System Dynamics Modeling and Development of a Design Procedure for Short-term

Alternative Energy Storage Systems

THESIS

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science in
the Graduate School of The Ohio State University
By
Joshua John McDonough
Graduate Program in Mechanical Engineering

The Ohio State University

2011

Master's Examination Committee:

Professor Marcello Canova, Advisor
Professor Yann Guezennec

Copyright by
Joshua John McDonough
2011

Abstract
Recovering and storing a vehicles kinetic energy during deceleration and the subsequent
use of the stored energy during acceleration has lead to significant increases in vehicle
efficiency. Current production hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) convert the energy and
store it using electric machines and electro-chemical batteries. While these systems can
be configured to provide substantial benefits in addition to kinetic energy recovery,
significant limitations exist which hinder the performance and market penetration.
Converting mechanical energy to electricity then storing it chemically leads to
considerable losses during storage. The path must be followed in the opposite direction
during release, compounding the losses. Current HEV batteries, while very effective at
storing large quantities of energy, have longevity driven power limitations which drive up
cost and weight. As a result of these limitations, investigations have been made into
alternative means to recover and store kinetic energy on board vehicles.
This thesis investigates two such methods of energy recovery and storage, a hydraulic
system with accumulator energy storage and a purely mechanical system with flywheel
energy storage. Both systems are of parallel hybrid architecture and offer high power
capacity at relatively low cost. The hydraulic system consists of a pump/motor to convert
mechanical work to fluid power and a high-pressure accumulator to store the energy.
The mechanical system transmits the vehicles kinetic energy to a flywheel through
changing the ratio of a continuously variable transmission linked between the flywheel
ii

and the drivetrain. System dynamics models are created for each of the systems
components and coupled to allow for analysis over simulated drive cycles. An iterative
design method is proposed for both the hydraulic and mechanical systems, based on drive
cycle analysis, performance in simulation, and system properties, such as mass and
estimated cost. The systems are compared and contrasted with each other in order to
evaluate the relative strengths and weaknesses of the various kinetic energy recovery
methods.

iii

Dedication
This document is dedicated to my family and fiance.

iv

Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the many people who made this research possible. First, thank you
to my advisor Professor Marcello Canova for his guidance and direction throughout the
work. Thank you to Professor Giorgio Rizzoni for the opportunity to perform my
graduate research at the Center for Automotive Research.
Additionally I would like to thank Dr. Fabio Chiara for his assistance and insight
throughout the project, General Motors for sponsoring the project, and Professor Yann
Guezennec for teaching excellent hybrid vehicle classes and serving on my defense
committee.
Also making my graduate school education possible was the teaching assistant
opportunity provided by the department of mechanical and aerospace engineering. Thank
you to the faculty and staff who made that experience possible. I truly enjoyed my time
as a TA.
Thank you to my family for their inspiration and continued support and for instilling
passions for engineering and automobiles. Finally, I cannot thank my fiance, Arden,
enough for her love and support. Her encouragement was always there when I needed it.

Vita
July, 1987 .......................................................Born Coffeen, Illinois
May, 2009 ......................................................B.S. Mechanical Engineering, Rose-Hulman
Institute of Technology, Terre Haute, IN.
August, 2009 to present ................................Graduate Teaching and Research Associate,
Department of Mechanical Engineering and
Center for Automotive Research, The Ohio
State University

Publications
McDonough, J., Jebakumar, K., Chiara, F., Canova, M., Koprubasi, K., Raghavan, M.
System Dynamics Modeling of Alternative Energy Storage Systems for Hybrid
Vehicles. ASME Dynamics Systems and Control Conference, 2011.
Bolletta, A., Chiara, F., Canova, M., McDonough, J., Koprubasi, K., Raghavan, M. A
Design Procedure for Alternative Energy Storage Systems for Hybrid Vehicles. ICE
International Conference on Engines & Vehicles, 2011

Fields of Study
Major Field: Mechanical Engineering

vi

Table of Contents
Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii
Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... v
Vita..................................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... x
List of Figures ................................................................................................................... xii
Chapter 1: Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Motivation ................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Kinetic Energy Recovery .......................................................................................... 2
1.3 Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) .............................................................................. 4
1.4 Alternative Energy Storage Systems for Hybrid Vehicles ........................................ 8
1.4.1 Mechanical Energy Storage ................................................................................ 9
1.4.2 Hydraulic Energy Storage ................................................................................ 13
1.5 Design Considerations............................................................................................. 14
1.6 References ............................................................................................................... 17
Chapter 2: State of the Art ................................................................................................ 18
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 18
2.2 Mechanical Energy Storage Systems ...................................................................... 18
2.3 Hydraulic Hybrid Energy Storage Systems ............................................................ 23
2.4 Drive Cycle Analysis Methodologies for Energy Storage System Design ............. 27
2.5 Conclusions ............................................................................................................. 34
2.6 References ............................................................................................................... 37
Chapter 3: System Dynamics Modeling for Alternative Energy Storage Systems .......... 39
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 39
3.2 Conventional Vehicle Component Models ............................................................. 39
3.3 Modeling Scheme for Alternative Energy Storage Systems ................................... 50
3.3.1 Model of Mechanical AESS ............................................................................. 54
vii

3.3.2 Model of hydraulic AESS................................................................................. 70

3.4 Conclusion............................................................................................................... 92
3.5 References ............................................................................................................... 93
Chapter 4: Proposed Method for Design of Short-Term AESS ........................................ 95
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 95
4.2 Drive Cycle Analysis .............................................................................................. 98
4.2.1 Generation of Vehicle Based Drive Cycle Statistics ...................................... 101
4.3 Statistical Weighting Process ................................................................................ 108
4.4 Definition of Target System Behavior .................................................................. 110
4.5 Preliminary AESS Design Procedure .................................................................... 122
4.5.1 Mechanical Energy Storage System Design ................................................... 122
4.4.2 Hydraulic Energy Storage System Design ..................................................... 130
4.6 Correlations between Design Parameters and Physical Properties ....................... 136
4.6.1 Mechanical ESS Correlations ......................................................................... 137
4.6.2 Hydraulic ESS Correlations............................................................................ 143
4.6.3 Combining the Correlations to Form Properties............................................. 154
4.7 Vehicle Simulator for Evaluation .......................................................................... 155
4.7.1 Overview of Vehicle Simulator ...................................................................... 156
4.7.2 High Level Torque Split Control Strategy ..................................................... 158
4.7.3 Vehicle Information Needed for Simulation .................................................. 161
4.8 Cost Function Definition and Design Optimization .............................................. 162
4.9 Design Method Conclusions ................................................................................. 165
4.10 References ........................................................................................................... 167
Chapter 5: Application of Design Method to Mechanical and Hydraulic AESS ........... 168
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 168
5.2 Vehicle Details and Cycle Statistics...................................................................... 169
5.3 Preliminary Design Procedure .............................................................................. 171
5.3.1 Mechanical ESS Preliminary Design ............................................................. 172
5.3.2 Hydraulic ESS Preliminary Design ................................................................ 175
5.4 Evaluation of Preliminary Designs ....................................................................... 180
5.4.1 Evaluation Procedure ...................................................................................... 180
5.4.2 Mechanical ESS Design Evaluation ............................................................... 183
viii

5.4.3 Hydraulic ESS Design Evaluation .................................................................. 192

5.5 Design Optimization ............................................................................................. 200
5.5.1 Mechanical ESS Design Optimization ........................................................... 201
5.5.2 Hydraulic ESS Design Optimization .............................................................. 205
5.6 Validation on Alternate Drive Cycle ..................................................................... 208
5.6.1 Mechanical ESS Design Validation ............................................................... 209
5.6.2 Hydraulic ESS Design Validation .................................................................. 213
5.7 Conclusions ........................................................................................................... 218
5.8 References ............................................................................................................. 219
Chapter 6: Conclusions and Future Work ....................................................................... 220
6.1 Conclusions ........................................................................................................... 220
6.2 Future Work .......................................................................................................... 222
References ....................................................................................................................... 223

ix

List of Tables
Table 1. CVT Model Inputs .............................................................................................. 60
Table 2. CVT Model Outputs ........................................................................................... 60
Table 3. CVT Model Parameters ...................................................................................... 61
Table 4. Shape-factor K for different planar stress geometries 0 ..................................... 63
Table 5. Data for Different flywheel rotor materials 0 ..................................................... 63
Table 6. Frictional Loss Test Conditions .......................................................................... 65
Table 7. Frictional Loss Test Results ................................................................................ 65
Table 8. Clutch and Flywheel Model Inputs ..................................................................... 69
Table 9. Clutch and Flywheel Model Outputs .................................................................. 69
Table 10. Clutch and Flywheel Model Parameters ........................................................... 70
Table 11. Pump/Motor Model Inputs................................................................................ 80
Table 12. Pump/Motor Model Outputs ............................................................................. 80
Table 13. Pump/Motor Model Parameters ........................................................................ 80
Table 14. Accumulator Model Inputs ............................................................................... 85
Table 15. Accumulator Model Outputs ............................................................................ 85
Table 16. Accumulator Model Parameters ....................................................................... 86
Table 17. PRV Model Inputs ............................................................................................ 88
Table 18. PRV Model Outputs ......................................................................................... 88
Table 19. PRV Model Parameters .................................................................................... 89
Table 20. Reservoir Model Inputs .................................................................................... 91
Table 21. Reservoir Model Outputs .................................................................................. 91
Table 22. Reservoir Model Parameters ............................................................................. 91
Table 23. Sample of Possible Drive Cycle Statistics ...................................................... 100
Table 24. Sample Velocity Based Statistics for Regulatory Cycles ............................... 100
Table 25. Sample Vehicle Parameters ............................................................................ 102
Table 26. Relevant Braking Statistics for Mid-Sized SUV on FTP-75 Cycle ................ 110
Table 27. Mechanical ESS Design Parameters ............................................................... 123
Table 28. Mechanical ESS Design Constraints .............................................................. 125
Table 29. Hydraulic ESS Design Parameters ................................................................. 132
Table 30. Hydraulic ESS Design Constraints ................................................................. 132
Table 31. Required Vehicle Information for Simulation ................................................ 162
Table 32. Vehicle Details ................................................................................................ 169
Table 33. Design Relevant Drive Cycle Statistics for 2009 Saturn VUE on Synthetic
Cycle ............................................................................................................................... 171
Table 34. Mechanical ESS Design Constraints .............................................................. 173
Table 35. Mechanical ESS Design Parameters ............................................................... 173
Table 36. Mechanical ESS Preliminary Design Parameters ........................................... 175
x

Table 37. Hydraulic ESS Design Constraints ................................................................. 176

Table 38. Hydraulic ESS Design Parameters ................................................................. 176
Table 39. Hydraulic ESS Preliminary Designs ............................................................... 179
Table 40. Cost Function Weights.................................................................................... 181
Table 41. Mass of Mechanical Components ................................................................... 183
Table 42. Volume of Mechanical Components .............................................................. 184
Table 43. Mechanical ESS Preliminary Design Results ................................................. 188
Table 44. Mechanical ESS Preliminary Design Cost Function Values .......................... 189
Table 45. Mass of Hydraulic Components ..................................................................... 192
Table 46. Volume of Hydraulic Components ................................................................. 193
Table 47. Hydraulic ESS Preliminary Design Results.................................................... 199
Table 48. Hydraulic ESS Preliminary Design Cost Function Values ............................. 199
Table 49. Optimized Mechanical ESS Design Parameters ............................................. 204
Table 50. Comparison of Optimized Design to Weighted Mean.................................... 208

xi

List of Figures
Figure 1. Chevrolet Volt Range Extension Hybrid Powertrain Layout [4] ........................ 4
Figure 2. Specific Power versus Specific Energy for Various Short-Term Energy Storage
Systems [5].......................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 3. Flow of Power for Flywheel Mechanical Energy Storage System [5] .............. 10
Figure 4. Toroidal CVT Variator Example [11] ............................................................... 12
Figure 5. Comparison of Toroidal CVT Technology with other Automotive
Transmissions [5] .............................................................................................................. 20
Figure 6. Toroidal CVT Variator Behavior [26] ............................................................... 21
Figure 7. Component Details for Jaguar with FHSPV [7] ................................................ 22
Figure 8. Sample Hydraulic Launch Assist Drivetrain Layout [12] ................................. 26
Figure 9. Component Sizes over Various Driving Cycles [14] ........................................ 29
Figure 10. Comparison of Motor Power Distributions between UDDS and US06 [14] .. 30
Figure 11. Cumulative Braking Energy vs Power, FTP-75 Cycle [15] ............................ 31
Figure 12. Braking Energy Distribution over Speed FTP-75 Cycle [15] ......................... 32
Figure 13. Energy Dispersion over Braking Events for a Real World Cycle [40] ........... 33
Figure 14. Information Flow in the Vehicle Simulator..................................................... 40
Figure 15. Block Diagram Representation of a Forward Vehicle Simulator. ................... 42
Figure 16. Engine Model 0 ............................................................................................... 43
Figure 17. Sample Fuel Consumption Map for the Engine Model. .................................. 44
Figure 18: Torque Converter Model 0 .............................................................................. 46
Figure 19. Wheel and Tire Model. .................................................................................... 49
Figure 20. General Layout of Renewable Energy Storage System for Parallel Hybrid
System. .............................................................................................................................. 52
Figure 21. Overview of Control Hierarchy for RESS....................................................... 53
Figure 22. Mechanical Hybrid Powertrain Layout ........................................................... 55
Figure 23. CVT Model ...................................................................................................... 56
Figure 24. Normalized CVT Efficiency............................................................................ 57
Figure 25. Scheme of flywheel to drivetrain power chain ................................................ 58
Figure 26. Block Diagram of Clutch and Flywheel Model .............................................. 61
Figure 27. Wet Clutch Coefficient of Friction [12] .......................................................... 68
Figure 28. Hydraulic Hybrid Powertrain Layout .............................................................. 71
Figure 29: Hydraulic diagram of the ESS ......................................................................... 72
Figure 30. Hydraulic Pump Model ................................................................................... 73
Figure 31. Axial Piston Pump ........................................................................................... 75
Figure 32: Flow and Overall Efficiency Map of P1 028 Axial Piston Pump ................... 76
Figure 33: Identification of Pump Flow Model ................................................................ 77
xii

