BIOLOGY THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The Circulatory System

Every organ in our body requires the involvement of the circulating body fluids.

Blood

Body
Fluids
Tissue
Fluid

Lymph

Blood
Blood is a never-stationary fluid and it is always in motion from the heart to the arteries and back through
the veins.
Colour
Volume
Taste

Bright red when taken from an artery and

deep red when taken from a vein.
An average adult human has 5 to 6 litres
blood.
Salty.
Blood is slightly alkaline with a pH of 7.3
to 7.45.

Functions of Blood

Blood forms a clot which serves to prevent the loss of blood and the entry of disease-causing germs.
White blood cells protect the body from diseases by engulfing bacteria which may have entered the
body.
Antibodies produced by the blood neutralise poisonous substances or kill germs which enter the body.
Blood transports digested food from the alimentary canal to the tissues.
It transports excretory materials from the tissues to the liver, kidneys or skin for elimination.
Blood helps in keeping the temperature of the body uniform by distributing heat.
Haemoglobin of RBCs combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin which reaches tissues to deliver
the oxygen.

Composition of Blood
Blood is made up of plasma and the blood corpuscles.

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BIOLOGY THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Plasma
It is a light yellow-coloured alkaline liquid.
It mainly consists of
Water
Proteins
Inorganic Salts
Other Substances

9092%
78%
1%
Trace amounts

Cellular Elements
There are three kinds of cellular elements found in the blood:

Red Blood Cells (RBCs/Erythrocytes)

RBCs are minute, disc-like structures.

RBCs are 7 in diameter.
In adults, RBCs are produced in the
marrow of long bones such as ribs,
breast bone and ileum of the hip girdle.
In children, RBCs are produced in the
bone marrow of all the cells until 5 years
of age.
Mature RBCs do not have nuclei.
The average life of RBCs is 120 days.

Red Blood Cells (RBCs)

Haemoglobin
Haemoglobin is a respiratory pigment present in the stroma of RBCs.
It combines readily with oxygen to form an unstable compound oxyhaemoglobin. This compound
delivers oxygen to tissues.
Haemoglobin has a very strong affinity for carbon monoxide. When combined with carbon monoxide, it
forms a stable compound carboxyhaemoglobin.
Carboxyhaemoglobin reduces the capacity of the blood in transporting oxygen, sometimes even resulting
in death.

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BIOLOGY THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

White Blood Cells (WBCs/Leucocytes)

WBCs are amoeboid.
WBCs are produced in the bone marrow,
lymph nodes and sometimes even in the liver
and spleen.
The average life of WBCs is about 2 weeks.
WBCs are classified into two categories
based on their shape and characteristics:
1. Granular
2. Agranular
Leukaemia is a cancer in which the number of
WBCs increases manifold at the cost of
RBCs.
White Blood Cell (WBC)
Leucopenia is the abnormal decrease in the
number of WBCs.
Functions of WBCs
1. Phagocytosis: WBCs, particularly neutrophils,
engulf foreign substances, especially bacteria.
This defensive mechanism against germs is
called phagocytosis.
2. Inflammation: Inflammation occurs due to the
reaction of tissues to injury and to localised
invasion of germs.
Leucocytes especially monocytes migrate
through the walls of the blood vessels by
diapedesis and fight the germs.
3. Formation of Antibodies: WBCs, especially
lymphocytes, produce antibodies which kill or
neutralise germs.

Different types of White Blood Cells

Categories
of WBCs
A. Granular
- Cytoplasm
contains
granules

Types of WBCs
1.Neutrophils
(62%)

2.Eosinophils
(2.3%)

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Appearance

Distinguishing
Features
Nucleus with
34 lobes
Stain with
neutral dyes

Nucleus with
2 lobes
Stain dark
red with
eosin (acid
dye)

Functions
Destroy
bacteria by
phagocyto
sis

Destroy
bacteria

Location
Produced
Bone
marrow

Bone
marrow

BIOLOGY THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Nucleus
large,
indistinctly
lobed
Stain with
basic dyes
(methylene
blue)
Single large
nucleus

3.Basophils
(0.4%)

B. Agranular
- Cytoplasm
does not
contain
granules

4.Lymphocytes
(30%)

Release
chemicals for
inflammation
which dilates
blood
vessels

Bone
marrow

Produce
antibodies

Bone
marrow,
spleen,
tonsils

Ingest germs
Nucleus
large, kidneyshaped

5. Monocytes
(5.3%)

Bone
marrow

Blood Platelets (Thrombocytes)

Blood platelets are minute, oval or

round, non-nucleated structures
floating in the blood.
Platelets are derived from
megakaryocytes in the red bone
marrow.
Their life span is 3 to 5 days.
Blood platelets play an important role
in blood clotting.

