR
14062

ENVIROMENTAL
LABELLING 14020
SERIES

FOCUS: Product

NEW ITEM: ENVIRONMENTAL COMMUNICATION( TR 14063)

Objectives and Benefits of an EPE Program

Better understanding of an organizations impacts on the
environment,
Providing a basis for benchmarking management,
operational and environmental performance,
Identifying opportunities for improving efficiency of
energy and resource usage,
Determining whether environmental objectives and targets
are being met,
Demonstrating compliance with regulations,
Determining proper allocation of resources,
Increasing the awareness of employees, and,
Improving community and customer relations

EPE Indicators
Environmental
performance indicators
(EPIs)
- Management
performance indicators
(MPIs): policy, people, planning
activities, practice, procedures,
decisions and actions in the
organization

- Operational performance
indicators (OPIs): inputs, the
supply of inputs, the design,
installation, operation and maintenance
of the physical facilities and
equipment, outputs and their delivery

Environmental condition
indicators (ECIs)
Provide information about the
local, regional, national or global
condition of the environment
INTEREST: Help an organization
to better understand the actual
impact or potential impact of its
environmental aspects and assist in
the planning and implementation of
the EPE

Plan-Do-Check-Act Model: ISO 14031

Plan-Do-Check-Act Model: ISO 14031....

Plan

Do assessing performance

Objective: Selection of
- Collecting data -regulations,
indicators based on
operating permits, EMS
procedures and records,
- significant environmental
reports government agencies
aspects
(production, process,
- Environmental
monitoring), environmental
performance criteria
budgets, chemical inventories,
(internal and regulatory)
storage tanks and spill
- Views of interested parties
records.
(business plan)
- Converting data to
Indicators: ECI, EPI, MPI
information
and OPI (see table for
- Evaluating the information
examples)
- Communicating the results

Examples of performance indicators and metrics1

OPI
MPI
ECI
Raw material used per unit of
product (Kg/unit)

Environmental costs or budget

($/yr)

Contaminant concentration in
ambient air (g/m3)

Energy used annually per unit of

product (MJ/1000 L product)

Percentage of environmental
targets achieved (%)

Frequency of photochemical
smog events (#/yr)

Energy conserved (MJ)

Number employees trained (% #

trained/to be trained)

Contaminant concentration in
ground- or surface water (mg/L)

Number of emergency events or

unplanned shutdowns (#/yr)

Number of audit findings (#)

Change in groundwater level (m)

Average fuel consumption of

vehicle fleet (L/100 Km)

Time spent to correct audit

findings (person-hr)

Contaminant concentration in
surface soil (mg/Kg)

Hazardous waste generated per

unit of product (Kg/unit)

Time spent responding to

environmental incidents (personhr/yr)

Concentration of a contaminant
in the tissue of a specific local
specie (g/Kg)

Emissions of specific pollutants

to air (Ton CO2/yr)

Number of complaints from

public or employees (#/yr)

Population of an specific species

within a defined area (#/m2)

Wastewater discharged per unit

of product (1000 L/unit)

Number of suppliers contacted

about environ. mngment. (#/yr)

Fish deaths in a specific

watercourse (#/yr)

Air emissions were exceeded

(days/yr)

Management levels with specific

environ responsabilities (#)

Employee blood lead levels

(g/100 mL)

Plan-Do-Check-Act Model: ISO 14031....

Check and Act

Case study1

reviewing and improving

performance
Objective: To identify
opportunities for
improving environmental
performance including

Implementation of EPE at Mother

Dairy Fruit and Vegetable Ltd., New
Delhi, India, 2001
Problem: the dairy was monitoring
liquid fuel and electric power
consumption together with the volume
of wastewater processed in the effluent
treatment system
EPE strategy: all parameters were
normalized using the volume of milk
processed
Results: the dairy increased the amount
of milk processed per unit of electrical
power (23%) an diesel fuel consumed
(38%) and reductions of wastewater
generated (20%)

Program cost and benefit

Progress towards meeting
environmental performance
targets
How appropriate are the
environmental performance
criteria and indicators
Data quality and collection
methods

Case Study: Mother Dairy Company - EPIs

Objective

Program

Performance Indicators

Indicator
Type

Well water
conservation

Rain water harvesting

Static well water level

Well water analysis

ECI
ECI

Water use reduction Water audit

Well water used per volume

of milk processed (L water/L
milk)

OPI

Wastewater
Microbiological analysis
treatment efficiency of sludge
Use of improved
microculture

Effluent processed (L)

OPI

Energy consumed (MJ/L

effluent)