Figure 34: Pump Volumetric Efficiency Model at Max. Displacement (Left) and at
Variable Displacement (Right) ......................................................................................... 78
Figure 35: Pump Mechanical Efficiency Model ............................................................... 79
Figure 36. Block Diagram of the Displacement Controller Logic.................................... 80
Figure 37. Bladder-Type Accumulator ............................................................................. 82
Figure 38. Block Diagram of the Accumulator Model ..................................................... 83
Figure 39. Poppet Valve Model ........................................................................................ 86
Figure 40: Discharge Coefficient Curve for the Pressure Relief Valve............................ 87
Figure 41. Block Diagram of the PRV Controller Logic .................................................. 88
Figure 42. Block Diagram of the Accumulator Model ..................................................... 90
Figure 43. Proposed AESS Design Flowchart .................................................................. 97
Figure 44. US FTP-75 Test Cycle Velocity Profile [1] .................................................... 99
Figure 45. Velocity and Power Profiles for Mid-sized SUV over FTP-75 Cycle [2] ..... 103
Figure 46. Sample Power Sign Changes on FTP-75 Cycle [2]....................................... 105
Figure 47. Distribution of Braking Event Energy, FTP-75 Drive Cycle ........................ 107
Figure 48. Net Traction and Braking Power FTP-75 Cycle ........................................... 113
Figure 49. Energy per Braking Event FTP-75 ................................................................ 114
Figure 50. Maximum Braking Power per Event FTP-75 ................................................ 115
Figure 51. Energy Distribution for Energy Storage Capacity FTP-75 ........................... 116
Figure 52. Energy Distribution for Maximum Braking Power ....................................... 117
Figure 53. Event Maximum Power compared to Event Energy FTP-75 ........................ 118
Figure 54. Effect of Energy Storage Capacity on Total Energy Storage ........................ 119
Figure 55. Effect of Maximum Power on Total Energy Storage .................................... 120
Figure 56. Effect on Maximum Speed on Total Energy Storage .................................... 121
Figure 57. Mechanical ESS Design Configuration ......................................................... 123
Figure 58. Hydraulic ESS Design Configuration ........................................................... 131
Figure 59. Pre-charge pressure Energy Storage Relationship ........................................ 134
Figure 60. Sample CVT Torque to Mass Correlation (Torotrak CVT) ......................... 140
Figure 61. Sample CVT Torque to Volume Correlation (Torotrak CVT) ...................... 141
Figure 62. Sample Pump Length (Parker P1 18cc/rev, End Port Design) ...................... 144
Figure 63. Sample Pump Width and Height (Parker P1 18cc/rev, End Port Design) .... 145
Figure 64. Pump Displacement to Volume Correlation.................................................. 146
Figure 65. Pump Displacement to Mass Correlation ...................................................... 146
Figure 66. Accumulator Mass Correlation...................................................................... 147
Figure 67. Accumulator Outer Dimensions (Bosch HAB-5X) [10] ............................... 148
Figure 68. Accumulator Actual Volume Correlation ..................................................... 149
Figure 69. Accumulator Maximum Fluid Volume, Adiabatic Compression [10] .......... 150
Figure 70. Accumulator Fluid Volume Correlation (1400 PSI Pre-charge) ................... 151
Figure 71. Accumulator Fluid Volume (5000PSI Max, Varying Pre-charge Pressure) . 152
Figure 72. Reservoir Mass Correlation ........................................................................... 153
Figure 73. Diagram of Vehicle Simulator....................................................................... 157
Figure 74. AESS Brake Control Flowchart .................................................................... 160
Figure 75. AESS Traction Torque Control Flowchart .................................................... 161
Figure 76. 2009 Saturn VUE .......................................................................................... 169
xiii

Figure 77. Sample of Synthetic Driving Cycle ............................................................... 170

Figure 78. Accumulator Energy...................................................................................... 177
Figure 79. Mechanical ESS Vehicle Speed Profile Synthetic Cycle ........................... 185
Figure 80. Engine Torque and Speed on Synthetic Cycle .............................................. 186
Figure 81. Flywheel Speed Synthetic Cycle ................................................................... 186
Figure 82. ESS State of Energy Synthetic Cycle ............................................................ 187
Figure 83. CVT Ratio Synthetic Cycle ........................................................................... 187
Figure 84. Clutch Mode Synthetic Cycle ........................................................................ 187
Figure 85. Power Split at Coupling Point Synthetic Cycle ............................................. 188
Figure 86. Clutch Slip Example Low Numerical Gear Ratio ......................................... 190
Figure 87. Clutch Slip Example High Numerical Gear Ratio ........................................ 191
Figure 88. Desired and Actual Speed Trace Synthetic Cycle ......................................... 194
Figure 89. Engine Torque and Speed over Synthetic Cycle ........................................... 195
Figure 90. Hydraulic Pump/Motor Torque and Speed.................................................... 196
Figure 91. Hydraulic Pump/Motor Flowrate .................................................................. 196
Figure 92. Hydraulic Pump/Motor Displacement ........................................................... 197
Figure 93. Hydraulic Accumulator Pressure ................................................................... 197
Figure 94. Hydraulic Accumulator and Reservoir Volumes .......................................... 198
Figure 95. Hydraulic Accumulator State of Energy ....................................................... 198
Figure 96. Mechanical ESS Design Parameter Interaction Plot ..................................... 202
Figure 97. Mechanical ESS Design Parameters Main Effects Plot ................................ 203
Figure 98. Main Effects Plots for Cost Function Value.................................................. 206
Figure 99. Interaction Effects for Hydraulic Design Parameters .................................... 207
Figure 101. Mechanical ESS Vehicle Speed over 75% Urban 25% Highway Cycle ..... 209
Figure 102. Mechanical ESS Power Split at Coupling Point over 75% Urban 25%
Highway Cycle................................................................................................................ 210
Figure 103. Flywheel Speed over 75% Urban 25% Highway Cycle .............................. 211
Figure 104. Mechanical ESS State of Energy over 75% Urban 25% Highway Cycle ... 211
Figure 105. CVT Ratio over 75% Urban 25% Highway Cycle ...................................... 212
Figure 106. Clutch Mode over 75% Urban 25% Highway Cycle .................................. 212
Figure 107. Hydraulic ESS Vehicle Velocity over 75% Urban 25% Highway Cycle ... 213
Figure 108. Hydraulic ESS Torques at Coupling Points over 75% Urban 25% Highway
Cycle ............................................................................................................................... 214
Figure 109. Hydraulic ESS State of Energy over 75% Urban 25% Highway Cycle...... 215
Figure 110. Accumulator Pressure over 75% Urban 25% Highway Cycle .................... 215
Figure 111. Hydraulic Accumulator and Reservoir Volumes over 75% Urban 25%
Highway Cycle................................................................................................................ 216
Figure 112. Hydraulic Pump/Motor Displacement over 75% Urban 25% Highway Cycle
......................................................................................................................................... 217

xiv

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Motivation
In 2009, the United States alone consumed 13.28 million barrels of oil per day for
transportation [1]. As the price of oil and fuel economy standards for automobile
manufacturers increase, great demand is placed on ways to reduce vehicle fuel
consumption. In the United States, CAFE standards for vehicle fuel economy are set to
increase by 29% for passenger cars and over 24% for light trucks between 2011 and 2016
[2]. Aside from government regulation, consumers are demanding higher fuel economy
due to the rising fuel prices, causing OEMs to constantly look for ways to meet both the
demand and regulation while maintaining performance, consumer acceptance and
remaining competitive in the market.
The increasing cost for energy and the desire to meet government regulations has caused
automotive OEMs to investigate the application of traditionally non-automotive
technologies to vehicles in the hopes improving fuel economy and overall vehicle
efficiency. Many of these technologies involve fitting the vehicle with a means to supply
traction force in addition to the internal combustion engine. Such vehicles are commonly
referred to as hybrid vehicles, and are gaining increasing OEM focus and market share as
external pressure and consumer preference increase demand for vehicles with higher fuel

economy [3]. Hybrid vehicles offer ways to increase vehicle efficiency by recovering
normally wasted energy and/or allowing the engine to operate in a more efficient manner.

1.2 Kinetic Energy Recovery

A significant portion of a vehicles fuel is spent accelerating from rest. The kinetic
energy of the vehicle is then dissipated by resistive forces and the use of traditional
friction brakes during the subsequent deceleration. This inherent energy loss caused by
friction braking leads to significantly higher fuel consumption for vehicles with
conventional powertrains during city driving when compared to highway only driving
despite lower road loads. One method for improving fuel economy is to recovery and
store as much of the vehicles energy as possible during deceleration, then use the stored
energy to accelerate the vehicle at a later time. The process of storing the energy is
commonly known as regenerative braking. Ideally, regenerative braking could recover all
of the energy traditionally wasted by friction brakes leading to significant increases in
fuel economy.
In order to successfully implement regenerative braking functions on a vehicle, a specific
system needed to recover, store and release the energy. To date, several options for
regenerative braking have been developed for vehicle use. One such method involves
using an electric machine (generator) to convert the vehicles mechanical energy to
electrical during braking and chemically store it in a battery. When necessary, the electric
machine draws the stored energy from the battery and provides additional propulsion for
2

the vehicle. Alternatively, energy can also be recovered using a hydraulic pump and
stored in a high pressure accumulator to be used for hydraulic motoring. Energy can also
be stored mechanically using a rotating disc (flywheel) of sufficient inertia. This method
requires a means for increasing the flywheel speed while the vehicle speed is decreasing
in order to store the energy. To release the energy, the flywheel must decelerate while
vehicle speed is held constant or increased. As a result, a continuously variable ratio
device is needed between the vehicles drivetrain and the flywheel.
Each method for kinetic energy recovery must provide a torque to the drivetrain in the
opposite direction of rotation for normal forward drive operation. Potentially, the braking
torque can be applied to either set of drive wheels depending on vehicle architecture and
desired configuration. The layout of the regenerative braking architecture does impact
potential performance, as well as the design of the vehicle powertrain. Systems can be
completely integrated with the powertrain, which is the case for many electric
regenerative braking systems, or completely separate with independent operation. Some
configurations can allow for additional benefits such as providing direct storage for
energy produced by the engine or enabling engine off operation while the vehicle is
stopped or at very low speeds.
For safety reasons, regenerative braking systems cannot completely replace friction
brakes. In cases of potential energy storage system failure or desired deceleration beyond
the capability of the regenerative system, friction brakes must still be capable of
providing sufficient stopping capability. Also friction brakes are necessary for anti-lock
brake functionality as well as traction and stability control implementation.
3

1.3 Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)

The most common type of hybrid vehicle on the road today is the hybrid electric vehicle
(HEV). HEVs use electric machines along with on-board batteries to store energy and
provide electric power assist. Most HEVs also provide limited engine off operation at rest
and low speeds. Multiple levels of vehicle hybridization can be found in production
ranging from belted starter-alternator mild hybrid systems to full-size, extended range
hybrids capable of traveling upwards of 40 miles on battery power alone [4]. The cost
and complexity of the systems also vary greatly depending on functionality.