Blood Platelet

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BIOLOGY THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Clotting of Blood (Coagulation)
Injured cells and platelets disintegrate at the site of the wound and release thrombokinase or
thromboplastin.

Thrombokinase with the help of calcium ions converts prothrombin of the plasma into thrombin.

Thrombin in the presence of calcium ions reacts with the soluble fibrinogen and converts it into
insoluble fibrin. Fibrin forms threads and a meshwork at the site of the wound.

Blood cells are trapped in the network of the fibrin. The blood shrinks and squeezes out the rest of the
plasma in the form of a clear liquid. The solid mass which is left behind is called a clot or thrombus.

Blood Transfusion
Sometimes, it is necessary to inject blood into the body of patients undergoing surgery. This is called
blood transfusion.
The German biochemist Karl Landsteiner was the first to suggest that the blood of different individuals
vary.

Karl Landsteiner
There are several systems of blood grouping. The ABO system and the Rh system are the most
important.

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BIOLOGY THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

ABO System
According to the ABO blood group system, there are four blood groups A, B, AB and O.
O type blood can be given to persons of all types of blood, i.e. O, A, B and AB. Hence, a person with O
type of blood is called a universal donor.
A person with AB type of blood can receive blood from all types, i.e. AB, A, B and O. Hence, such a
person is called a universal recipient.

Compatibility and Incompatibility in the ABO System

Blood Group
of Donor
A
B
AB
O

Blood Group of Recipient

A
B
AB
O
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

Rh System

The blood of most people contains a substance called Rh factor.

Rh stands for Rhesus, our common primate ancestor in which this factor was first discovered.
When the blood of an Rh positive (Rh+) individual is transfused into a person lacking the Rh factor, the
blood of the recipient develops antibodies against the Rh factor which may even lead to death.

Tissue Fluid (Intercellular Fluid)

As blood flows in the capillaries of tissues, the plasma of leucocytes leaks out through their walls and
bathes the cells. This fluid is called tissue fluid or intercellular fluid.
Cells absorb oxygen and other nutrients and give out carbon dioxide to the tissue fluid.

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BIOLOGY THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Lymph and Lymphatic System

Most of the tissue fluid enters another set of vessels called lymphatic vessels, and this fluid is called
lymph.
Lymph vessels drain lymph into lymph nodes.
From lymph nodes, through lymph vessels again, lymph enters the vena cava just before its entry into
the right auricle.

Lymphatic System

Cellular Part:
Leukocytes
(mostly
lymphocytes)

Non-cellular
Part:
Water 94%
Solids 6%

Composition
of Lymph

Function of Lymph

Supplies nutrition and oxygen to parts where blood cannot reach.

Drains away excess tissue fluid and metabolites.
Lymphocytes and monocytes of the lymph help in the defense mechanism of the body.

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BIOLOGY THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The Spleen

The spleen is a large lymphatic organ, about the size of a clenched fist.
It is reddish brown in colour and situated in the abdomen behind the stomach and above the left
kidney.
Functions of the spleen
I.

Acts as a blood reservoir.

II.

Produces lymphocytes.

III.

Destroys worn out RBCs.

IV.

In an embryo, it produces RBCs.

The Circulatory System

Blood in our body circulates in a closed manner, i.e. through blood vessels, all the time. Such type of
blood circulation is called a closed vascular system.
In animals such as insects, the blood mostly flows through open spaces, and such type of circulation is
called open vascular system.
The human blood circulatory system consists of heart, arteries, veins and blood capillaries.

The Heart

Human Heart

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BIOLOGY THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Location

In the centre between the lungs and above the diaphragm.

Dimensions
Size
Covering

12 cm in length and 9 cm in width.

In adult humans, it is about the size of ones fist.
Covered by a double membrane pericardium.
It contains lubricating pericardial fluid which protects the heart
from mechanical injuries.