OPI

Employee training
and awareness

Environmental awareness
training

# Employees trained

MPI

Green horticulture

On and off-site gardening

Biosludge composting by
vermiculture

# Plantings
Quantity of compost
produced (Kg)

OPI
OPI

Example of EPEs application: Measuring

Environmental Performance of Industry (MEPI)
Project in Europe
MEPIs Objective: the improvement of internal and
external transparency about the effects on the
environment and responses to mitigate them
MEPIs Tools: Environmental Performance
Indicators physical, business and environmental
impact
MEPIs Focus: materials and energy use and waste
emissions at the level of plant and firm

Tools (indicators) in the MEPI Project

Business
activity
Value added
(Sales Cost of
materials)
Sales
Operating profit
Number of
employees

Physical
indicators

Business
management
indicators

Energy and water

inputs
Waste generation
CO2, SO2, Nox
and VOCs
emissions to air
COD/BOD, N, P,
heavy metals
emissions to water

Certifications ISO
14001 and/or
EMAS (yes / no)
Disclosure of
environmental
investments (yes /
no)
Number of noncompliance events
reported

Impact
indicators
Emissions of
ozone depleting
substances to air

MEPIs indicators include: generic (Table) and sector - specific

Most significant variables influencing environmental

performance in the Paper, Fertiliser and Electricity
Industry in European Countries
Sector

Waste
emissiones

Air
emissions

Water emissions

Water
consumptio
n

Energy
consumption

Paper
N=270

Total solid
waste(53)
Recycled
waste(71)

CO2 (63)
SO2 (44)

COD (107)
N (91)
P (54)

Total water
consumption
(120)

Total energy input

(39)

Fertiliser
N=91

Total solid
waste (10)

SO2 (13)
NOx (15)

COD (9); N (20); P

(12); Heavy metals (17)

Total water
consumption
(26)

Total energy input

(26)

Electricity
N=184

Total solid
waste (75)

CO2 (118)
NOx (134)
SO2 (135)

No variables selected
due to missing values

Total fuel (16; total

oil (78);
Renewables (20);
Total energy (10)

Numbers in parenthesis indicate available cases of the total (n)

Environmental Performance
Tools
Section A
Tier 1

Environmental Performance
Main Tools
Economic Criteria
Environmental Criteria (Persistence and
Bioaccumulation)
Toxicity Criteria and Weighting
Evaluating Alternative Synthetic Pathways

Design Synthesis Steps

Input and Output Structures Known
Chemical Structures are Known
Many Alternative Pathways Exist

Economic Criteria
Estimate the cost of raw materials versus the value
and/or cost of byproducts and products.
The cost of the various options can be estimated by:

Cost = [Cost i * Stoichiome tric coefficien ti ]

This is more of a qualitative analysis because it does not take into account other
potential costs associated with the production of the given substance (i.e. higher
temperatures require more energy, etc).

Environmental Criteria
It only takes into account the substances
Persistent, Toxic and Bioaccumulating
properties.
Persistence and Bioaccumulation are easily
estimated and a table shows rating index values
on the following slide.

Rating Index (RI)

Persistence
Rapid

>60% degradation over 1 week

RI = 0

Moderate

>30% degradation over 28 days

RI = 1

Slow

<30% degradation over 28 days

RI = 2

Very slow

<30% degradation over more than 28 days

RI = 3

Bioaccumulation
High Potential

8.0 > log Kow > 4.3 or BCF > 1000

RI = 3

Moderate Potential

4.3 > log Kow > 3.5 or 1000 > BCF > 250

RI = 2

Low Potential

3.5 > log Kow or 250 > BCF

RI = 1

Source : Green Engineering text, Allen and Shonnard, pp. 204

Toxicity Evaluations
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) :
Definition : Airborne concentration limit for individual exposures
in a workplace environment.
Established by : ACGIH -http://www.acgih.org

Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs) :

Definition : similar to TLV ; represents the legal implications in
defining workplace conditions.
Established by : OSHA -http://www.osha.gov/

Recommended Exposure Limits (RELs) :

Definition : more current then PELs ; solely based on toxicity research.
Established by : NIOSH -http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/homepage.html

Toxicity Index

One Toxicity Index can be calculated using :

1
Environmen tal Index =
(TLV )

Source : Green Engineering, Allen and Shonnard, pp 205.

Toxicity Weighting
Taking into account ingestion pathways :
- Inhalation Reference Concentration
- Oral Ingestion Slope Factor
- Unit Risk
- IRIS database is one source of data :
http://www.epa.gov/ngispgm3/iris/subst/index.html

The toxic weighting factor (Ftox) represents the weight to

be given to each substance to make possible the comparison
of the discharges.
The toxic weighting factor is defined as the inverse of the
most stringent water quality criterion for each substance
(MSCi):
Ftox i = 1/MSCi
MSCi = min (CTACi, CCOAi)
This is a dimensionless number, and represents the toxic
potential to be assigned to a given pollutant to evaluate its
relative importance in the discharges.
Source: http://www.slv2000.qc.ca/plan_action/phase1/chimiotox_a.pdf

Evaluating Alternative
Synthetic Pathways
A general Composite Index of the overall
input-output structure can be established
with the substances PBT properties and can
also rely on the emission rates.

