Government of India

Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources 3

Solar Heat
 Dr Manmohan Singh
Prime Minister of India
‘Energy is an important input for
economic development. Since
exhaustible energy sources in the
country are limited, there is an
urgent need to focus attention on
development of renewable
energy sources and use of energy
efficient technologies. The
exploitation and development of
various forms of energy and
making energy available at
affordable rates is one of our major
thrust areas.’
Smt. Sonia Gandhi
Chairperson, National Advisory Council
‘Today India is one of the few
leading countries in the
development and utilization of
renewable energy. The country is
blessed with various sources of
non-conventional energy and I
hope the efforts of Ministry of
Non-Conventional Energy
Sources will promote viable
technologies that can reach the
benefits of such sources to the
poorest people in the far-flung
regions of the country.’
 Renewable Energy in India

E
nergy is a basic requirement for economic development. Every
sector of Indian economy – agriculture, industry, t r a n s p o r t ,
commercial, and domestic – needs inputs of energy. The
economic development plans implemented since independence have
necessarily required increasing amounts of energy. As a result,
consumption of energy in all forms has been steadily rising all over the
country.
This growing consumption of energy has also resulted in the country
becoming increasingly dependent on fossil fuels such as coal and oil
and gas. Rising prices of oil and gas and potential shortages in future
lead to concerns about the security of energy supply needed to sustain
our economic growth. Increased use of fossil fuels also causes
environmental problems both locally and globally.
Against this background, the country urgently needs to develop a
sustainable path of energy development. Promotion of energy
conservation and increased use of renewable energy sources are the
twin planks of a sustainable energy
supply.
Fortunately, India is blessed with
a variety of renewable energy
sources, the main ones being
biomass, biogas, the sun, wind, and
small hydro power. (Large hydro
power is also renewable in nature,
but has been utilized all over the
world for many decades, and is
generally not included in the term
‘new and renewable sources of
energy’.) Municipal and industrial
wastes can also be useful sources of
energy, but are basically different
forms of biomass.
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Advantages of renewable energy are that it is

Š perennial
Š available locally and does not need elaborate arrangements for
transport
Š usually modular in nature, i.e. small-scale units and systems can be
almost as economical as large-scale ones
Š environment-friendly
Š well suited for decentralized applications and use in remote areas.

The Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources has been

implementing comprehensive programmes for the development and
utilization of various renewable energy sources in the country. As a
result of efforts made during the past quarter century, a number of
technologies and devices have been developed and have become
commercially available. These include biogas plants, improved wood
stoves, solar water heaters, solar cookers, solar lanterns, street lights,
pumps, wind electric generators, water-pumping wind mills, biomass
gasifiers, and small hydro-electric generators. Energy technologies for
the future such as hydrogen, fuel cells, and bio-fuels are being actively
developed.
India is implementing one of the world’s largest programmes in
renewable energy. The country ranks second in the world in biogas
utilization and fifth in wind power and photovoltaic production.
Renewable sources already contribute to about 5% of the total power
generating capacity in the
countr y. The major
renewable energy sources and
devices in use in India are
listed in Table 1 along with
their potential and present
status in terms of the number
of installations or total
capacity.

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Table 1

Renewable energy in India at a glance

Cumulative
Estimated installed capacity /
Source/System potential number*
Wind power 45 000 MW 3595 MW
Biomass power 16 000 MW 302.53 MW
Bagasse cogeneration 3500 MW 447.00 MW
Small hydro (up to 25 MW) 15 000 MW 1705.63 MW
Waste to energy
P Municipal solid waste 1700 MW 17 MW
P Industrial waste 1000 MW 29.50 MW
Family-size biogas plants 12 million 3.71 million
Improved chulhas 120 million 35.20 million
Solar street lighting systems — 54 795
Home lighting systems — 342 607
Solar lanterns — 560 295
Solar photovoltaic power plants — 1566 kWp
Solar water heating systems 140 million m 2
1 million m 2 of
of collector area collector area
Box-type solar cookers — 575 000
Solar photovoltaic pumps — 6818
Wind pumps — 1087
Biomass gasifiers — 66.35 MW
* as on 31 March 2005

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N ATION AL E LECTRICIT Y P OLICY 2005 12345678901234
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National Electricity Policy 2005

The National Electricity Policy aims at achieving the following
objectives.