Figure 1. Chevrolet Volt Range Extension Hybrid Powertrain Layout [4]

The electric machine in a HEV provides the capability to store and retrieve energy from
the battery. In order to store energy, the electric machine behaves as a generator and
charges the battery by drawing energy from the vehicle. Typically this is done during
braking, but in certain configurations can also be performed directly by the engine. When
4

traction power is commanded by the electric vehicle, the electric machine behaves as a
motor and provides torque to the wheels at the expense of battery charge.
HEVs store energy in a high voltage battery pack consisting of multiple battery cells in
series which can also be combined in parallel to increase capacity. Mild hybrid systems
operate in the 30-50V range while more advanced full-hybrids designs use voltages over
200. Although the most common battery type for HEVs is based on nickel metal hydride
technology, OEMs are beginning to switch to lithium ion chemistry for higher power and
energy density [5]. Considerations on battery life typically limit the maximum current
and therefore the power the battery can supply. As a result, HEV batteries are designed
to provide relatively large energy storage but limited power capability.
Additional electronic components are necessary for HEV operation. Inverters are needed
to convert the AC electric machine power to DC power for the battery.

Voltage

converters are also necessary to operate other electronic accessories and optimized motor
efficiency. The functionality of the power electronics comes at the cost of reduced
system efficiency and additional cooling requirements.
The benefits of electric hybridization are substantial and well understood.

Electric

hybrids have the capability of improving vehicle efficiency through regenerative braking,
engine off vehicle operation, and allowing for more efficient use of the vehicles
powertrain. Some configurations also allow use of the electric machine to vary the gear
ratio between the engine and the wheels, effectively behaving as an electronic
continuously variable transmission. Engine efficiency can be improved by using the
electric motor to change the torque and speed operating point of the engine, while still
5

providing the requested torque to the wheels. In most cases this involved forcing the
engine to run at a higher load where efficiency is greater and absorbing the excess power
into the battery for future use [5].
If a hybrid electric system is designed with substantial reserve energy capacity in the
battery and electric machines which can supply a significant portion of the drivers torque
request, the conventional engine can be downsized, allowing for more efficient operation.
Engine downsizing can improve both fuel economy and reduce cost for a given
technology level.
Utilizing all of the benefits that electric hybrid vehicles have to offer, improvements in
EPA estimated fuel economy of 7-50 % have been attained. Production examples of
electric hybrid vehicles show improvements in fuel economy over their contemporaries
of up to 50% in combined city and highway fuel economy. The gains are particularly
impressive in urban driving scenarios where the regenerative braking can be used in
combination with engine off operation to realize city driving cycle fuel economy
improvements of up to 80% [6],[7].
The gains and benefits of hybrid electric vehicles are not without compromises. The
added expense of the electric components and battery are significant. For example, the
MSRP of a 2011 Toyota Prius over the MSRP of a comparable 2011 Toyota Corolla is
over $3,200. On larger vehicles, the premium can be even higher. A 2011 Chevrolet
Tahoe Hybrid costs over $6,000

more than a comparably equipped model with a

conventional powertrain [8]. The premium in cost for a hybrid electric vehicle may be

recovered by the consumer, but the outcome depends heavily on the cost of fuel and the
number of miles driven by the owner [9].
Hybrid electric vehicles also present several technical challenges that limit effectiveness.
The conversion between forms of energy during storage and recovery causes reduced
efficiency. The vehicles mechanical energy is transferred to electrical energy by the
electric machine then converted to chemical energy storage by the battery. During each
step in the process, losses are incurred, reducing the amount of actual energy stored. The
reverse process occurs when the batterys energy is used to propel the vehicle. Estimates
for round trip efficiency for hybrid electric systems are close to 50% depending on the
operating points and conditions [5]. This limits the effectiveness of the regenerative
braking and the opportunities for improving the vehicle fuel economy.
The batteries used for energy storage also present challenges. With current battery
technology, in order to ensure satisfactory durability and longevity, the batterys power
must be limited to less than the maximum capability. The depth of discharge for the
battery must also be carefully monitored and controlled. Large swings in the batterys
state of charge (SOC) cause reduced life [10]. For this reason, compromises are required
in the design process where the battery must be oversized in terms of energy storage
capacity in order to provide the desired power capability. This leads to increased costs
and system weight. Accurately estimating the batterys SOC is also a challenge in HEV
implementation. Over several years, as battery capacity degrades, significant errors in the
estimation of a batterys SOC can occur, potentially causing battery damage and reduced
system performance. Batteries also display temperature impacted performance. HEVs
7

must be designed with systems capable of preventing the battery from experiencing
extreme temperature.
As a result of these technical challenges and limitations, other forms of energy storage for
vehicles are being investigated including forms of mechanical and hydraulic storage.

1.4 Alternative Energy Storage Systems for Hybrid Vehicles

While electrical energy storage systems offer many benefits, opportunities to store energy
in other forms should also be investigated and understood, in order to evaluate the
feasibility as a cost effective alternative to electric systems. Two of the most promising
candidates for non-electric energy storage are mechanical, in the form of a rotating disc
(flywheel), and hydraulic, via bladder-type accumulators. The capability of flywheelbased energy storage has become a possibility due to the development of new CVT
designs that allow for the transfer of energy into and out of the flywheel. Hydraulic
energy storage systems have the advantage of using commonly available, cost-effective
and well understood components with potential for low cost.

Figure 2. Specific Power versus Specific Energy for Various Short-Term Energy Storage
Systems [5]

In addition to the cost benefits, hydraulic and flywheel mechanical energy storage
systems also have higher specific power than batteries. Figure 2 shows the specific power
and specific energy for some short-term energy storage systems. Hydraulic and flywheel
mechanical systems also have the advantage of relatively little performance degradation
over time regardless of the depth of discharge in terms of energy storage capacity. Due to
these reasons it is important to consider these technologies for vehicle hybridization.

1.4.1 Mechanical Energy Storage

The concept behind mechanical energy storage is relatively simple. The goal is to
transfer the vehicles kinetic energy to a rotating disc (flywheel) mounted on board the
9

vehicle.

The flywheel increases its rotational speed as the vehicle speed decreases

accordingly. Figure 3 shows this simple flow of energy between the flywheel and vehicle
and the results of the energy flow.

Figure 3. Flow of Power for Flywheel Mechanical Energy Storage System [5]

While the concept is simple, the practical implementation is more difficult. With strictly
mechanical coupling between the flywheel and vehicle, the ratio of speeds between the
portion of the conventional drivetrain to which the flywheel system is attached and the
actual flywheel itself must be allowed to change. As energy is traded from the vehicle to
the flywheel through conventional powertrain components, the rotating speed of the
conventional components must smoothly decrease, while the rotational speed of the
flywheel must smoothly increase. This results in a need for a constantly changing and
variable speed ratio between the flywheel and the drivetrain. This can be accomplished
in a couple of different ways. A conventional gearbox could be used, with clutch plates
which allow for constant slippage while flywheel speed is changing. However, this
involves very inefficient operation of the flywheel system and very high clutch wear. The
other option is to use a device which allows for constantly varying input-output ratios.
10

This is typically know as a continually variable transmission and is seeing increased

popularity for replacing stepped gear automatic transmissions for non-hybrid vehicle use.
Changing the CVT ratio, which in turn forces a change in the flywheel speed, allows
energy transfer between the flywheel and vehicle.
CVTs exist in multiple designs. The simplest designs involve two variable diameter
pulleys with a belt between them. The pulleys are split and allow for varying diameters
depending on the radius where the belt is riding. The ratio is changed as the pulley
diameter is altered through sliding the halves of the pulley together and apart. This is
typically done in unison for both pulleys to keep tension on the belt. For higher torque
applications, chain type metal belts are used.
Toroidal CVTs offer another method of continuous ratio change. This design uses dished
discs connected by metal rollers to transmit torque. The metal rollers are allowed to pivot,
effectively changing the ratio between two discs. Half-toroidal designs restrict roller
pivoting to one direction from center while full-toroidal designs allow the roller to pivot
over center for wider ratio spread capability. Torque is transmitted while the rollers spin
by using traction fluid that resists shear forces while compressed between the rollers and
discs. Some current production CVTs use the half-toroidal design, while full toroidal
designs have primarily been seen in prototype applications such as motorsports [11].
Figure 4 shows the basic structure of a full-toroidal cvt.

11

Figure 4. Toroidal CVT Variator Example [11]

The flywheel itself can vary widely in design and material depending on the systems
capability. Typically flywheels fall into two categories, low speed (<20,000 rpm) and
high speed (>30,000 rpm). Low speed flywheels can be produced from steel or other low
cost materials and primarily use conventional ball bearings. This offers the opportunity
for low cost energy storage. High speed flywheels use composite materials with high
tensile strength to enable speeds above 30,000 rpm. Bearings can be high precision ball
bearings or magnetic bearings which suspend the flywheel and offer low friction.
Flywheel energy storage requires an enclosure surrounding the flywheel for safety
purposes. The surrounding also offers the possibility to create a vacuum around the
flywheel for reduced windage.
Potential benefits to flywheel energy storage include low cost, high power, high
durability, and low weight when compared to electrical systems.

Limitations for

flywheel based mechanical energy storage include limited low energy density compared
to batteries and limited energy storage duration due to inherent losses from the rotating
12

components. Flywheel systems can also offer superior overall efficiency of storage and
release of up to 70% [12].

1.4.2 Hydraulic Energy Storage

Hydraulic energy storage revolves around storing high pressure fluid in an accumulator
which can later be released to perform work. When vehicle deceleration is desired, a
pump is used to send fluid from a low pressure reservoir to a high pressure accumulator.
To provide acceleration assist, the pump behaves as a motor and changes the potential
energy of the pressurized fluid into mechanical work. Hydraulic controls in the form of
solenoid operated valves regulate the fluid flow to and from the pump.
Traditional hydraulic components can be used to create the system. Bladder type steel
hydraulic accumulators offer fluid storage at pressure up to 350bar. The external of an
accumulator is typically steel and cylindrical in shape with domed ends. On the inside, a
rubber liner is used to separate the gas charge from the working fluid. As fluid enters the
fixed volume, the gas inside of the bladder must compress, causing an increase in
pressure.

Since the fluid and the gas must have equal pressure, the fluid pressure

increases with gas pressure.

Recently, hydraulic accumulators made of composite

material have been design to hold even higher pressures at significantly less weight than
traditional steel designs at higher cost. In addition to an accumulator hydraulic energy
storage systems also need a low pressure reservoir to house fluid that is not inside of the

13

accumulator. The reservoir must have sufficient volume to allow for the accumulator to
reach maximum pressure.
Hydraulic pumps are commonly used in industrial settings in many capacities and are
available in a wide range of designs. Simple fixed displacement pumps offer low cost
and high reliability at the expense of limited operating conditions. Variable displacement
pumps allow for precise control over torque output for a given speed and higher system
efficiency, but increase cost and complexity.
Hydraulic controls are necessary to route fluid flow and dictate the system behavior.
With the need for the hydraulic pump to behave in both pump and motoring modes with
always positive vehicle velocity, fluid direction through the pump needs to be re-routed
to allow for the pump to always rotate in the same direction. Control valves are also
needed to prevent backflow when the system is not functioning. Pressure release valves
are necessary to prevent over pressurizing the accumulator or reservoir.
Benefits of hydraulic energy storage include durability, proven components and high
power capability. Depending on the system design, low cost can be achieved. The
drawbacks include heavy components and limited energy storage when compared to
electrical systems.

