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PRELIMINARIES
Laplace Transforms, Moment Generating
Functions and Characteristic Functions
2.1 Definitions
2.2 Theorems on Laplace Transforms
2.3 Operations on Laplace Transforms
2.4 Limit Theorems
2.5 Dirac Delta Function
2.6 Appendix: Complex Numbers
2.7 Appendix: Notes on Partial Fractions
31
which exists if
32
which exists if
|eiyt | = 1
33
(i2 = 1).
c. Laplace Transform
Let (t) be defined on [0, ) and assume
Z
ex0 t (t)dt <
0
CF
x0 + iy
(s) =
(s) =
est (t)dt
0
est (t)dt.
0+
35
f (x)dx =
0
f (s) =
Z
Z
dF (x)
0
est dF (t)
0
is Laplace-Stieltjes Transform.
36
est dF (t).
37
c. Convolution Theorem
If T1 , T2 are independent, non-negative r.v. with p.d.f f1 (t), f2 (t) then
the pdf of T = T1 + T2 is
Z
f1 ( )f2 (t )d
f (t) =
0
38
f (s) =
st
f (t)dt =
=
=
n=0
X
n=0
(1)
n=0
n
s
(1)n
n!
s n tn
n!
f (t)dt
tn f (t)dt
0
sn
mn where mn = E(T n )
(1)
n!
39
e. Inversion Theorem
Knowledge of f (s). The inversion formula is written
Z c+i
1
est f (s)ds
f (t) =
2i ci
where the integration is in the complex plane and c is an appropriate
constant. (It is beyond the scope of this course to discuss the inversion
formula in detail).
Notation: L {f (t)} = f (s)
f (t) = L1 {f (s)}
where L1 { } is referred to as the Inverse Laplace Transform.
40
E(T )
f (s)
et for t 0
=
f (s)
+s
(1)n
e(s+)t dt
0
( + s)e
(+s)t
=
+s
1+
n=0
Z
s
n!
n=0
n!
n
mn = E(T n ) =
41
n!
n
(1)n
dt =
+s
s n
L{e
,
}=
+s
} = et
{
+s
1
st
ds = et
e
2i ci
+s
Z c+i
1
est ( + s)1 ds = et
2i ci
L1 {( + s)1 }
42
= et
L1 {( + s)1 } = et
Differentiating w.r. to
L1 {( + s)2 } = tet
again
L1 {2( + s)3 } = t2 et
..
.
(n 1) times
and
tn1 et
(n)
n1 t
e
(t)
(n)
43
= n /( + s)n
(t)n1 et
is gamma distribution.
Note:
(n)
f (s) =
fi (s) =
+s
1
44
f (s)
where
A1
A2
A1 (2 + s) + A2 (1 + s)
A1
+
=
(1 + s) (2 + s)
(1 + s)(2 + s)
1 2
, A2 = A1
2 1
45
Since L1 {( + s)1 } = et
f (t) =
L1 {f (s)} =
=
=
+
+
=
f (s) =
1 + s
2 + s
1 + s 2 + s (2 + s)2
f (t) = A1 e1 t + B1 e2 t + B2 te2 t
46
Homework:
Show A1 = (1 2 )2 1 22
1
2
B1 = (1 2 ) + (1 2 )
1 22
B2 = (1 2 )1 1 22
47
L{tn1 et }
( + s)1
(n)/( + s)n
Setting = 0 in above
L{1}
= 1/s
L{tn1 }
= (n)/sn
48
49
Since L {
Rt
0
(s)
(x)dx} = s
f
(s)
L {F (t)} = F (s) = s
f
(s)
1
L {Q(t)} = Q (s) = s F (s) =
s
50
t0+
Proof:
L {0 (t)} = s (s) (0+ )
0
But lim
est 0 (t)dt = 0
0
51
s0
Proof:
0
s0
s0
= lim
st
(t)dt =
0 (t)dt
0
t
0
s0
s0
52
0 for t 6= 0
(t) =
t=0
Define
Let h > 0
1 if t > 0
U (t) =
0 t0
U (t + h) U (t)
1
=
(t, h) =
h
h
0
53
if t > 0
if h < t 0
if t h
Define
for t 6= 0
U (t + h) U (t) 0
=
(t) = lim (t, h) = lim
for t = 0
h0
h0
h
Consider
Z
0
(x)(t x)dx
= lim
h0
U (t x + h) U (t x)
(x) lim
dx
h0
h
1
h
Z
(x)U (t x + h)dx
1
Since U (t x + h) =
0
tx+h>0
otherwise
54
(x)U (t x)dx
(x)(t x)dx
0
)
(Z
Z t
t+h
1
(x)dx
(x)dx
= lim
h0 h
0
0
= lim
h0
1
h
(Z
t+h
(x)dx
t
= lim
h0
(t + h)h
h
= (t)
Similarly (t) =
(t x)(x)dx
55
(t) =
(x)(t x)dx =
(t x)(x)dx
Special Cases
(x) = 1 for all x
1=
(t x)dx =
(x)dx = 1
0
f (t) =
n=1
f (t)dt =
0
pn
n=1
F (tn ) = P {T tn } =
X
j=1
pn (t tn )
(t tn )dt =
pj U (tn+1 tj ) =
pn = 1
tn
f (t)dt =
0
pj
jn
est f (t)dt =
0
n=1
pn
57
est (t tn )dt =
n=1
pn estn
Example 2
Consider a random variable T such that p = P {T = 0} but for T > 0
Z t2
q(x)dx
P {t1 < T t2 } =
t1
f (t)
f (s)
= p(t) + (1 p)q(t)
= p + (1 p)q (s).