1 Access to Electricity – available for all households in the next five

years.
2 Availability of Power – demand to be fully met by 2012. Energy
and peaking shortages to be overcome and spinning reserve to be
available.
3 Supply of reliable and quality power of specified standards in an
efficient manner and at reasonable rates.
4 Per capita availability of electricity to be increased to over 1000
units by 2012.
5 Minimum lifeline consumption of 1 unit/household/day as a merit
good by 2012.
6 Financial turnaround and commercial viability of electricity sector.
7 Protection of consumers’ interests.

The Electricity Act 2003

The Electricity Act contains the following provisions pertaining to non-
conventional energy sources.

Sections 3(1) and 3(2)

Under Sections 3(1) and 3(2), it has been stated that the Central
Government shall, from time to time, prepare and publish the National
Electricity Policy and Tariff Policy, in consultation with the state
governments and authority for development of the power system based
on optimal utilization of resources such as coal, natural gas, nuclear
substances or material, hydro and renewable sources of energy.

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Section 4
Section 4 states that the Central Government shall, after consultation
with the state governments, prepare and notify a national policy,
permitting stand-alone systems (including those based on renewable
sources of energy and other non-conventional sources of energy) for
rural areas.

Section 61
Section 61, 61(h) and 61(i) state that the appropriate commission shall,
subject to the provision of this Act, specify the terms and conditions
for the determination of tariff, and in doing so, shall be guided by the
following, namely, the promotion of cogeneration and generation of
electricity from renewable sources of energy; and the National Electricity
Policy and Tariff Policy.

Section 86(1)
Section 86(1) and 86(1)(e) state that the state commissions shall
discharge the following functions, namely, promote cogeneration and
generation of electricity from renewable sources of energy by providing,
suitable measures for connectivity with the grid and sale of electricity
to any person, and also specify, for purchase of electricity from such
sources, a percentage of the total consumption of electricity in the area
of a distribution license.

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 Solar Heat

Solar Energy
India lies in the sunny regions
of the world. Most parts of
India receive 4–7 kilowatt hours
of solar radiation per square
metre per day with 250–300
sunny days in a year. The
highest annual radiation energy
is received in western Rajasthan while the north-eastern region of the
country receives the lowest annual radiation.
Solar energy, experienced by us as heat and light, can be used through
two routes: the thermal route uses the heat for water heating, cooking,
drying, water purification, power generation, and other applications;
the photovoltaic route converts the light in solar energy into electricity,
which can then be used for a number of purposes such as lighting,
pumping, communications, and power supply in unelectrified areas.
Energy from the sun has many features, which make it an attractive and
sustainable option: global distribution, pollution-free nature, and the
virtually inexhaustible supply.

Solar Thermal Energy

Energy in the form of heat (thermal energy) is required for many
purposes in the domestic, agricultural, industrial, and commercial
sectors of the economy. Solar thermal energy can meet many of these
needs in a cost-effective and reliable manner. A solar thermal system
basically absorbs the heat in solar energy and transfers it to a medium
such as water or air. When used for purposes such as heating of water,
cooking, drying of various commodities and products, and distillation
of water, solar thermal systems can partially or fully replace the
conventional fuels such as coal, oil, and electricity. Solar thermal
technology has a tremendous potential for saving conventional energy
in India.
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Solar Water Heating Systems

A solar water heating system is a device that
uses solar energy to heat water for domestic,
commercial, and industrial needs. Heating of
water is the most common application of solar
energy in the world. A typical solar water
heating system can save up to 1500 units of
electricity every year, for every 100 litres per
day of solar water heating capacity.

Design
A solar water heating system consists of a flat-
plate solar collector, a storage tank kept at a
height behind the collector, and connecting pipes. The system is
generally installed on the roof or on open ground, with the collector
facing the sun and connected to a continuous water supply. The
collector usually comprises copper tubes welded to copper sheets (both
coated with a highly absorbing black coating) with a toughened glass
sheet on top and insulating material on the back. The entire assembly
is placed in a flat box. In certain models, evacuated glass tubes are used
instead of copper; a separate cover sheet and insulating box are not
required in this case. Water flows through the tubes, absorbs solar heat,
and is stored in a tank. The hot water so stored can be used for various
applications at homes, such as bathing, cleaning, and washing. It can
also be used for a variety of industrial applications. The water stored
in the tank remains hot overnight as the storage tank is insulated and
heat losses are small. Flat-plate solar collectors are manufactured in
India; however, the tubes for evacuated tube collectors are imported.
So far, about 1 million square metres of collector area has been installed
in the country.