1.5 Design Considerations

Also of great significance when discussing multiple options for vehicle energy storage is
the design of the system. Difficult decisions must be made in both system architecture
14

and component specifications which will ultimately decide the overall effectiveness in
practice. With the magnitude of importance that resides in the design, great need is
placed on methods for configuring alternative energy storage systems for maximum
performance at minimum cost, both financially and in terms of system weight and space.
While the ultimate test of a designs validity resides in the real-world performance,
OEMs neither have the time nor the resources to build working prototypes of each and
every feasible design configuration. This has given rise to analysis lead design, which
causes design decisions to be based on available data and performance in simulation. In
order to evaluate a design in simulation, a prescribed velocity versus time profile is
needed as a guide for the vehicle to follow. Common drive cycles include the regulatory
cycles as well as real-world driving data collected by logging actual vehicles in use.
These drive cycles become the basis for comparison of results such as fuel economy,
performance, and component efficiency. Designs are revised according the results of
these simulations and subsequently OEMs invest significant resources into hardware
based development.
The typical process of running simulations to optimize fuel economy over a range of
cycles can be expedited with good preliminary system design. This can be accomplished
with prior knowledge of the characteristics of the driving cycles. For instance, knowing
the maximum braking power for a given drive cycle will help set a bound on the
maximum useful power absorption of the regenerative braking system. Taking into
account the frequency and distribution of cycle statistics such as energy, power,

15

acceleration, for braking and acceleration periods offers potential to begin simulations
with designs that are closer to optimal.
Presently, design methods exist for optimizing the design of hybrid electric vehicles.
These methods take into account the specific design targets and constraints of the
electrical components as well as all of the possible configurations. However, significantly
fewer methods exist for designing short-term energy storage systems, specifically
hydraulic and mechanical systems. The short-term systems provide radically different
constraints on the design and can potentially operate in very different conditions in terms
of when and how the kinetic energy is both recovered and returned to the vehicle. As a
result, the following work provides an analysis based design method for mechanical and
hydraulic short-term energy storage systems (ESS) which allows for the maximization of
performance while minimizing system mass, volume, and cost.

16

1.6 References
[1]

U.S. Energy Information Administration.

http://www.eia.doe.gov/totalenergy/data/annual/pdf/sec5_3.pdf

[2]

CAFE Standards. National Highway and Traffic Safety Administration

http://www.nhtsa.gov/fuel-economy

[3]

HEV Sales by Model. U.S. Department of Energy Alternative Fuels and

Advanced Vehicle Data Center.
http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/data/vehicles.html

[4]

Tortosa, N. Karbon, K. Aerodynamic Development of the 2011 Chevrolet Volt.

SAE International Technical Paper 2011-01-0168.

[5]

Guzzella, L., Sciarretta, A. Vehicle Propulsion Systems Introduction to Modeling

and Optimization (2nd ed.). Springer: New York.

[6]

Simopoulos, G., et al. Fuel Economy Improvements in an SUV Equipped with an

Integrated Starter Generator. SAE Paper 2001-01-2825.

[7]

2011 Ford Fusion Sales Brochure. http://www.ford.com/cars/fusion/brochures/

[8]

Car Price Comparison. http://www.truedelta.com

[9]

Greene, D., et al. Future Potential of Hybrid and Diesel Powertrains in the U.S.
Light-Duty Vehicle Market. (2004). U.S. Department of Energy.

[10]

Adams, J., et al. Approach to Validation Plan Development for Advanced Battery
Systems in Vehicle Applications. SAE International Technical Paper 2011-011366.

[11]

Cross, D., Brockbank, C. Mechanical Hybrid System Comprising of a Flywheel

and CVT for Motorsport and Mainstream Automotive Applications. SAE
International Technical Paper 2009-01-1312.

[12]

Boretti, A. Improvements of Vehicle Fuel Economy Using Mechanical

Regenerative Braking. SAE International Technical Paper 2010-01-1683.

17

Chapter 2: State of the Art

2.1 Introduction
This chapter contains a review of current research and development of non-electric
energy storage for vehicles, specifically hydraulic and flywheel mechanical systems with
a focus on short-term storage systems. Attention is also given to drive cycle statistical
analysis and current HEV design procedures.

2.2 Mechanical Energy Storage Systems

Investigation into the concept of storing energy in a rotating disc for passenger cars was
spurred by rising gasoline prices in the 1970s. Dr. Andrew Frank from the University of
Wisconsin investigated the idea of using a very large flywheel to store substantial
amounts of energy and allow engine off operation of the vehicle [1]. University of
Wisconsin research showed fuel economy improvement of up to 33% were possible using
a large steel flywheel underneath the vehicle to buffer the engines energy output. The
flywheel energy was transmitted using a 4-speed manual gearbox and hydrostatic CVT
[1]. While promising, several drawbacks limited the potential for production use. Even
though engine downsizing could negate much of the additional weight of the flywheel
itself, a very heavy containment structure would be needed to contain the large flywheel
18

in the event of a crash. The efficiency of the system was severely hindered by the
designs hydrostatic CVT. High losses in the flywheel due to bearings and windage were
significant and present over the entire cycle.
More recently, investigations have begun using higher speed flywheels (20,000rpm and
greater) to obtain higher energy density. Advances in technologies such as lighter,
compact, and more efficient continuously variable transmissions (CVTs) have allowed
new configurations for storing energy in flywheels. New designs have allowed flywheels
to be coupled to the drivetrain in parallel with the engine to produce very high round trip
efficiencies in regard to storing and releasing energy. Higher speed operation reduces the
flywheel mass and eliminates some of the packaging issues with large, low speed
flywheels.
The introduction of kinetic energy recovery in Formula 1 racing in the 2009 season has
spurred the development of regenerative braking systems with high power density. Out of
this development spawned a high speed flywheel system with a full toroidal CVT capable
of flywheel speeds exceeding 60,000rpm and 60kW of power with a total system weight
of only 25kg [26]. The technology developed for Formula 1 has begun to infiltrate the
realm of production vehicles beginning with the CVT. Flybrid Systems under the license
from a toroidal CVT designer, Torotrak LLC, has been working with OEM car
manufacturers to bring the technology of the Formula 1 flywheel hybrid system to
production vehicles. Torotrak and Flybrid have published several papers touting the
benefits of flywheel energy storage for vehicle fuel economy, showing the energy

19

recovered from braking can provide up to 21% of the energy needed to propel a vehicle
over the US-FTP75 cycle [2].
The advancement in CVT technology in terms of specific torque output and efficiency
has made flywheel energy storage more promising. At the heart of this improvement in
CVT technology is the development of full-toroidal traction drive CVTs. Figure 5 shows
a plot of torque capacity and weight of toroidal CVTs (T-CVT) compared to production
CVTs as well as other transmission types. T-CVTs have much lower weight for a given
torque capacity than conventional push-belt CVTs, placing near manual transmissions in
terms of torque capacity per unit mass.

Figure 5. Comparison of Toroidal CVT Technology with other Automotive

Transmissions [5]

Traction drive is accomplished through the use of the variator rollers which transmit
torque between the toroidal discs within the transmission. The variators change the input
20

speed to output speed ratio by changing the alignment of their axis of rotation. The result
is the effective radius of where the force is being transmitted changing. Changing the
radius effectively changes the speed ratio.

Figure 6. Toroidal CVT Variator Behavior [26]

Torque is transmitted without metal to metal contact by the use of elasto-hydrodynamic

traction fluid which resists shear while under compression. With a fluid film between the
variators and the discs, metal to metal contact is prevented, allowing for adequate
transmission life [5]. Traction fluids have allowed the T-CVT to become a possibility and
much development has gone into optimizing them for T-CVT use [6].
Current applications of flywheel hybrid systems include prototype production vehicles
such as the Jaguar XF with FHSPV (Flywheel Hybrid System for Premium Vehicles).
The project is being lead by a consortium of automotive companies including Jaguar
Land Rover, Ford, Prodrive, Torotrak, Xtrac, Flybrid Systems, and Ricardo. The system
21

has a parallel configuration and is capable of providing 60kW power while improving
fuel consumption by 20% [3]. Figure 7 shows the system uses a T-CVT coupled to the
rear axle with a high speed flywheel for energy storage. The system is capable of storing
over 400kJ of energy and flywheel speeds of up to 60,000rpm.

Figure 7. Component Details for Jaguar with FHSPV [7]

Very recently a paper was published on the topic of design of mechanical flywheel
systems for implementation in automotive vehicles. Topics discussed included possible
configurations, design, and CVT control for a specific case of a vehicle decelerating from
100km/h to 60km/h. The effects of gearing between the flywheel and vehicle were
22

investigated and guidelines were provided for selecting proper gearing to maximize
energy storage in the flywheel. Assumptions were made with regards to the initial sizing
of the system as well as the operating limits of the system. Not included in the paper were
energy losses due to rolling resistance and aerodynamic resistance during deceleration.
The final conclusions showed the F1 style system, with proper design, could be
successfully implemented and controlled in road cars [8].
While the majority of research into flywheel mechanical hybrids for road cars has been
done in simulation, the recent advancements in technology offer an efficient and
lightweight solution to regenerative braking.

2.3 Hydraulic Hybrid Energy Storage Systems

In the late 1970s hydraulic hybrids were investigated by Buchwald et al. in their work on
parallel hybrid systems for urban bus applications. Their research showed great potential
for braking energy recovery and reduction in fuel consumption through engine
downsizing and regenerative braking [4]. More recent research has focused on both series
and parallel systems for energy recovery and improvements in average engine operating
efficiency.
In the mid 2000s research and development on series hydraulic hybrids was performed
by the EPA along with Eaton Corporation and others on a project involving hybridization
of a UPS delivery truck. The goals were reducing emissions and fuel consumptions
through recovering braking energy and optimizing engine operation. The high amount of
23

urban driving and frequent stops made the delivery truck an excellent application for
hydraulic hybrid technology. The results were 60-70% increases in fuel economy and
40% reduction of carbon dioxide. With the reasonable cost of hydraulic technology, the
payback period for the cost of the hybrid delivery truck over a conventional version was
estimated at 3 years [9].
Research at the University of Michigan on series hydraulic hybrids for 5-ton trucks has
also shown in simulation that substantial gains in fuel economy of up to 68% are possible
in urban driving conditions [10]. In the simulations, engine shut down was employed and
regenerative braking was maximized though accumulator energy control. The research
also addressed some of the challenges related to the relatively low energy density of the
hydraulic accumulator used in the vehicle. Allowing the SOC to reach relatively low
levels before recharging with the engine allowed better use of the limited energy storage
capacity.
While gains from series hydraulic hybrid systems can be significant on large vehicles
where the powertrain is a relatively small portion of the overall vehicle weight and the
primary operating environment contains limited highway operation, the gains are less
significant on smaller vehicles with more frequent highway use. As a result, lower cost
and lighter parallel hydraulic launch assist (HLA) designs have been considered for
smaller vehicles. HLA systems typically have less power capability and energy storage
than series hybrid configurations, but have the advantage of less weight added to the
vehicle and lower cost of components while still retaining the regenerative braking
functionality.
24

Modeling and demonstration vehicle research on HLA systems for small and mid-sized
vehicle applications has shown improvements of anywhere from 10% to over 30% are
possible [11],[12]. Ford Motor Company Advanced Powertrain along with the U.S. EPA
fitted a hydraulic pump/motor in parallel with the conventional drivetrain in a mid-sized
SUV for demonstration purposes. In additional to demonstrating improvements in fuel
economy, it also showed the ability to smoothly blend conventional brake operation with
regenerative braking from the hydraulic system [11]. Simulation performed at Anglia
Ruskin University in 2008 showed gains of 7-10% were possible with only regenerative
braking and no engine off operation [12]. In this work, the system was sized to recovery
the amount of energy equal to the vehicles kinetic energy when stopping from 60km/h to
0km/h. The model uses an axial piston pump/motor clutched to the drive axle along with
a piston-style high pressure accumulator. Very short urban cycles were used to estimate
the results. Figure 8 shows the drivetrain layout for the design used for simulation.

25

Figure 8. Sample Hydraulic Launch Assist Drivetrain Layout [12]

Recent research promoted by the Center for Compact and Efficient Fluid Power has
focused on developing new technologies for improving the performance of hydraulic
systems for hybrid vehicles. Topics include hydraulic control strategies, developments in
variable displacement pump/motor efficiency, advanced accumulator energy storage, and
noise and vibration reduction.

Future projects include implementation of parallel

hydraulic hybrid systems on a light-duty truck and a passenger car [13].

The advantages for hydraulic hybrids are the high power density of fluid power and the
well known technology. Unfortunately, low energy density offsets some of the
advantages. However, advancements in component technologies such as lightweight

26

composite accumulators have allowed hydraulic hybrids to better compete with other
hybrid technologies.