0 with probability p
T =
t with pdf q(t) for t > 0
2.6 Appendix
ELEMENTS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
r(x, y)
r
r
>
>
Rectangular
Polar Coordinates
Coordinates
r = Modulus
= Amplitude
x = r cos ,
y = r sin
59
p
z = x + iy, r = x2 + y 2
= tan1
x
y
i: to be determined
60
Multiplication:
zj = rj eij , z1 z2 = r1 r2 ei(1 +2 ) z1 z2 r = r1 r2 ,
= 1 + 2
z1 z2 = r1 r2 (cos(1 + 2 ) + i sin(1 + 2 ) = x + iy
x = r1 r2 cos(1 + 2 ) = r1 r2 (cos 1 cos 2 sin 1 sin 2 ) = a1 a2 b1 b2
y = r1 r2 sin(1 + 2 ) = r1 r2 (sin 1 cos 2 + cos 1 sin 2 ) = b1 a2 + a1 b2
z1 z2 = (a1 + ib1 )(a2 + ib2 ) = a1 a2 + i[a1 b2 + a2 b1 ] + i2 [b1 b2 ]
If i2 = 1 Re(z1 z2 ) = a1 a2 b1 b2
i, i2 = 1,
i4n+1 = i,
i3 = i,
i4 = 1
i4n+2 = 1,
i4n+3 = i,
i4n = 1
61
Exponential function
e
X
n
0
ei
ei
ei
n!
i3 3
i2 2
+
+ ...
= 1 + i +
2
3!
4
6
3
5
2
+
+ . . . ) + i(
+
...)
= (1
2
4!
6!
3!
5!
= cos + i sin ,
= cos i sin , cos() = cos ; sin = sin
ei ei
ei + ei
, sin =
cos =
2
2i
cos 0 = 1, sin 0 = 0
ex : modulus, ey : amplitude
tY
Importance of M GF
Uniqueness Theorem: If two random variables have the same mgf , they
have the same cdf except possibly at a countable number of points having
0 probability.
63
Continuity Theorem: Let {Xn } and X have mgf {n (t)} and (t) with
cdf 0 s Fn (x) and F (x). Then a necessary and sufficient condition for
lim Fn (X) = F (X) is that for every t, limn n (t) = (t), where
n
(t) is continuous at t = 0.
Inversion Formula: Knowledge of (t) enables the pdf or frequency
function to be calculated.
Convolution Theorem: If Yi are independent with mgf i (t), then the
n
n
X
Y
Yi is S (t) =
i (t)
mgf of S =
1
If i (t) = (t)
S (t) = (t)n
64
(t) = E(eity ) =
ity
|(t)| = E(e )
ity
as e = 1.
ity
e dF (y) =
dF (y) = 1
(t) =
X (it)n
n!