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Domestic solar water heating

system
Most domestic solar water heaters are
provided with electrical back-up.
Electrical heating elements are
usually placed in the storage tank and
can be switched on during cloudy
days. In some cases, the solar-heated
water is led into an existing electric
geyser; the geyser needs to be
switched on only in cloudy
conditions. Most domestic systems are in the capacity range of 100–
500 litres of hot water per day.

Advantages of solar water heaters

Š Hot water is available 24 hours a day depending on the use and
system capacity.
Š A solar water heater pays back its cost in 3–4 years.
Š Solar water heaters last a long time (15–20 years) and require only
simple maintenance.

Cost
The smallest solar water heater available has a capacity of 100 litres
per day, which is sufficient for a family of four or five members. It
costs Rs 15 000 to Rs 18 000, and can save about 1500 units of
electricity per year.

Standards
National standards for flat-plate collectors have been laid down by the
BIS (IS 12933 : 1992) to ensure minimum quality and performance of
the systems. The standards include specifications of components of
collectors such as cover, absorber, insulation, box, and sealant.
Manufacturers are licensed by the BIS to use the ISI mark after their
products are tested according to the standards.

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The Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES) has

established test facilities at the Solar Energy Centre, Gurgaon, as well
as at six regional test centres in different regions of the country, to
facilitate testing of solar collectors for conformity with the national
standards. Over 80 manufacturers of solar water heating systems have
received BIS certification.

Soft loan scheme on solar water heaters

A soft loan scheme has been introduced by the MNES. The MNES offers
interest subsidy through IREDA and seven banks, as listed below.

Name of the bank Area of operation

Canara Bank All branches in the country
Union Bank of India All branches in Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh
and the following cities:
Agartala, Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Baroda,
Bhavnagar, Bhopal, Bhubaneshwar, Bilaspur,
Chandigarh, Chennai, Coimbatore, Delhi,
Dhanbad, Durgapur, Guwahati, Gwalior,
Hyderabad, Indore, Jaipur, Jabalpur, Jamshedpur,
Jodhpur, Kochi, Kolkata, Kota, Madurai, Mount
Abu, Muzaffarpur, Mysore, Panaji, Patna,
Pondicherry, Raipur, Rajkot, Ranchi, Ranipet,
Shillong, Shimla, Siliguri, Surat,
Thiruvananthapuram, Trichy, Udaipur,
Visakhapatnam, and Vellore.
Punjab and Sind Bank All branches in the country
Bank of Maharashtra All branches in the country
Andhra Bank All branches in the country
Syndicate Bank All branches in the country
Punjab National Bank All branches in the country

Soft loans are available at an interest rate of 5% for non-commercial

users and 7% for commercial organizations. These loans are available
for up to 85% of the cost of the system, and can be repaid over five
years. Some manufacturers act as intermediaries of the Indian
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Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) and offer similar

financing arrangements. IREDA provides loans of up to 80% of the
system cost, to be repaid over six years including one year of
moratorium. The interest rates and other details are subject to change;
latest information may be obtained from the MNES website
<www.mnes.nic.in>.

Availability and repair/servicing

Solar water heating systems can be obtained and installed through
manufacturers, their dealers, and ‘Aditya’ Solar Shops. The list of BIS-
certified manufacturers may be obtained from the MNES website. Repair
and servicing facilities too are available with them. Information regarding
solar water heating systems can also be obtained from the renewable energy
agencies established by state governments.

Solar Cooking
Cooking is a common application of solar energy in India. A variety of
solar cookers are available to suit different requirements. The MNES
has been implementing a programme for promoting the use of solar
cooking in the country for over two decades. The programme also
supports the development and demonstration of new types of cooking
systems.

Advantages of solar cooking

Š Solar cooking involves no recurring expenses on fuel. If used regularly,
a solar cooker can save three or four LPG cylinders per year.
Š It saves time. You are free to do other things while food cooks in
the solar cooker.
Š There is no fear of scorching the food.
Š Solar cooking is a slow process, and hence ensures better and more
nutritious cooked food.
Š It does not pollute the environment, and conserves conventional
energy.
Š Solar cookers are durable and simple to use.