2.4 Drive Cycle Analysis Methodologies for Energy Storage System Design
The design procedure of a vehicle typically begins with an analysis of the intended uses.
This is no less true with hybrid vehicles, of any type. Knowing, or at least having an
approximate knowledge of the duty cycle, velocities, accelerations, and grades the
vehicle must traverse allows the design to best accomplish its intended goals of
performance, emissions, and fuel economy.
Traditionally, vehicles have been designed to worst case scenario standards. Engines and
transmission components were sized for peak output in order to meet acceleration and
grade-ability targets. With these targets met, the designers could safely assume the more
moderate conditions of the regulatory and real-world driving cycles would be easily met.
With the advent of hybrid vehicles and the ability to draw power from more than one
source, the design space has opened up greatly, causing an increase in the number of
design decisions to be made. Even relatively simple parallel hybrid vehicle designs
introduce numerous options for powertrain configuration, power capability, energy
storage capacity, and speed range of operation. The once popular metrics of top speed,
acceleration times, and grade-ability are of little use in designing an alternate power
source. Instead, new statistics surrounding available braking energy, braking power, and
speeds at which energy is available for recovery are needed to generate optimum design
27

solutions. As a result, more specific investigation into the characteristic statistics of the
energy and power requirements for both traction and braking over traditional drive cycles
has been performed in order to assist with design. The following paragraphs will discuss
some of the recent analysis. It should be noted that the majority of the work on drive
cycle analysis has been performed for HEVs and electric technologies, but the analysis
can also be applied to non-electric forms of energy storage.
Argonne National Laboratory published a paper on the influence of drive cycles on plugin hybrid vehicle design [14]. The paper begins with discussion on the importance of
using analysis tools to determine the approximate power and energy metrics for a certain
vehicle and a given drive cycle. In this work, Argonne National Laboratorys Powertrain
Systems Analysis Toolkit (PSAT) is used to determine the power and energy
requirements. Figure 9 shows the resulting requirements of power for the different
system components.

28

Figure 9. Component Sizes over Various Driving Cycles [14]

In the paper, the engine was sized to meet grade-ability, thus is constant for all cycles.
However, the required ESS power which is related to the regenerative braking power and
the required motoring power for all electric operation each varied for each driving cycle.
Note that, due to the large difference in vehicle energy and power demand of each cycle,
the motor peak power varies by up to a factor of 3. While peak values are important, if
the hybrid system power source can be augmented by the engine, the distribution and
frequency of the power capability needed also become important. Figure 10 shows the
distribution for motor power between two cycles.

29

Figure 10. Comparison of Motor Power Distributions between UDDS and US06 [14]

Looking at the distribution for UDDS, there is little need to size the electric motor above
20kW and reductions in cost and weight could be realized by sizing less than the peak
without significant penalties for that particular cycle. However, in the case of the US06
cycle a large percentage of the motor usage is near peak, warranting sizing for peak
operation. The conclusion drawn from the Argonne National Laboratory paper is that
driving cycle statistics should be an important factor in design and multiple tradeoffs
exist between performance, cost, fuel economy, and emissions.
A more detailed analysis of driving cycles with regard to hybrid braking system design is
presented in [15]. The paper begins with basic longitudinal vehicle dynamics and uses the
equations to arrive at information about the energy and power of braking events over a
30

range of cycles. Important statistics about the distribution of energy and power are
calculated and presented. In addition to distribution plots, cumulative distribution plots
were also shown. Figure 11 shows the percentage of energy that is not recoverable from
minimum to maximum braking power.

Figure 11. Cumulative Braking Energy vs Power, FTP-75 Cycle [15]

From the above curve, it is very easy to see where the marginal gains for increasing
power are high, and at what point the gains begin to diminish. This is extremely helpful
from a design perspective because it allows the designer to quickly estimate the effects of
changing the braking power on the systems ability to recover energy. Also in [15] are
distributions with respect to vehicle velocity. Figure 12 shows the distribution of energy
with respect to vehicle speed.

31

Figure 12. Braking Energy Distribution over Speed FTP-75 Cycle [15]

Looking at Figure 12, for this particular drive cycle, the majority of the braking energy
available is located at vehicle speeds below 50km/h. The usefulness of this information
stems from the fact that the capability of the energy storage systems typically vary with
speed either due to efficiency differences or mechanical limitations. Relevant conclusions
from the paper include the limited amount of energy that is available at very low and very
high speeds and the idea that most of the braking energy is concentrated in a relatively
small power range.
Some investigation into drive cycle analysis and the subsequent design of flywheel
hybrid energy storage systems has been done by Flybrid Systems LLP [16]. In [16] a real
world cycle is taken from a specific automaker and analyzed with respect to braking
energy distribution. Both the change in kinetic energy and the amount of recoverable
energy (change in kinetic energy minus road loads) are shown in Figure 13.

32

Figure 13. Energy Dispersion over Braking Events for a Real World Cycle [40]

The real world cycle shows the majority of the braking events for a 1800kg vehicle are in
the 100kJ to 500kJ range. While the analysis in [16] addresses energy, it does not
address the power considerations under the assumption that the system in question has
sufficiently high power capabilities.
Current practice for hybrid design includes running countless full vehicle simulations
over a variety of cycles in order to sufficiently sample the design space and allow for
optimization based on the constraints such as cost, fuel economy, performance, and
durability among others. Clearly, the type of drives cycles which are used for simulation
will heavily impact the results.

Due to this, research into methods for randomly

generating appropriate drive cycles based on real world driving data is being performed.
At Ohio State Universitys Center for Automotive Research, real world drive cycle data
33

has been recorded and used to generate a Markov chain model which can then be used to
generate random drive cycles where the length of the cycles along with the percentage of
urban and highway driving are specified by the user [17]. Varying amounts of traffic can
also be programmed into the generator for better coverage of the various conditions the
vehicle will encounter. These types of developments allow the hybrid vehicle designer to
evaluate and optimize the design over cycles which closely replicate the actual driving
patterns.
Drive cycle analysis gives the designer a portion of the input needed. Obviously, other
design constraints are needed to arrive at a product which is feasible to produce and will
function as intended. Much of the research and investigation into proper design of
energy storage systems has been focused on electrical systems. A need is present to
develop a methodology by which to design and size hydraulic and mechanical flywheel
energy storage systems for light duty vehicles.

2.5 Conclusions
Based on current literature and research progress, mechanical and hydraulic energy
storage systems present an effective way to employ regenerative braking. The benefits
have been researched and the systems are understood. What is lacking is a design
procedure for short-term energy storage systems.
Current conventional vehicle design methods where the components are sized for the
worst case scenario of vehicle use, do not apply to designing energy storage systems
34

since the ESS is not the primary provider to traction force nor the sole provider of
braking force.
Current HEV energy storage system design methods do apply to a limited extent,
however, due to the difference in nature between the long-term and short-term energy
storage systems only certain aspects apply. Methods of HEV design where the battery
limitations are taken into account are not valid for systems where such limitations are not
present. Additionally, the HEV electrical system can take on multiple configurations and
provide additional features not offered by short-term forms of energy storage. In most
cases, the energy storage capacity of a battery in a HEV is at least an order of magnitude
greater than the energy storage offered by mechanical and hydraulic means; however, the
mechanical and hydraulic systems offer potentially higher power. HEV design methods
also account for the necessity of ensuring a particular HEV design is charge sustaining.
Short-term energy storage systems with relatively limited energy storage capacity do not
have the charge-sustaining constraints.
Furthermore, battery based electrical energy storage systems have very high energy
density which allows for numerous braking events to be stored before the battery reaches
its maximum state of energy. This allows the HEV to selectively discharge the stored
energy throughout the drive cycle. Short-term energy storage systems, by definition, do
not have this capability due to the lower energy density of the system. In order to
maximize the effectiveness of the short-term energy storage systems limited energy
storage capacity the system must be charged and discharged more frequently in order to
prevent the case where braking energy is available for storage, but the system cannot
35

accept additional energy. This means the design of the short-term systems must be based
on the individual braking events.
These intrinsic differences lead to the necessity of design methods specifically for
mechanical and hydraulic short term energy storage systems and the specific advantages
and constraints they provide. The proposed method involves braking event by braking
event analysis in terms of energy and power, coupled with statistical weighting, in order
to best size the system. This approach leads to considerable reduction in the effort needed
to not only arrive at appropriate system sizing, but also reduces the amount of testing and
verification that is necessary.

36

2.6 References
[1]

Frank, A. Beachley, N. Evaluation of the Flywheel Drive Concept for Passenger

Vehicles. SAE Technical Paper 790049.

[2]

Cross, D., Brockbank, C. Mechanical Hybrid System Comprising of a Flywheel

and CVT for Motorsport and Mainstream Automotive Applications. SAE
International Technical Paper 2009-01-1312.

[3]

Flybrid Systems. FHSPV Press Release. September 2010.

http://www.flybridsystems.com/FHSPVrelease.html

[4]

Buchwald, P., et al. Improvement of City Bus Fuel Economy Using Hydraulic
Hybrid Propulsion System A Theoretical and Experimental Study. SAE Paper
790305.

[5]

Brockbank, C. Burtt, D. Developments in Full Toroidal Traction Drive Infinitely

and Continuously Variable Transmissions. SAE International Technical Paper
2007-01-3740.

[6]

Newall J, Nicolson D, Lee A, Evans S; Development and Assessment of

Traction Fluids for Use in Toroidal IVT Transmissions; SAE 2002 World
Congress; March 2002; Detroit; Michigan; USA

[7]

Squatriglia, C. KERS Comes to Cars as Jaguar Tests Flywheel Hybrid.

http://www.wired.com/

[8]

Moro, D. et al. Guidelines for Integration of Kinetic Energy Recovery System

(KERS) based on Mechanical Flywheel in an Automotive Vehicle. SAE
International Technical Paper 2010-01-1448.

[9]

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. World's First Full Hydraulic Hybrid in a

Delivery Truck. http://www.epa.gov/oms/technology/420f06054.htm.

[10]

Kim, Y., Filipi, Z. Simulation Study of a Series Hydraulic Hybrid Propulsion

System for a Light Truck. SAE International Technical Paper 2007-01-4151.

[11]

Kepner, R., "Hydraulic Power Assist A Demonstration of Hydraulic Hybrid

Vehicle Regenerative Braking in a Road Vehicle Application," SAE Technical
Paper 2002-01-3128, 2002.

37

[12]

Toulson, E. Evaluation of a Hybrid Hydraulic Launch Assist System for use in

Small Road Vehicles. IEEE International Symposium on Industrial Electronics,
2008. ISIE 2008.

[13]

Center for Compact and Efficient Power. Hydraulic Hybrid Passenger Vehicle,
Test Bed 3: Highway Vehicles.
http://www.ccefp.org/sites/all/files/documents/Info_TB3_HHPV.pdf

[14]

Kwon, J. et al. Impact of Drive Cycles on PHEV Component Requirements.

Argonne National Laboratory. SAE Technical Paper 2008-01-1337.

[15]

Gao, Y. et al. Design and Control Principles of Hybrid Braking System for EV,
HEV and FCV. IEEE Vehicle and Propulsion Conference, 2007.

[16]

Cross, D. Hilton, J. High Speed Flywheel Based Hybrid Systems for Low
Carbon Vehicles. IEEE Hybrid and Eco-Friendly Vehicle conference, 2008.

[17]

Gong, Q. et al. An Iterative Markov Chain Approach for Generating Vehicle

Driving Cycles. SAE International Technical Paper 2011-01-0880.

38

Chapter 3: System Dynamics Modeling for Alternative Energy Storage Systems

3.1 Introduction
This chapter contains the low-frequency dynamic models developed for aiding in
performance prediction and design methodology development for alternative energy
storage systems. First, lumped parameter models for conventional vehicle components
and vehicle dynamics are presented. This is followed by the development of models for
components specific to both the mechanical and hydraulic storage systems. The goal of
these models is to provide time averaged prediction of behavior during vehicle operation.

3.2 Conventional Vehicle Component Models

In order to evaluate the behavior of conventional and hybrid vehicles, it is important to
correctly understand the energy flows in the powertrain components. Doing so allows for
evaluation and understanding of where efficiency can be improved. For this reason, a
brief description of the models utilized to describe the vehicle energy flows is presented
here. Combining these models to form a simulator is necessary for easily evaluating the
behavior. Figure 14 shows the outline for the simulator subsystems and the information
that is passed from one sub-system to another.

39

Figure 14. Information Flow in the Vehicle Simulator.