(r) (0) = ir mr
mn
eity q(y)dy
66
it 1
)
= (1 + )1
+s
67
mgf
cf
Bernoulli
(pet + q)
(peit + q)
Binomial
(pet + q)n
(peit + q)n
Poisson
Geometric
(et1 )
itm 12 2 t2
tm+ 12 2 t2
= (1 t )1
(1
(eit 1)
68
it 1
)
INVERSION THEOREM
eitj f (j)
Inversion Formula:
1
f (k) =
2
eikt (t)dt
69
1
f (k) =
2
Z
1
eikt
eitj f (j) dt =
2
j=
i(jk)t
dt
j=
ei(jk)t dt
sin(j k)t
cos(j k)t
+ i
for j 6= k
k
(j
k)
f (j)
ei(jk)t
0 for j 6= k
dt =
2 for j = k
70
Let
Z Y have pdf f (y) and cf (t) which is integrable; i.e.
|(t)| dt <
Inversion Formulae:
1
f (y) =
2
eiyt (t)dt
dy = e
e
(t) =
2
71
Replace t by t
y /2
2
ity e
dy = et /2
e
2
dt = e
e
2
Divide by
2
1
2
eity et
y /2
e
/2
dt =
2
72
UNIQUENESS THEOREM
c2 t2 /2
73
P (a < Z b) =
=
FZ (b) FZ (a) =
Z
b
a
1
2
1
2
Z
f (z)dz
a
it(x+cy)
x (t)e
c2 t2 /2
dtdz
"Z
itx
dx x (t)e
c2 t2 /2 itcy
Let c 0 z x and dz dx
Fx (b) Fx (a) =
1
2
ibt
e
it
iat
x (t)dt
dt
Examples
Double Exponential f (x) = 12 e|x|
<x<
Z
Z
1
1
eitx e|x| dx =
[cos tx + i sin tx]e|x| dx
(t) =
2
2
as sin 0 = 0,
ex [t sin tx cos tx]
1
=
(t) =
2
1
+
t
1 + t2
0
cos 0 = 1
1
|t|
dy
=
e
(1 + y 2 )
76
PROBLEMS
1
y
dt
=
e
by the inversion
(t) = it and 2 e
it
formula.
78
k
Y
i=1
N (s) X Ai
=
D (s)
s si
i=1
where constants Ai are to be determined.
Since
N (s)
D (s)
N (s)
D (s)
N (s) =
k
X
Ai
s si
i=1
Pk
i=1
k
X
Ai
Qk
1 (s
Ai
i=1
Y
j6=i
j6=i (s
si )
sj )
(s sj )
Substitute s = sr
N (sr ) = Ar
j6=r
N (sr )
Ar = Q
j6=r (sr sj )
(sr sj )
r = 1, 2, . . . , k
80
Since
D (s)
k
Y
i=1
dD (s)
ds
0
D (sr )
(s si )
D0 (s) =
k Y
X
i=1 j6=i
j6=r
(s sj )
(sr sj )
N (sr )
Ar = 0
D (sr )
r = 1, 2, . . . , k
81
Example:
Let Ti be independent r.v. having pdf qi (t) = i ei t (1 6= 2 ) and
consider T = T1 + T2 .
qi (s)
i /(i + s) i = 1, 2
qT (s)
A2
A1
+
(1 + s) (2 + s)
N (s) = 1 2
N (sr )
Ar = 0
D (sr )
D0 (s) = (1 + s) + (2 + s)
1 2
2 1
A2 =
A1 =
1 2
1 2
82
1
1 2
qT (s) =
2 1 s + 1
s + 2
83
Multiple Roots
If D (s) has multiple roots, the methods for finding the partial fraction
decomposition is more complicated. It is easier to use direct methods.
Example: N (s) = 1, D (s) = (a + s)2 (b + s)
1
A1
A2
B
N
=
=
+
+
D (s)
(a + s)2 (b + s)
a + s (a + s)2
b+s
A1 (a + s)(b + s) + A2 (b + s) + B(a + s)2
1
=
2
(a + s) (b + s)
(a + s)2 (b + s)
1 = A1 (a + s)(b + s) + A2 (b + s) + B(a + s)2
(1)
The above three equations result in solutions for (A1 , A2 , B). Another
way to solve for these constants is by substituting s = a and s = b in
(1); i.e.
substituting s = b in (1)
B = (a b)2 A1 = B = (a b)2
substituting s = a in (1)
A2 = (b a)1
b)
e
(a
b)
te
+
(a
b)
e
L1
D (s)
ebt
eat
=
[1 + t(a b)] +
2
(a b)
(a b)2
85
B1
B2
Bd 2
+
+
.
.
.
+
s s2
(s s2 )2
(s s2 )d2
+ ... . +
Z2
Zdk
Z1
+
+
.
.
.
+
(s sk ) (s sk )2
(s sk )dk
86