 Methods of applying Weighting Factors :

1) Toxicity as Weighting Factor.
2) US EPA Toxicity Approach.
3) Using PBT Weighting Factors.

Environmental Performance
Tools
Section B
Tier 2

Tier 2 :Environmental Performance Tools

Topics covered in this section:

Environmental Release Assessment

Release Quantification Methods
Modeled Release Estimates
Release Characterization and Documentation
Assessing Environmental Performance

Design Synthesis Steps

Basic information needed
Preliminary Process Flowsheets.
Basic Knowledge of Unit Operations.
Rough Estimate of Unit Operation Sizing.

Environmental Release Assessment

Necessary Knowledge about Releases
Environment includes :
- Water

- Air

- Land

Releases may include :

Spilling
- Leaking
- Pumping
Pouring
- Emitting
- Emptying
Discharging
- Injecting
- Escaping
Leaching
- Dumping into the environment
Disposing into the environment

Release Assessment Components

Identify Purpose
and Need for
Release Assessment

Obtain/Diagram
A process
Flowsheet

Determine
Additional
WESs

Determine best method

for quantifying the
release rate of each WES

Collect data + info

to fill in the gaps

Quantify chemicals
release rates +
frequencies + the media
in which it is released

Identify and List

Waste and Emission
Streams (WESs)

Determine data/info
needed to use the
methods determined

Document release
assessment; include
characterization of
estimate uncertainties

Process Analysis
When analyzing flowsheets, account for missing
releases that include :
Fugitive Emissions (which include leaks).
Venting of Equipment (including breathing and
displacement losses).
Periodic Equipment Cleaning (frequent and infrequent).
Transport Container Residuals (including drums, totes,
tank trucks, rail cars and barges).
Incomplete Separations (including destilation, gravity
phase separation and filtration).

Process Analysis... continues

Determining the manner in which substances are

released is crucial in assessing environmental
impacts
Releases can also occur on and off site, including :
- Air : include primary and secondary emissions.
- Water : transfers into streams or water bodies.
- Underground Injection : generally into wells.
- Land : within the boundaries of the facility.

Air: Primary Emissions

Stacks Emissions
There are different dispersion patterns to high-stack
(over 75 meters), medium-stack (25 meters75 meters) and
low-stack sources (less than 25 meters).
High-stack sources are synonymous with modern power
plants; medium-stack sources with large industrial plants,
district heating plants, and suboptimal power utilities; and
low-stack, or low-level, sources with small industrial and
commercial users, transport, and the domestic sector.

Source: http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/SAR/sa.nsf/Attachments/FFCh2/$File/FFCh2.pdf

Air: Secondary Emissions

Fugitive Emissions
The sources of fugitive emissions are categorized as (1)
industrial processes, operations, activities, or materials that
emit particulate or chemical pollutants or (2) activities or
operations that create fugitive dust.
Particulates that become airborne by wind and/or human
activity are also referred to as fugitive dust.

Source: http://www.seattle.battelle.org/forscom/Hot_Air/Fugitive.htm

Release Quantification Methods

1. Measured release data for the chemical or indirectly
measured release data using mass balance or
stoichiometric ratios.
2. Release data for a surrogate chemical with similar releaseaffecting properties and used in the same (or very similar)
process. Surrogate data may be measured, indirectly
measured, modeled or some combination of these.
Some emission factors would be considered to be
surrogate data.

3. Modeled release estimates :

a. Mathematically modeled (eg) release estimates for the
chemical or by analogy to a surrogate chemical.
b. Rule of thumb release estimates, or those being
developed using engineering judgement.

Measured Release Data for the Chemical

Usually only applicable for actual processes
For a continuous process :
release = [

]avg * Qrelease stream avg * release stream

Can also be estimated using the chemicals

weight fraction and the mass flowrate of the
release stream

Release Data for a Surrogate Chemical

By using surrogate chemical data, it should
be ensured that there exist similarities in
some physical/chemical properties of the
chemicals, unit ops and their operating
conditions and quantities of chemical
throughput.

Emission Factors
- Usually only used for Air Emissions.
- Many databases exist containing these factors.

A. Average Marginal CO2 Emissions Factors for Electricity

Generation by EPA Region (2000):

Source: http://www.epa.gov/appdstar/pdf/brochure.pdf

B. CO2 Emission Factors by Fuel Type per Unit Volume, Mass,

and Energy:

Source: http://www.epa.gov/appdstar/pdf/brochure.pdf

Emissions from Process Units and Fugitive Sources

Equation for Rate of Emission :

E = m voc EF av M
Where :
mvoc is the mass fraction of the VOC in the stream or
process unit,
EFav is the average emissions factor ascribed to the stream
or process unit (kg emitted/103kg throughput),
M is the mass flow rate through the unit (mass/time).
See tables with lists of various factors examples.