Vehicle Dynamics
The vehicle dynamics model is represents the longitudinal motion of the vehicle as well
as the longitudinal load transfer between axles. The model results from an equilibrium
equation, where the acceleration of the vehicle is a result of a balance between the force
generated at the road/wheel interface by each individual tire due to traction and braking
torque and the resistive forces acting on the vehicle (tire rolling resistance, aerodynamic
force and grade). The resulting equilibrium equation is:

M veh

dV veh
Fwheel Froll Faero Fgrade
dt

(3.1)

where Mveh is the equivalent vehicle mass (which include the inertial effects of the
rotating masses), Vveh is the vehicle longitudinal velocity and Fwheel represents the tractive
and braking force generated by each tire. The resistive forces are expressed as follows:

Froll r0 M veh g r1 M veh gVveh

2
Faero 0.5C x A f airVveh

Fgrade M veh g sin

40

(3.2)

where Cx is an aerodynamic friction coefficient, r0, r1 are rolling friction coefficients

(determined experimentally), Af is the vehicle frontal area and is the road slope angle
(positive is uphill).
Driver
The driver model determines the position of accelerator and brake pedal for tracking the
prescribed velocity profile. It is based on a PID feedback controller that generates signals
between -1 and +1. Positive values mean that the measured speed is lower than the
desired one, therefore are intended as accelerator signals (a, between 0 and 1); negative
values mean the opposite and represent braking signals. The sign of the braking signal is
reversed so that the brake signal b is also between 0 and 1.
Supervisory Controller
The supervisory controller block contains an overarching control logic that commands
the main powertrain components in relation with the vehicle operating conditions and the
driver commands. Specifically, the supervisory controller commands the following:

Engine torque

Torque converter lock-up clutch

Transmission gear shifting.

The control logic implemented is largely based on static maps, which must be calibrated
based on vehicle data.
Powertrain Components
A more detailed representation of a forward-looking vehicle energy simulator is shown in
Figure 15, adapted from 0.
41

Figure 15. Block Diagram Representation of a Forward Vehicle Simulator.

Engine Model
The engine model is purely static; hence it neglects crank-angle dynamics and torque
oscillations due to the alternating inertia and combustion cycles. A conceptual sketch of
the engine model is shown in Figure 16.

42

Figure 16. Engine Model 0

The engine torque is applied to the crankshaft and flywheel, lumped together in a single
rotational inertia, which is also subject to the load torque, coming from the rest of the
powertrain 0. This constitutes the mechanical interface between the engine and the
drivetrain. The torque that the engine generates is calculated using a table interpolation
based on the maximum available torque at the current engine speed and the percentage of
load desired (which corresponds to throttle opening in traditional gasoline engines and to
amount of injected fuel in diesel engines). The fuel consumption is estimated using
another table interpolation, as a function of torque and speed. A sample fuel consumption
map is shown in Figure 17.

43

Figure 17. Sample Fuel Consumption Map for the Engine Model.

The engine torque is given by:

Tice Tice,max Tice,min Tice,min

(3.3)

Where Tice,max and Tice,min represent respectively the maximum torque and the
friction torque of the engine, both functions of the engine speed.
Given the throttle input and the measured crankshaft speed, the net torque is calculated
and applied to the equivalent inertia, which represents the crankshaft and the flywheel:

J ice

d
Tice Tload
dt

44

(3.4)

In the scheme shown in Figure 15, the load torque is represented by the torque converter
pump.
The output shaft is then used to connect the engine to the rest of the driveline
components. Note that, being the torque map obtained with steady-state testing, it does
not take into account the effect of the equivalent inertia, which may become significant
during large and rapid transients in the engine speed.
Torque Converter
The torque converter is a fluid coupling device that is used to transmit motion from the
engine to the transmission input shaft. It is capable of multiplying the engine torque
(acting as a reduction gear), and, unlike most other mechanical joints, provides extremely
high damping capabilities, since all torque is transmitted through fluid forces rather than
friction or pressure. It is traditionally used in vehicles with automatic transmissions to
avoid the need of automatically engaging and disengaging a mechanical clutch.
A torque converter (Figure 18) is composed by three elements: a pump, connected to the
engine shaft, a turbine, connected to the transmission, and a stator which does move. The
fluid in the torque converter is moved by the pump because of engine rotation, and drags
the turbine and therefore transmits torque to the transmission. The torque at the turbine is
generally higher than the torque at the pump (i.e. the engine torque), thanks to the
presence of the stator. The torque difference is higher when the speed difference between
the pump and the turbine is higher; at steady state, the two elements tend to rotate at the
same speed and the torque difference tends to zero.

45

Figure 18: Torque Converter Model 0

The torque converter model is based on a torque-speed map that for calculating the
torques exerted by the fluid on the turbine and the pump. In particular, torque
characteristics are usually represented in graphical form, as graphs of torque ratio and
capacity factor versus the speed ratio 0, 0. The speed ratio and the torque ratio are defined
as:

SR

t
T
, TR t
p
Tp

(3.5)

The capacity factor, which is an indicator of the maximum torque that can be transmitted
by the torque converter, is defined as:

Kt

p
Tp

(3.6)

In the vehicle modeled here, detailed data on the transmission components were not
available; therefore, the three parameters above described have been determined from
commonly available maps for the torque converter.
46

The operation of the unlocked torque converter can be split into two phases:
multiplication mode and torque coupling mode. The multiplication mode occurs when the
engine speed exceeds transmission input speed by a significant amount. As the name
might suggest, the torque at the output shaft of the converter is actually larger than the
input torque (i.e. the input torque is multiplied). The coupling operating mode occurs
when the engine speed and the transmission input speed are nearly equal (i.e., there is a
small slip between the turbine and the pump).
In a forward-oriented model, the turbine and impeller speed are given. For this reason,
the determination of the torque converter operating mode (coupling or multiplication) is
made by detecting and comparing the two speeds. In particular, coupling occurs when
their difference is below a given threshold.
Gearings and Differential
Gearings are purely mechanical components, with no inputs, outputs or controls. In
forward-oriented simulators, such components are simply modeled as static functions.
The external interfaces are two mechanical connections representing input and output
shafts.
The simplest model possible for gearings only accounts for the speed and torque ratios,
without considering the losses due to friction. However, for energy analysis and in
general for more accurate predictions, a lossy gear model must be introduced, to account
for power losses in the gearing. Given the fact that the speed ratio is fixed by kinematic
constraints, the power loss implies the reduction of the torque at the output shaft, taken
into account by the gear efficiency:
47

 out g in
1
Tout Tin
g

(3.7)

where g is the gear ratio. In this case, the subscripts in and out refer to the shaft of input
and output power flow, since the loss must reduce the output power. The identification of
the shafts is based on the sign of the product T , which is positive at the input shaft.
The power loss is calculated as Ploss inTin 1 and is always positive.
Gearbox
Functionally, a gearbox is transmission whose ratio (and possibly other characteristics,
such as efficiency) can be changed through the supervisory controller. The model
implemented for the gearbox is the simplest possible, and consists in a lossy gear with
variable gear ratio and variable efficiency (which depends on gear ratio, speed, and input
torque). The variable gear ratio signal deriving from the gear selection index is filtered
with a 1st order transfer function that mimics the delay involved in the actual procedure of
gear shifting. This model captures the essential functionality common to manual
gearboxes and automatic transmissions, and can be used for both cases.
Wheels and Brakes
The wheels represent the link between the powertrain and the external environment. The
wheel model includes the motion of the wheel and the effect of the brakes, calculating the
forces at the interface between tire and road surface. The traction force is calculated
given the powertrain torque, the brake signal and the vertical load on the wheel.

48

In the vehicle simulator, a very simplified modeling approach is used, that is a perfect
rolling model in which the torque applied to the wheel shaft is completely transformed
into traction force considering pure rolling motion between the tire and the soil, and
neglecting tire deformation. The quasi-static model does not take explicitly into account
wheel slip and relaxation length; however, it assumes that the dynamic response of the
tire can be approximated by a first order delay and that the maximum force generated at
the road/terrain interface is proportional to the vertical load on the wheel 0. Figure 19
shows a schematic of the model.

Figure 19. Wheel and Tire Model.

The brakes are modeled as an additional torque that reduces the net torque acting on the
tire. The brake torque is proportional to the brake input signal (which represents a
normalized pressure). Therefore the net torque acting on the wheel is:

Twheel Tshaft Tbrake

49

(3.8)

Where Tshaft is the torque at the driveshaft, and Tbrake Tbrake,max represents the braking
torque (calculated as a function of the maximum available braking torque). The brake
command is equivalent to the normalized pedal position, and varies between 0 and 1.
Given the effective rolling radius Rwheel of the tire, the effective traction force generated
at the wheel is computed as:

Fwheel

Twheel
Rwheel

(3.9)

Which, inserted into Equation 10, allows for computing the vehicle longitudinal velocity.
The corresponding wheel speed is:

wheel

Vveh
Rwheel

(3.10)

3.3 Modeling Scheme for Alternative Energy Storage Systems

From an energy system standpoint, the presence of an AESS introduces an additional
degree of freedom in the determination of the propulsive power to move the vehicle.
Since the propulsive power can be provided by either the engine or the AESS or a
combination of both, it is possible to define a power split that optimizes specific objective
functions along the vehicle operations (such as fuel economy). Depending on the
architecture of the hybrid vehicle, the AESS can perform additional tasks, such as vehicle
launch, regenerative braking, or potentially crankshaft energy harvesting.

50

In order to define a flexible modeling environment to characterize different hybrid

vehicle configurations, a standard representation can be adopted to define the power and
energy flows through the AESS. In particular, the system is composed by three
fundamental elements:

Power

connection

node:

this

element,

physically

represented

by

clutch/transmission component, allows one to physically connect the AESS to the

vehicle powertrain, enabling for a bi-directional flow of power;

Energy converter: this element converts the power flows at the summation node
into a suitable form of energy that can be stored. For instance, an electric
motor/generator is required to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy
that can be stored in an electrochemical battery. The conversion process occurs
with energy losses, which must be correctly accounted for in order to conduct
energy analysis;

Energy storage: this element is able to store energy and release it when required
by the control system. From a dynamic system standpoint, the amount of energy
stored at a given time represents the state variable of the system.

The following work will focus on modeling systems which can store energy in
mechanical

(flywheels)

and

potential

(hydraulic

accumulators

or

pneumatic

accumulators) form.
Since each energy conversion process occurs with losses, it is critical to define a vehicle
system layout and a suitable choice of components so that maximum roundtrip energy
efficiency can be achieved for storing and releasing energy. As stated previously, the
51

focus will be on the analysis of parallel hybrid systems, as the one shown in Figure 20.
Such solution is very common today for micro-hybrid or mild-hybrid architectures,
where the maximum energy/power capacity of the AESS is relatively small, compared to
the corresponding engine outputs. This allows the AESS to perform limited functions,
such as energy recovery, vehicle launch and engine torque assist.
Prime
Mover

Transmission

Energy
Storage
Device

Energy
Conversion
Device

Power
Summation

Wheels

Figure 20. General Layout of Renewable Energy Storage System for Parallel Hybrid
System.

52

Vehicle Level Controller

Torque
Request

Subsystem
Controller

Torque
Command

Energy to
Storage Medium

Energy
Conversion
Device

Energy
to Powertrain

Figure 21. Overview of Control Hierarchy for RESS.

From a control standpoint, the secondary energy storage system can be utilized by
applying commands to the connection node and to the energy converter. This is
consistent with the majority of the energy storage systems for hybrid vehicles.
The AESS control is realized in a hierarchical fashion, as shown in Figure 21. The
vehicle level controller (which represents the supervisory energy management strategy)
requests a torque (positive or negative) to a subsystem controller.
The subsystem controller then applies the system constraints (in terms of speed, torque,
energy/power limitations) and provides a command (generally, a torque) to the energy
converter. The subsystem controller may be integrated into the vehicle level controller
and implemented in a variety of fashions. Constraints on the storage medium and energy
conversion device can be integrated into the controller to ensure feasible operating
conditions.
53

With reference to a mechanical energy storage system, such as a flywheel coupled to the
vehicle driveline through a clutch and a CVT, the energy conversion (mechanical to
mechanical) would be done by controlling the clutch pressure and the CVT system. The
equivalent gear ratio of the CVT would have to be controlled in order to provide the
desired torque to the powertrain, consequently extracting energy from the flywheel (the
storage medium).
In the case of a hydraulic system, a variable displacement motor/pump is considered as
the conversion device, transforming the energy stored in the accumulator (in the form of
pressurized hydraulic fluid) into mechanical energy at the shaft. In this case, the
motor/pump displacement is used to control the torque request from the supervisor based
on the pressure differential (available energy) and the operating conditions of the system.

3.3.1 Model of Mechanical AESS

The architecture considered for the mechanical hybrid vehicle is based on a parallel
configuration 0, where the mechanical ESS is located between the transmission and the
drive axle, as shown in Figure 22. The continuously variable transmission couples the ESS
to the transmission output shaft, allowing for transferring torque to the drivetrain. This
configuration allows for minimal changes in vehicle design and allows for standard
drivetrain components to be used.