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Limitations of solar cooking

Š A solar cooker works well only on a clear sunny day. (However, if
an electrical heater is built in, the cooker can be used on cloudy
days too.)
Š Cooking is slow with solar cookers, which may not suit some users.

Box solar cooker

A box solar cooker cooks food with the help of solar energy, and helps
save conventional fuels. It supplements cooking fuel but does not
replace it totally. It is an ideal device for domestic cooking during most
of the year except on cloudy days. This cooker can be used for the
preparation of rice, dal, kadhi, vegetables, meat and fish dishes, snacks,
soups, sweets, desserts, sauces,
jams, pickles, biscuits, cakes,
puddings, etc. However, it
cannot be used for frying or for
making chapatis.
A box-type solar cooker
consists of an outer box made
of either fibre glass or
aluminium sheet, a blackened
aluminium tray, a doubleglass
lid, a reflector, insulation, and
cooking pots. The blackened
aluminium tray is fixed inside
the box, with insulating material in between to prevent heat loss from
all sides. A doubleglass lid with toughened glass acts as the cover of the
cooking tray. A reflecting mirror, fitted on the inside of the outer box
cover, reflects the solar radiation and helps in increasing the solar energy
input. The cooking pots are made of steel or aluminium and painted
black on the outer side. The food to be cooked is placed in the cooking
pots, which are then placed in the aluminium tray and covered by the
doubleglass lid. The cooker is kept facing the sun appropriately to cook
the food.

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Box solar cookers normally measure about 60 × 60 cm, and each are
provided with four pots. Smaller models are also available. An electrical
heater to serve as a back-up during non-sunshine hours is available in
some models. These cookers can be procured from manufacturers,
suppliers, district and head offices of state agencies, as well as from
‘Aditya’ solar shops. National standards have been established for box-
type solar cookers by the BIS.
The cost of a box solar cooker varies from Rs 1200 to Rs 2500
depending on its size and features. A normal-size box cooker is sufficient
for a family of four or five members. It has a life of 10–12 years. Its
payback period is 2–3 years depending upon the extent of use and
place of use.

Dish solar cooker

A dish solar cooker uses a parabolic dish to concentrate the incident
solar radiation. This solar cooker is commonly known as an ‘SK-14’
type of cooker, and is useful for homes and small establishments.
A typical dish solar cooker has an aperture diameter of 1.4 m and a
focal length of 0.28 m. The reflecting material used for fabrication of
this cooker is anodized aluminium sheet, which has a reflectivity of
over 80%. The cooker has to track the sun and has to be adjusted
manually after every 15–20 minutes. The cooker can deliver power of
about 0.6 kW, which can boil two to three litres of water in half-an-
hour. The temperature achieved at the bottom of the vessel could reach
350–400 °C, which is
sufficient for roasting, frying,
and boiling. This cooker can
meet the needs of about 15
people, and can be used for
eight to nine hours during the
day.
The cost of a dish solar
cooker may var y from
Rs 4300 to Rs 5000 depending
on the type of reflector and
supporting structure. The dish
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solar cooker can save up to 10 liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) cylinders

per year upon full use at small establishments. Its payback period ranges
from 2–3 years, depending on the extent of its use and the place of
use.
The life of this cooker is estimated at about 20 years for the metallic
structure. However, the reflecting sheets may have to be replaced once
in five years due to degradation in their reflectivity. At present, the
MNES provides an incentive of up to 50% of the cost of the cooker to
encourage its use.

Community solar cooker for indoor cooking

Like the dish solar cooker, the community solar cooker too is a parabolic
reflector cooker. However, it is larger than the SK-14 type, and is
commonly known as a Scheffler cooker. The unique feature of this
cooker is that it makes possible to cook using solar energy within the
kitchen itself. The cooker has a large reflector ranging from 7 to 12 m2
of aperture area. This reflector is placed outside the kitchen so that it
reflects solar rays into the kitchen through an opening in its north
wall. A secondary reflector further concentrates the rays on to the
bottom of the pot/frying pan (painted black to absorb maximum heat).
The temperature attained is so high (up to 400 °C) that the food can
be cooked quickly. Thus, the community solar cooker works like a
conventional cooking device, with the difference that instead of using
a conventional fuel like gas or firewood, it uses solar energy inside the
kitchen.
Cooking for about 40–50 persons is possible with this cooker. One
dish may take about 60–90 minutes to cook, depending on the type of
dish and solar insolation available. The cooker works nicely in areas
where solar insolation is good during most part of the year. In such
areas, it is possible to cook two meals a day with this cooker.
Due to the high temperature attained with this cooker, it is suitable
for making almost all traditional dishes, including chapatis, purees, dosas,
etc. The cooker can also be used to season (that is, ‘tadka’) dishes.
When not in use for cooking, the cooker can be used to heat/boil water.