Losses of Residuals from Cleaning of

Drums and Tanks

Nature of the cleaning process should be considered

Capacities.
Shapes.
Materials of construction of the vessels to be cleaned.
Cleaning schedule.
The residual quantity of the chemical in the vessels.
The type and amount of solvent used (aq. Vs. Organic).
Solubility/miscibility of the chemical in the solvent.
If applicable, treatment of wastewater containing the chemical.

Secondary Emissions from Utility Sources

Utility use is extensive in causing environmental impact.
Emission estimation equations :

E (kg / unti / yr) = ( ED)(EF )(FV ) 1 ( BE) 1

Where:
ED is the energy demand of a process unit
(energy demand/unit/yr).
EF is the emission factor for the fuel type
(kg/volume of fuel combusted).
FV is the fuel value (energy/volume fuel combusted).
BE is the boiler efficiency (unitless; 0.75-0.9 typical values).

E (kg / unit / yr ) = ( ED)( EF )( ME ) 1

Where:
ED is the electricity demand of a process unit
(energy demand/unit/yr).
EF is the emission factor for the fuel type
(kg/volume of fuel combusted).
ME is the efficiency of the device.

Modeled Release Estimates

Process design software account for some
releases, but not all. The following slides
will introduce information that allows the
calculation of the missed releases :
- Loading transport containers
- Evaporative losses from static liquid pools
- Storage tank working and breathing loss.

Loading Transport Containers

Quantity of evaporative losses from a loading
container is a function of :
- Physical and chemical characteristics of the previous
cargo
- Method of unloading the previous cargo
- Operations to transport the empty carrier to a loading
terminal
- Method of loading the new cargo
- Physical and chemical characteristics of the new cargo

Evaporative Losses from Static Liquid Pools

- Evaporation Rate :

G = 13.32 M P A T 1 ( Dab v z z 1 ) 0.5

Where :
G is the generation rate (lb/hr),
M is the molecular weight (lb/lb mole),
P is the vapor pressure (in Hg),
A is the area (ft2),
Dab is the diffusion coefficient (ft2/s of a through b is air),
Vz is the air velocity (ft/min),
T is the temperature (K),
z is the pool lenght along flow direction (ft).

- Diffusion Coefficient
5

1 0.5

D = 4.09 10 T (29 + M ) M
Where the units are :
Dab (cm2/s),
M (g/gmole),
Pt (atm),
T (K).

1. 9

0.33

Pt

Storage Tank Working and Breathing Loss

Two types of losses exist :
- Working Losses (originating from the raising
and lowering of the liquid level in the tank as a
result of raw material utilization and production
of product)
- Standing Losses (originating from daily
temperature and ambient pressure fluctuations)

Release Characterization and

Documentation
The uncertainty depends on how well we know the process,
how well we understand the estimation method and its data
and parameters, and how well the method and parameters
seem to match up with those expected for the actual process.

HIGH EFFICIENCY GENERATION

OF HYDROGEN FUELS USING NUCLEAR POWER
A thermochemical water-splitting cycle is a set of chemical
reactions that sum to the decomposition of water into hydrogen.
The Sulfur-Iodine cycle, an example of a pure thermochemical
water-splitting cycle.
The objective of this work is to define an economically
feasible concept for the production of hydrogen, by nuclear
means, using an advanced high temperature nuclear reactor as
the energy source.

Source: web.gat.com/hydrogen/images/pdf%20files/ brown_si_cycle.pdf

Section 1 Chemical recycle and acid generation

Section 2 Sulfuric acid concentration and decomposition

Section 3 Hydrogen iodide concentration and decomposition

Assessing
Environmental Performance
Two types of overall assessments can be used :
1. Evaluates the treatablility or costs of treatment of the
waste streams.
2. Evaluates a set of environmental performance
indicators :

a. Energy consumed from all sources within the

manufacturing or delivery process per unit of manufactured
output.
b. Total mass of materials used directly in the product, minus
the mass of the product, per unit of manufactured output.
c. Water consumption per unit of manufactured output.
d. Emissions of targetted pollutants per unit of manufactured
output.
e. Total pollutantsper unit of manufactured output.

Environmental Performance
Tools
Introduction
Tier 3

Introduction to Tier 3 Environmental

Performance Tools
Design synthesis steps.
- Detailed process flowsheets.
- Equipment specifications.
- Energy specifications.

Limited design alternatives to screen.

More is known, therefore all knowledge
should be incorporated into the evaluation.