54

Fuel Energy

Fuel Tank

Engine

ICE Power

Flywheel
+
Clutch

Transmission

Flywheel
Power

ICE Power

CVT Power

Mechanical
Power
Summation

CVT
Braking
Power

Combined
Power

Drive Axle
Power to
Wheels

Figure 22. Mechanical Hybrid Powertrain Layout

Continuously Variable Transmission

The purpose of the CVT is to adjust the speed ratio (NCVT) between the driveshaft and the
flywheel in order to store and discharge energy. In general, increasing the ratio
numerically forces the vehicle to transfer mechanical power to the flywheel. On the other
hand, reducing the ratio numerically has the opposite effect. If the ratio is increased while
the vehicle is decelerating, energy that otherwise would have been dissipated as heat by
55

the mechanical brakes is used to accelerate the flywheel. If the ratio is decreased during
vehicle acceleration, the energy stored in the flywheel is transferred back to the vehicle.
A functional block diagram of the CVT is shown in Figure 23. The speed ratio, in
combination with the rotational speed of the drivetrain, is used to determine the speed of
the CVT side of the clutch. The torque is passed from the clutch and flywheel system,
modified as an effect of the speed ratio and the CVT efficiency, and sent to the drivetrain.

Figure 23. CVT Model

In the following mathematical formulation, the notation adopted to indicate the direction
of the torque and volumetric flow is as follows: the torque is considered positive if
directed towards the drivetrain, negative if directed from the drivetrain.
The torque out of the CVT is a function of the speed ratio, input torque, and efficiency:
(3.11)
Where N is the speed ratio and

is the mechanical efficiency of the CVT, defined as:

*
CVT

CVT , T 0

1
, T 0

CVT

56

(3.12)

CVT efficiency is considered a function solely of input torque, scaled as a function of

maximum torque, based on a full toroidal design 0. Figure 24 shows the approximation
for CVT efficiency as a function of maximum input torque.

Figure 24. Normalized CVT Efficiency

The angular velocity of the clutch side of the CVT is defined as:
(3.13)
Where

is the angular velocity of the clutch side of the CVT and

angular velocity of the drivetrain.

57

is the

Flywheel
Fixed Gear
1

CVT
2

Drivetrain

N1
N2

Figure 25. Scheme of flywheel to drivetrain power chain

A feed forward controller is used to prescribe the CVT ratio necessary to command the
desired torque at the mechanical power summation node. The feedforward controller for
the CVT ratio has been developed in the simplified assumption that the clutch is fully
engaged and no slip is observed between the clutch plates. In this hypothesis, the system
to consider is sketched in Figure 25.
The flywheel (whose angular velocity is indicated by 1) is coupled by means of a fixed
gear (with gear ratio N2) to the input shaft of the CVT (whose variable gear ratio is
indicated by N2). The output shaft of the CVT is connected to the drivetrain, whose
angular velocity is indicated by 2.
Given a desired Torque at the driveshaft (Tdes), the following equation can be written for
the power at the driveshaft:

58

(3.14)
Equation (14) states that the desired power at the driveshaft power summation point is
provided solely by the power due to the inertia torque of the flywheel (frictional losses on
the flywheel bearings are neglected for simplicity). Given the definition of the gear ratio
of the fixed gear and of the CVT, summarized below:

(3.15)

the following expression for the rate of change of the gear ratio of the CVT can be
obtained:
(3.16)
At this point, knowing the angular velocity of the flywheel 1, the angular velocity of
the driveshaft 3, the rate of change of the driveshaft speed
torque

, the rate of change of the CVT

and, imposing a desired

is calculated by means of equation 16.

In order to be consistent with the notation previously introduced, equation 16 is rewritten

in the following way:
(3.17)
where NCVT is the speed ratio of the CVT, Tdes is the desired torque to the drivetrain, Ifly is
the inertia of the flywheel, DT is the rotational speed of the drivetrain side of the CVT,
59

and Ngear is the gear ratio for any additional gearing between the CVT and flywheel.
Equation 17 can be integrated to give NCVT as a function of time. It should be noted that
the actual torque will be slightly less than desired due to the frictional losses in the
flywheel and the efficiency of the additional gearing (neglected for simplicity).
The CVT ratio integration is limited to ratios between the minimum and maximum,
determined by the specific CVT design considered. In order to account for the actual
dynamic response of the actuator performing the CVT ratio variation, the output of the
CVT feed forward controller is properly filtered. In detail, it is assumed that the CVT
ratio change presents a dynamic response typical of a second order over-damped system.
As a secondary effect, the dynamics of the CVT ratio actuator enhances the stability of
the numerical solution obtained, enabling the simulation solver to converge even for
particularly abrupt requests of CVT ratio change.

Table 1. CVT Model Inputs

Inputs

Units

Speed Ratio (Control)

Drivetrain speed (Exogenous)
Clutch Torque (Exogenous)

[Nm]
[r/min]
[Nm]

Table 2. CVT Model Outputs

Outputs

Units

Drivetrain Torque
Clutch Speed

[Nm]
[r/min]

60

Table 3. CVT Model Parameters

Parameters

Units

Maximum Ratio
Minimum Ratio
Maximum Torque
Mechanical Efficiency
Mass

[-]
[-]
[Nm]
[-]
[kg]

Clutch and Flywheel System

The main function of the flywheel is to provide a mechanical means to store braking
energy. The clutch is needed for coupling the flywheel and drivetrain when the CVT is at
the limit of its speed ratio range, particularly while accelerating the flywheel from rest
and disengaging while the flywheel is rotating and the vehicle is at rest. Figure 26 shows
the functional block diagram for a clutch and flywheel system:

Figure 26. Block Diagram of Clutch and Flywheel Model

The speed of the CVT side of the clutch is specified by the CVT model. Output torque
depends on multiple variables and parameters inside of the model as described below.
Energy Considerations
61

The flywheel energy storage capability is based upon its mass moment inertia and its
rotational speed. The total kinetic energy that can be stored in the flywheel is calculated
according to the following relation:
(3.18)
where

is the mass moment of inertia of the flywheel and

is its angular velocity;

the higher the moment of inertia of the flywheel and the higher its maximum rotational
velocity, the higher the energy storage of the system. However, both the moment of
inertia and the maximum rotational velocity directly affect the overall weight of the
system. In details, the mass moment of inertia of a mechanical flywheel rotating around a
certain axis is calculated according to the following formula:

I fly r dr 2 dV r

(3.19)

where r is the radius vector of the generic infinitesimal portion of the body with respect

to the axis of rotation, ( r ) is the mass density at the same point and d( r ) is the actual
distance from the axis of rotation. The integration is performed over the volume V of the
flywheel.
In order to maximize the moment of inertia of the system, high values of the density of
the material are required, especially in points of the body far from the axis of rotation, in
case the density of the body is not homogeneous. However, this determines an increase of
the mass of the system, calculated according to the following relation:

m r dV r

62

(3.20)

In order to understand the energy storage capability of the flywheel system, it is useful to
identify which parameters affect the maximum energy density of the system. This
variable can be calculated according to the following formula:

emech max K

(3.21)

Where emech-max is the maximum energy density per unit of mass of the flywheel, is the
density of the flywheel, K is a factor depending on the geometrical shape of the flywheel
(Table 4), and is the maximum stress allowed in the flywheel (Table 5).

Table 4. Shape-factor K for different planar stress geometries

Table 5. Data for Different flywheel rotor materials

63

It is worth observing that the maximum tensile strength of the flywheel is directly linked
to its maximum rotating velocity, its geometry and the eventual tensile strength applied at
the inner and outer radius. Assuming that no tension is pre-applied at the inner and outer
radius of the rotating body, the centrifugal force is the only one acting on it. The
centrifugal force depends upon the rotational speed squared. Low speed flywheels (under
20,000 rpm) are typically manufactured from steel [10]. Composite materials and
magnetic bearings allow speeds in excess of 40,000 rpm [10].
All the factors mentioned before must be considered when the design of the system is
performed, including the determination of the shape and the materials used for the
components.
Clutch and Flywheel Losses
The flywheel and clutch system experiences frictional losses during operation. Sources
for loss include flywheel windage, bearing friction, and clutch slip. For the purposes of
the model, the flywheel windage and bearing friction are lumped into one term that varies
with flywheel speed, while losses due to clutch slip are handled by the equations
describing the torque transmitted during slip conditions.
Windage Losses
Typically, the flywheel is incased in a structure for safety purposes. Especially for high
speed flywheels where windage losses are significant, the casing is put under a vacuum.
Using a vacuum reduces the windage losses, but does not completely eliminate them.
Studies performed by the University of Texas at Austin are used as the basis for windage
64

loss calculation [10]. Table 6 and Table 7 summarize frictional the loss test conditions
and the power loss results respectively of the low speed flywheel system under vacuum
considered in [10].

Table 6. Frictional Loss Test Conditions

Test Conditions

Bearing Type
Size
Dynamic Load Rating
Axial Preload
Maximum Speed
L10 Life Calculation

Rolling element angular contact ball bearing

17mm bore
11.6 kN
267 N
18,000 rpm
70,700 hrs

Table 7. Frictional Loss Test Results

Test Results

Bearing Loss
@16,100 rpm
@18,000 rpm
Windage Loss
@16,100 rpm
@18,000 rpm

122 watts
140 watts
76 watts
95 watts

Bearing Friction
The bearings which the flywheel rotates on also provide a source of frictional loss. High
speed flywheels typically use magnetic bearings with near zero frictional losses, but with
a tradeoff of the magnetic bearings consuming electrical power. Low speed flywheels
typically use conventional roller ball bearings, which allow operation above 20,000rpm.
65

Data on frictional moment for bearings is readily available from manufactures such as
SKF. Based on loading, rotational speed, and the type and size of bearings used, online
estimates can be used to calculate the frictional moment [11]. The torque loss from the
online estimate can be divided by the rotational speed to give a linear approximation for
bearing loss as a function of speed.
Estimates by the SKF online calculator are slightly lower than those found in [10] using
similar conditions. For the purpose of the model, the results of [10] were extrapolated
linearly as a function of flywheel speed to give bfly , torque loss per rotational speed.
Clutch Slip Losses
The power loss during clutch slip is equal to the torque being transmitted multiplied by
the speed differential between the two sides of the clutch.
(3.22)
Where

is the torque at the clutch,

is the speed difference between the

two sides of the clutch.

Modes of Operation
The clutch and flywheel system can operate in two different operating modes, lockup and
slip (or non-lockup). Under lockup condition, both the CVT and flywheel sides of the
clutch are rotating at the same speed. As opposite to this operation, under slip condition,
the two sides of the clutch are rotating at different speeds, thus dissipating energy by
friction. Output torque of the clutch and flywheel system depends on the mode of
operation.
Lockup Condition
66

Under lockup, the CVT side clutch speed (input) is equal to the flywheel speed and the
output torque of the system is a function of the rate of change of the flywheel speed:
(3.23)
Where bfly is the frictional resistance of the flywheel to rotation due to bearings and
windage losses.
Slip Condition
During slip conditions, the CVT side clutch speed is not equal to the flywheel speed. For
this mode, output torque is the reaction torque on the clutch plate. The reaction torque for
the clutch varies as a function of the control input, clutch pressure, and physical
properties of the clutch. Equation 24 describes the clutch reaction torque:
(3.24)
Where Aclutch is the clutch mating area, rclutch is the effective radius of the clutch, nc is the
number contacting clutch plate surfaces, Pclutch is the clutch pressure, and () is the
coefficient of friction as a function of the speed differential between the two sides of the
clutch (CVT side and flywheel side).
The effective radius for the clutch is a function of the inner and outer radii of the
contacting clutch surfaces:
(3.25)
For a wet clutch, the coefficient of friction () varies with speed differential as shown in
Figure 27 [12]. The friction can either be ascending or descending depending on

67

temperature, type of fluid, and friction material used. For modeling purposes, one type of
behavior should be chosen and implemented.

Figure 27. Wet Clutch Coefficient of Friction [12]

Under slip conditions, the reaction torque of the clutch is also acting on the flywheel,
causing it to change speeds, altering the slip speed. The flywheel changes speed as a
function of clutch torque according to the Newton Second Law:
(3.26)
Switching Between Modes of Operation
A fully functional model must be capable of changing between lockup and slip modes
depending on the operating conditions of the system. Practical conditions for lockup to be

68

met are sufficiently small , and enough pressure to transmit the torque without
incurring slip.
To determine the maximum torque that can be transmitted without slip, a modified
version of the clutch slipping torque can be used:
(3.27)
where

is the static coefficient of friction for the clutch plate friction material.