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The cooker is provided with a mechanical clockwork arrangement

that rotates the primary reflector outside to automatically track the
sun. The cook has to set this reflector in focus only once a day, in the
morning. By shifting two arms provided in the reflector frame, it is
possible to change the curvature of the parabolic reflector for seasonal
adjustment, thus keeping it fully tracked on to the sun during all
seasons.
The community solar cooker can be useful to schools, institutional
kitchens, canteens, religious ashrams, hotels, hospitals, police and armed
forces’ kitchens, etc. The cost of this cooker is about Rs 50 000. The
payback period is 4–5 years.

Solar steam generating system for cooking

It is possible to cook large quantities of food using the steam generated
by solar heat. A solar steam generating system comprises automatically
tracked parabolic concentrators, steam header assemblies with receivers,
steam pipelines, feed water piping, steel structures and civil works,
instrumentation like pressure gauges and temperature indicators, steam
separators, steam traps,
etc. The system is
generally hooked up with
a conventional steam
generating system already
available with the user, to
make it reliable under all
climatic conditions.
The world’s largest
solar steam generating
system for cooking has
been installed by the
Tirumala Tirupathi
Devasthanam (TTD), at Tirumala, Andhra Pradesh, under a
demonstration scheme of the MNES. It employs automatic tracking
solar dish concentrators which convert water into high-pressure steam.

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The steam thus generated is used for cooking purposes in the TTD
kitchen. The system can supply enough steam to prepare food for
15 000 people each day.
Smaller systems of this type have been installed at Mount Abu, Shirdi,
Hubli, Gurgaon, and other places.

Suppor t from MNES

The MNES provides financial support to users of solar cookers, as
listed below.

Type of solar cooker Support to users (Rs)

Dish solar cooker
Community solar cooker for indoor
cooking
Steam cooking systems
Note This support is subject to change.
50% of total cost, limited to
Rs 2500 per cooker
50% of eligible capital cost, limited to
Rs 25 000 per cooker
50% of eligible capital cost, as agreed
upon by the MNES

Solar Drying Systems

Many agricultural and industrial products need drying in order to
reduce their moisture content as part of processing or for preservation.
While open sun drying may be the most inexpensive and extensively
used option for many of the products, the process is unhygienic and
time-consuming. One option is to use a conventional fuel such as
biomass, oil, or electricity for drying applications. However, such fuels
are expensive, and their use causes pollution. With the rising costs of
conventional fuels and increasing awareness of the dangers of pollution,
solar dryers are becoming a technically and economically viable option
in many industrial and agricultural applications.

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Technology
Solar energy can be used to heat air to temperatures needed for most
of the drying applications. Solar dryers use air heated through solar
energy collectors, which can be installed in modules according to the
requirements of hot air. Drying is basically a heat and mass transfer
process: moisture from the surface and inside of the product is
vaporized, and the vapour is removed by flowing hot air. Important
factors affecting the drying process are listed below.
Š Relative humidity and temperature of air
Š Airflow rate
Š Initial moisture content of the product
Š Final desired moisture content of the product

Types of solar dryers

Integrated solar dryers
An integrated solar dryer is one in which solar energy collection and
drying take place in a single unit. Cabinet dryers, rack dryers, tunnel
dryers, greenhouse dryers, and multi-rack dryers fall under this category.
Normally, these dryers are small in size and are stand-alone units.

Distributed solar dryers

A solar dryer in which solar energy collection and drying take place in
separate units is known as a distributed solar dryer. This type of solar
dryer has two parts: (1) a flat-plate air heater and (2) a drying chamber.
Air is heated in the flat-plate heater placed on the roof of the building
or on the ground. Hot air from the air heater is circulated in the drying
chamber with the help of a blower. These dryers can be designed in
different sizes with various configurations, depending upon the
temperature of hot air, airflow rate, types of products to be dried, etc.