Chambers of the Heart Two upper atria and two lower ventricles.
Blood Vessels
Entering the Heart

Superior vena cava (anterior vena cava/precaval) brings

deoxygenated blood from the anterior part of the body, i.e. head,
chest and arms.
Inferior vena cava (posterior vena cava/postcaval) brings
blood from the posterior region of the body including abdomen
and legs.
Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the
left atrium.

Blood Vessels
Leaving the Heart

Coronary Arteries
Heart Valves

The pulmonary artery arises from the right ventricle and carries
deoxygenated blood to the lungs for oxygenation.
The aorta arises from the left ventricle and carries oxygenated
blood to supply it to all parts of the body.
Two coronary arteries rising from the base of the aorta supply
blood to heart muscles, i.e. cardiac muscles.
Tricuspid valve (right atrio-ventricular valve) is located
between the right atrium and the right ventricle.
Bicuspid valve (left atrio-ventricular valve) is located between
the left atrium and the left ventricle.
Pulmonary semilunar valves are located at the opening of the
right ventricle in the pulmonary artery.
Aortic semilunar valves are located at the opening of the left
ventricle in the aorta.

Internal Structure of the Human Heart and Associated Blood Vessels

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BIOLOGY THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Circulation of Blood in the Heart
The circulation of blood in the heart occurs due to alternate contraction and relaxation of the heart
chambers.
Contraction is also known as systole, while relaxation is also known as diastole.
The series of events which occur during one complete beat of the heart is called cardiac cycle.

Atrial Systole and Ventricular

Diastole
Ventricular Systole and Atrial
Diastole

Ventricular Diastole
(At stage end of ventricular
systole, ventricles start relaxing.
For a short period, both atria and
ventricles are in diastole; this
state is known as joint diastole).

Blood from the atria passes into the ventricles.

Tricuspid and bicuspid valves open and blood enters
into the corresponding ventricles.
Tricuspid and bicuspid valves close preventing the
backflow of blood into the respective atria.
Both the semilunar valves open, and the ventricular
blood enters the pulmonary artery from the right
ventricle and the aorta from the left ventricle.
Pulmonary and aortic semilunar valves close to
prevent the backflow of blood into the ventricles.

Cardiac muscles contract rhythmically in response to self-generated impulses.

The pacemaker of the sino-atrial node (SA node) is located in the upper wall of the right atrium. It
triggers an impulse which causes an atrial systole.
This impulse quickly reaches the atrio-ventricular node (AV node) located at the bottom of the right
atrium which initiates a ventricular systole.

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BIOLOGY THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The rate of the heart beat varies among different species. Smaller the size of the animal, faster is the
heart rate.

Blood Vessels
The blood vessels are branched tubes extending from the heart to all parts of the body.
An artery is a vessel which carries blood away from the heart towards any organ.
A vein is a vessel which carries blood away from an organ towards the heart.
A capillary is a very narrow tube of about 8 m in diameter.

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BIOLOGY THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation

Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation

Pulmonary circulation pertains to the lungs. It starts in the pulmonary artery. It sends the
deoxygenated blood to the lungs. Pulmonary veins collect oxygenated blood from the lungs and carry
it back to the heart.
Systemic circulation pertains to the major circulation of the body. The aorta receives blood from the
heart and sends it to the various parts of the body. Veins collect the deoxygenated blood from body
parts and pour it back into the heart.

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BIOLOGY THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Hepatic Portal System

Before conveying the blood to the posterior vena cava, the veins of the stomach and intestine enter
the liver as a combined hepatic portal vein.
The hepatic portal vein divides into capillaries and then forms a new hepatic vein.
Portal Vein: It is a vein which starts with capillaries and ends in capillaries.
In the liver, excess nutrients are stored, toxic substances are detoxified and excess amino acids are
broken down.

Pulse

The pulse is the alternate expansion and elastic recoil of the wall of the artery during ventricular
systole.

Blood Pressure

Blood pressure is the pressure which the blood flowing through the arteries exerts on their walls.
There are two kinds of blood pressure:
Systolic Pressure: The upper limit of the pressure. It occurs each time when the heart contracts and
fresh blood is pumped into arteries.
Diastolic Pressure: The lower limit of the pressure. It occurs each time when the heart is in diastole,
i.e. this pressure is observed between two heart beats.
The normal blood pressure of an adult human is 100140 mm (systolic) and 6080 mm (diastolic).
A sphygmomanometer is an instrument used to measure blood pressure.

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