Mixed-mode solar dryers

A solar dryer in which solar energy collection takes place in both air
heater and drying unit, and drying takes place only in the drying unit,

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is known as a mixed-mode solar dryer. In this dryer, solar energy is

collected through flat-plate solar collectors and also by the roof of the
drying chamber. In large industrial drying systems, the solar-heated
air is combined with air heated by conventional energy; this adds to
the reliability of the system, and at the same time helps in significantly
reducing conventional energy consumption.

Uses
Solar dryers can be utilized for various domestic purposes. They also
find numerous applications in industries such as textiles, wood, fruit
and food processing, paper, pharmaceutical, and agro-industries.

Advantages
Š Solar dryers are more economical compared to dryers that run on
conventional fuels/electricity.
Š The drying process is completed in the most hygienic and eco-
friendly way.
Š Solar drying systems have low operation and maintenance costs.
Š Solar dryers last longer. A typical dryer can last 15–20 years with
minimum maintenance.

Limitations
Š Drying can be performed only during sunny days, unless the system
is integrated with a conventional energy-based system.
Š Due to limitations in solar energy collection, the solar drying process
is slow in comparison with dryers that use conventional fuels.
Š Normally, solar dryers can be utilized only for drying at
40–50 ºC.

Cost
The cost of a solar dryer of 50-kg capacity ranges from about Rs 30 000
to Rs 50 000. Larger industrial-scale systems may cost between
Rs 4 lakhs and Rs 10 lakhs.

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Subsidies
The MNES is implementing a national programme on solar thermal
energy, which provides interest subsidy in the form of soft loans available
through IREDA and banks. The MNES also provides capital subsidy
of up to 50% of the project cost for a specific demonstration project
that is based on new technology and or is located in a new area.
There are a few manufacturers in India who are capable of supplying
solar dryers for specific purposes and in specific sizes. Larger systems
for industrial establishment have to be designed and installed on a
project-by-project basis.

Potential for solar dryers

There is vast potential for solar dryers in the country: for drying agro-
products and also for use in the fruit and food processing industries.
Solar drying systems can also be installed for drying a variety of
industrial products such as chemicals, leather, salt, plywood, and
textiles.

Success stories
Solar drying systems have been installed in many places in the country.
Listed below are some locations where the systems are being used.

Produce/material being dried Location

Fruits and vegetables Sham Fruits and Vegetable Growers Co-operative
Marketing Society Ltd, Nimoo (30 km from Leh),
Jammu and Kashmir
Clothes Apollo KH Hospital, Ranipet, Tamil Nadu
Tea Parkside Tea Factory, Coonoor, Tamil Nadu
Tea Glendale Tea Factory, Coonoor, Tamil Nadu
Spices Eastern Condiments (P) Ltd, Theni, Tamil Nadu
Coriander Shakti Masala (P) Ltd, Erode, Tamil Nadu
Fish District Fisheries Youth Welfare Association,
Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh
Leather M A Khizar Hussain & Sons, Ranipet, Tamil Nadu
Dal (gram) Dal Mills at Theni, Tamil Nadu
Salt Sahayamatha Refinery, Tuticorin, Tamil Nadu

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Energy-Ef ficient Buildings

Technology
Buildings, as they are often
designed and built today,
contribute to serious
environmental problems.
This is because energy-
intensive methods are used to
construct a building and
meet its demands for heating,
cooling, ventilation, and
lighting. These methods lead
to severe depletion of the
precious environmental
resources.
However, buildings can be designed in such a way that they meet
the occupants’ needs for thermal and visual comfort at reduced levels
of energy and resources consumption. Adopting an integrated approach
to building design can bring about energy efficiency in new constructions.
The primary steps in this approach are listed below.
Š Incorporate solar passive techniques in building design to minimize
load on conventional systems (heating, cooling, ventilation, and
lighting).
Š Design energy-efficient lighting and HVAC (heating, ventilation,
and air-conditioning) systems.
Š Use renewable energy systems (solar photovoltaic systems/solar water
heating systems) to meet a part of the building load.
Š Use low energy materials and methods of construction, and reduce
transportation energy.

In brief, an energy-efficient building balances all aspects of energy

use in a building – lighting, space-conditioning, and ventilation – by
providing an optimized mix of passive solar design strategies, energy-
efficient equipment, and renewable sources of energy.

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Climate and architecture

India is divided into six climatic zones based on different climatic
conditions. Knowledge of climate at a given location can help in the
design of solar passive buildings that eliminate the adverse effects of
climate, yet simultaneously take advantage of effects that are beneficial.
For instance, in a place like Mumbai, a building can be designed in
such a way that appropriate shading prevents solar radiation and
adequate ventilation reduces humidity. In a place like Shimla, where
the climate is cold and cloudy, a building can be designed to make
maximum use of sunlight, and thereby keep its interiors as warm as
possible. The various climatic factors that affect the solar passive design
are listed below.
Š Wind velocity
Š Ambient temperature
Š Relative humidity
Š Solar radiation

Solar passive techniques

Various concepts and techniques are used to design energy-efficient
buildings. Some of these are described below.

Direct heat gain

The direct heat gain technique is generally used in cold climates. The
basic principle is that sunlight is admitted into the living spaces directly
through openings or glazed windows to heat walls, floors, and inside
air. The glazed windows are generally located facing south to receive
maximum sunlight during winter. They are usually double-glazed, with
insulating curtains to reduce heat loss during the night. During the
day, heat is stored in walls and floors; it is released during the night to
warm the interior.

Thermal storage walls

In this approach, a thermal storage wall is placed between the living
space and the glazing. This prevents solar radiation from directly

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entering the living space. The radiation is absorbed by the storage wall,
and then transferred into the living space. Thermal storage walls include
Trombe walls, water walls, transwalls, etc.

Evaporative cooling
Evaporative cooling is a passive cooling technique, generally employed
in hot and dry climates. It works on the principle that when warm air
is used to evaporate water, the air itself becomes cool, and in turn
cools the living space of a building.

Passive desiccant cooling

Passive desiccant cooling method is effective in a warm and humid
climate. Natural cooling of the human body through sweating does
not occur in highly humid conditions. To decrease the humidity level
of the surroundings, desiccant salts or mechanical
de-humidifiers are used.

Induced ventilation
Passive cooling by induced
ventilation can be most
effective in hot and humid
climates as well as in hot and
dry climates. This method
involves the heating of air in a
restricted area through solar
radiation, thus creating a
temperature difference and
causing air movements or drafts. The drafts cause hot air to rise and
escape from the interior, drawing in cooler air and thereby effecting
cooling.

Earth berming
Earth-berming technique is used for both passive cooling and heating
of buildings. It is based on the fact that the earth acts like a massive

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heat sink. Thus, underground or partially sunk buildings would provide

both cooling in summer and heating in winter to the living spaces
within.
In addition to the above concepts, there are many other solar passive
techniques such as wind towers, earth air tunnels, curved roofs, and
air vents, which can be incorporated according to the requirements of
the buildings. There are design features that enable maximum use of
daylight inside the building.

Advantages of solar passive buildings

With the incorporation of solar passive concepts into a building, a
large quantity of energy can be saved. Furthermore, these concepts
help in providing comfortable living conditions to the inhabitants in
an eco-friendly manner. However, they cannot totally eliminate the
use of conventional energy for modern facilities such as air-
conditioning.

Cost and payback period

The cost of a building may increase by about 5%–15% because of
incorporation of solar passive concepts. However, the investment may
be recovered within a period of five to seven years due to savings in
energy.

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Financial suppor t
As part of its national programme on solar thermal energy in the
country, the MNES provides financial support for construction of solar
passive buildings for government/semi-government organizations as
well as for non-governmental institutional buildings. The MNES
provides up to Rs 1 lakh for the preparation of DPRs (detailed project
reports). It also provides a financial support of 10% of the total cost of
the building, subject to a maximum limit of Rs 10 lakhs. Financial
assistance is also provided for organization of seminars, workshops,
and awareness programmes.

Potential for energy-efficient buildings

Every year, thousands of new buildings are constructed in the country
for use as residences, offices, hospitals, hotels, and commercial centres.
Hence, vast potential exists for construction of solar passive energy-
efficient buildings. Such buildings would help in reducing the
requirement of conventional electricity.

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Success stories
A number of buildings incorporating solar passive architecture have
been constructed in the country. Some of them are listed below.
Š Solar Energy Centre, Gwal Pahari, Gurgaon
Š Office buildings for the Himachal Pradesh Energy Development
Agency, Shimla
Š Buildings of the Himachal Pradesh State Cooperative Bank, Shimla,
and the State Bank of Patiala, Shimla
Š A hostel for trainees at Leh
Š Office building of the West Bengal Renewable Energy Development
Agency, Kolkata
Š Office-cum-laboratory building of the West Bengal Pollution
Control Board, Kolkata
Š An audio-visual studio at the School of Energy and Environmental
Studies, Devi Ahilya Vishwavidyalaya, Indore
Š Punjab Energy Development Agency, Chandigarh
Š Centre for Wind Energy Technology, Chennai
Š Buildings of the Sardar Swaran Singh National Institute of
Renewable Energy, Kapurthala, Punjab (under construction)

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Rajiv Gandhi Akshay Urja Diwas

On 20 August 2004 – the 60th Birth Anniversary of our Late Prime
Minister Mr Rajiv Gandhi – the Ministry organized the Rajiv Gandhi
Akshay Urja Diwas. Initiated by the Hon’ble Minister of State (Non-
Conventional Energy
Sources), Mr V Muttemwar,
the occasion saw the release
of a commemorative stamp
by the Hon’ble Prime
Minister, Dr Manmohan
Singh, at a function attended
by Smt. Sonia Gandhi,
Chairperson, United
Progressive Alliance (UPA),
Members of the Union
Cabinet, Members of
Parliament, Chief Ministers,
Foreign Dignitaries, Administrators, Scientists, and students among
others.
The day was also appropriate to advocate renewable energy, since
Mr Rajiv Gandhi was a keen enthusiast of scientific advances that would
enable India to leap into the 21st century. Thus, a human chain of
nearly 12 000 school children was formed in the National Capital to
promote a renewable future. In the rest of the country too, functions
such as rallies and human chains were organized. In addition,
competitions such as essay writing, painting, quizzes, and debates were
held, all of which covered different aspects of renewable energy – from
biogas to biomass to solar, hydro, and wind power. The essence of
these public activities was to generate mass awareness and disseminate
information about the advances made in renewable energy technologies,
and with the ultimate objective of achieving ‘Akshay urja se desh vikas
– Gaon gaon bijlee, ghar ghar prakash’. The success of the Rajiv Gandhi
Akshay Urja Diwas has encouraged the Ministry to make it an annual
affair, to be celebrated on 20 August every year.

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Annual mean daily global

solar radiation in India
(in kWh/m2/day)

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For more information, please contact

Ministry of Non-Conventional
Energy Sources Tel. +91 11 2436 0707
Block No. 14, CGO Complex +91 11 2436 0404
Lodi Road, New Delhi – 110 003 Fax +91 11 2436 1298
Also contact

Solar Water Heating System

Managing Director
Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency Ltd
India Habitat Centre Complex, Core-4A, East Court, First Floor
Lodi Road, New Delhi – 110 003
Tel. 011 2468 2214–21

Solar Cookers

The State Renewable Energy Agency

Solar Drying Systems

Planters Energy Network

171/2, Madurai Kamraj University Road
Rajambadi, Madurai – 625 021
Tamil Nadu

Director
Sardar Patel Renewable Energy Research Institute
P. B. No. 2, Vallabh Vidyanagar – 388 120

Disclaimer
Every effort has been made to provide correct information in this booklet. However, the Ministry of
Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES) does not assume any responsibility for the accuracy
of the facts and figures mentioned here, nor for any consequences arising out of use of any
information contained in this publication.

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 Shri Vilas Muttemwar
Minister of State (Independent Charge)
Non-Conventional Energy Sources, Government of India
New Delhi – 110 003

‘The promotion of renewable energy sources in the

country requires widespread publicity and greater
awareness of the potential of these energy sources
and the products available. The Ministry of Non-
Conventional Energy Sources is expanding several
of its programmes so that these sources can
contribute to sustainable development of the nation.
The Ministry will work towards reducing the costs
of renewable energy products and making them
easily available to the people. The motto of the
Ministry is “Akshay urja se desh vikas” and the
ultimate goal is “Gaon gaon bijli, ghar ghar prakash”.’
3 Solar Heat

Booklets in this Series

1 Biogas

2 Biomass

3 Solar Heat

4 Solar Electricity

5 Energy Recover y from Wastes

6 Wind Energy

7 Small Hydro Power

8 Hydrogen Energy

9 Solar Energy Centre

10 Centre for Wind Energy Technology

11 Indian Renewable Energy Development

Agency Ltd

12 Information and Public Awareness

Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources, Government of India

Block No. 14, CGO Complex, Lodi Road, New Delhi – 110 003
Web site: www.mnes.nic.in