If the torque the flywheel is trying to transmit under lockup conditions is greater than the
maximum torque calculated in equation 26, the system changes to slip mode until both
conditions are again satisfied.
Table 8 to Table 10 are a summary of the inputs, outputs, and parameters for the clutch
and flywheel system.

Table 8. Clutch and Flywheel Model Inputs

Inputs

Units

Clutch Pressure (Control)

Clutch speed (Exogenous)
Desired Torque (Exogenous)

Pa
r/min
Nm

Table 9. Clutch and Flywheel Model Outputs

Outputs

Units

Output Torque
Flywheel Speed
Clutch Operating Mode

Nm
r/min
-

69

Table 10. Clutch and Flywheel Model Parameters

Parameters

Units

[m2]
[m[
[-]
[-]
[-]
[Nm/(rad/s)]
[rad/s]
[kg]

Clutch Area
Clutch Effective Radius
# of Clutch Plate Surfaces
Slipping Coefficient of Friction
Static Coefficient of Friction
Flywheel Rotational Friction
Maximum for Lockup
Mass

3.3.2 Model of hydraulic AESS

The architecture considered for the hydraulic hybrid vehicle is based on a parallel
configuration where the hydraulic ESS is located between the transmission and the drive
axle, as shown in Figure 28.
The hydraulic pump/motor couples the ESS to the transmission output shaft, allowing for
transferring torque to the drivetrain.

70

Fuel Energy

Fuel Tank

Engine
ICE Power

Accumulator

Transmission

Fluid
Power

Hydraulic
Pump

ICE Power
Pump
Power

Fluid
Power

Mechanical
Power
Summation
Combined
Power

Braking
Power

Drive Axle

Reservoir

Power to
Wheels

Figure 28. Hydraulic Hybrid Powertrain Layout

Figure 29 shows a hydraulic scheme of the system. In its simplest form, the system
includes a low-pressure reservoir tank (T01), a variable displacement pump/motor (P01),
and a high-pressure accumulator (A01, A02). A logic element (LE01) is inserted to
enable a two-directional flow. Further, a pressure relief valve (RV01) is introduced to
limit the maximum pressure of the system.

71

Figure 29: Hydraulic diagram of the ESS

72

Hydraulic Pump/Motor
The main function of a basic pump/motor is to produce the requested torque by moving
fluid from the reservoir to the accumulator (pump mode) or from the accumulator to the
reservoir (motor mode). In order to control the torque and flow rate during utilization, a
variable displacement pump/motor must be used.
A functional block diagram of the pump/motor is shown in Figure 30. The pump/motor
model determines the volumetric flow rate to and from the reservoir and accumulator as a
function of the speed and displacement of the pump. The pressure signals received from
the accumulator and reservoir are used to calculate the torque output.

Figure 30. Hydraulic Pump Model

In the following mathematical formulation, the notation adopted to indicate the direction
of the torque and volumetric flow is as follows:

Torque: positive if directed towards the drivetrain (motor), negative if directed

from the drivetrain (pump)

73

Flow: positive if directed from the reservoir to the accumulator (pump), negative
otherwise (motor).

Modeling flow and torque outputs of positive displacement pumps and motors is a wellestablished theory. In general, the pump/motor torque is given by the following equation:

T pump/ motor D Pacc Pres m*

(3.28)

Where D is the pump displacement (cm3/rev) and m is the mechanical efficiency of the
*

system, defined as:

m , T 0

1
, T 0
m
*
m

(3.29)

Similar, the volumetric flow rate is given by:

Q pump D N m* v*

(3.30)

Where the product m v contains the volumetric efficiency of the pump:

*

1
, T 0
v
T 0
v
*
v

(3.31)

The above model, however, is defined so that the displacement is an input and the torque
is one of the outputs. However, this representation is in contrast with the I/O scheme
shown in Figure 30, where a torque command is given as input. Hence, equations (28)(31) must be further elaborate to impose that, whenever possible, it is:

T pump/ motor Tcommand

(3.32)

Given the above, Equation (28) can be used to determine the displacement required:
74

Dcommand

Tcommand
Pacc Pres m*

(3.33)

Combining with (30), the volumetric flow rate is given by:

Q pump Dcommand N m* v*

Tcommand
N v*
Pacc Pres

(3.34)

In general, the mechanical and volumetric efficiency of a pump can be obtained from the
technical data and information available from manufacturers. In order to define a model
for the pump/motor efficiency, a commercial variable displacement axial piston pump
was considered [15]. The pump was chosen in order to match the maximum speed of the
drivetrain shaft (through a single-stage gear reduction) and the maximum pressure of the
accumulator. Figure 31 shows the pump and its main technical characteristics.

Model

P1/PD Series, 28cc

Displacement

28 cm3

Max. Outlet
Pressure
Max. Nominal
Torque

280 bar
250 Nm

Min/Max Speed

600rpm / 3200 rpm

Weight

18 kg

Figure 31. Axial Piston Pump

The flow and efficiency maps are represented in Figure 32. It is important to observe that
the maps are generally provided only at maximum displacement and with the device
operating in pump mode. Therefore, a simple procedure was established in order to
75

extrapolate the efficiency behavior of the pump/motor to cover the entire range of
operating conditions.

Figure 32: Flow and Overall Efficiency Map of P1 028 Axial Piston Pump

First, the volumetric efficiency of the pump was determined from the flow characteristics.
For a piston pump, the characteristic curves can be reasonably approximated by the
following model:

Q pump D N kleak P

(3.35)

Where kleak represents a loss coefficient due to leakage phenomena (modeled by using the
Hagen-Poiseuille formula for viscous flow losses). By applying the above model to the
flow map of Figure 32, the loss coefficient is determined for each pump speed value.
Figure 33 shows the results of the model identification.

76

300
Data
Model

Pressure [bar]

250

Ideal
Characteristic

200
150
100
50
0
30

40

50

60
Flow Rate [l/min]

70

80

90

Figure 33: Identification of Pump Flow Model

Although in general kleak f N , the leakage coefficient has been assumed constant
(specifically, averaged over the speed range available) as a first approximation. Based on
the available data, such reduction leads to a mean squared error less than 15%.
The volumetric efficiency of a pump is defined as:

Q pump
Qid

(3.36)

Where Qid D N . Combining (35) and (36) results into:

v 1

k leak P
D N

(3.37)

Which allows one to build the volumetric efficiency map of the pump at maximum
displacement conditions (Figure 34, left). In order to extrapolate the behavior to reduced
displacement values, it is assumed (as commonly done in industrial practice) that the
leakage losses are independent from the pump displacement. This results in the
volumetric efficiency map shown in Figure 34 (right), which can be implemented in a
pump model as a 2D look-up table as function of the pressure and speed.
77

100

100

96

v [%]

v [%]

98

94

1200
1500
1800
2400
3000

92
90

50

80
60
40
300
200
100

100

150
Pressure [bar]

200

250

300

Pressure [bar]

1000

2000

3000

Speed [rpm]

Figure 34: Pump Volumetric Efficiency Model at Max. Displacement (Left) and at
Variable Displacement (Right)

The mechanical efficiency of the pump was calculated from the overall efficiency map
(Figure 32) and the volumetric efficiency model:

(3.38)

The resulting curve is generally a function of the pressure, pump speed and displacement.
However, the dependence on speed and displacement was neglected for simplicity. A
simple (exponential) correlation was therefore introduced to approximate the mechanical
efficiency of the pump as a function of the sole pressure input. Figure 35 shows the
results of the model identification.

78

4000

100

m [%]

90
80
70
60
50

50

100

150
Pressure [bar]

200

250

300

Figure 35: Pump Mechanical Efficiency Model

Finally, it is worth observing that a slight penalty in efficiency is generally present when
the pump is used as a motor, although this term is typically not explicitly accounted for in
the OEM efficiency maps. In the model, an additional efficiency of 97% has been
introduced to penalize the operations of the system in motor mode.
In order to complete the pump/motor model, simple control logic was introduced in order
to adapt the pump displacement in relation with the torque demand. This allows one to
respect the standard I/O representation for energy-based modeling of powertrain
components, where the energy converter outputs a torque based on a speed input and a
torque command from the supervisory controller.
The displacement control logic is based on a simple feed-forward scheme. The requested
torque to the pump/motor is generally supplied as long as the displacement necessary to
provide the torque is within the range of the variable displacement pump. The desired
displacement is determined based on the instantaneous accumulator and reservoir
pressures, as shown in Equation (33). The resulting displacement command is saturated
when hardware limitations occur, i.e., based on the following conditions:
79

the maximum/minimum displacement available is reached

the reservoir or the accumulator are empty

Figure 36 shows a simple block diagram of the displacement control logic.

Figure 36. Block Diagram of the Displacement Controller Logic

Table 11 through Table 13 summarize the model inputs/outputs and parameters.

Table 11. Pump/Motor Model Inputs

Inputs
Torque Command (Control)
Pump Speed (Exogenous)
Accumulator Pressure (Exogenous)
Reservoir Pressure (Exogenous)

Units
Nm
r/min
bar
bar

Table 12. Pump/Motor Model Outputs

Outputs
Torque
Volumetric Flow Rate

Units
Nm
l/min

Table 13. Pump/Motor Model Parameters

Parameters
Maximum Displacement
Mass
Volumetric Efficiency
Mechanical Efficiency

Units
cm3/rev
kg
-

80

Accumulator
The accumulator is used to store the fluid in the high-pressure portion of the system. The
hydraulic accumulator is a pressure vessel containing the charge gas which is separated
from the hydraulic fluid by a piston, bladder, or diaphragm. For industrial or motive
applications, bladder type hydro-pneumatic accumulators are typically used. As fluid
flows in and out of the accumulator, the gas acts as a spring, storing and delivering
energy to the system as required. Gaseous nitrogen is widely used as the charge gas in
hydraulic accumulators because of its availability, low-cost, consistency of composition
and freedom from oxidation and contamination [17].
Information on the capacity and pressure characteristics of hydraulic accumulators can be
easily found from various OEMs [18],[19]. A bladder accumulator consists of a welded
or forged pressure vessel (carbon steel or stainless steel shell), and ports for gas and fluid
inlet. The gas and fluid sides are separated by a bladder. The capacity of the accumulators
and the operating pressure range, are typically standardized, and reported in the table
below.

81

Max. Pressure: 3000psi (200bar)

Size
Diameter
Max. Flow Mass
(gallon/liter) (mm)
(gpm)
(kg)
0.25 / 1.2
117
60
4.5
1 / 3.8
168
60
15
2.5 / 9.8
231
160
40
5 / 19.7
231
160
63
10 / 37
231
240
102
11 / 41.5
231
240
123
15 / 56.4
231
240
150
Max. Pressure: 5000psi (345bar)
Size
Diameter
Max. Flow Mass
(gallon/liter) (mm)
(gpm)
(kg)
0.25 / 1.2
122
160
7.7
1 / 3.8
173
160
16
2.5 / 9.8
247
240
24
5 / 19.7
247
240
35
10 / 37
247
240
113
15 / 56.4

247

240

168

Figure 37. Bladder-Type Accumulator [19]

When the accumulator is empty (uncharged), all the hydraulic fluid is contained in the
reservoir chamber and the accumulator pressure is equal to the pre-charge pressure of the
gas. The OEMs specify a general maximum ratio of the system maximum pressure to the
pre-charge pressure, which is generally 4:1. This allows one to determine the pre-charge
pressure and the correspondent mass of nitrogen gas contained in the accumulator.
The accumulator model predicts the system pressure in relation with the rate of volume
variation due to the fluid flows. Changes in system pressure allow fluid to enter or exit
the accumulator body. Figure 38 shows a block diagram of the accumulator model.

82

Figure 38. Block Diagram of the Accumulator Model

During compression of the charge gas, a certain amount of energy is lost to the
surrounding environment through irreversible heat transfer, which is identical in value to
the net heat transported to the accumulator wall. For modeling purposes, the gas is
considered as a closed system exchanging work with the hydraulic fluid and the
accumulator wall.
Applying the continuity equation to the hydraulic fluid side and assuming incompressible
conditions, the volume occupied by the fluid is given by:
dVl
Q pump Q prv
dt

(3.39)

If V is the accumulator volume, the volume occupied by the gas is Vg V Vl . This

allows one to apply the energy balance to the gas system, as follows [20]-[22]:

mg

du
dV
p
hAw T Tw
dt
dt

(3.40)

where h is a convection heat transfer coefficient (calibration parameter) and Aw represents

the surface area of the walls (which depends on the volume of the accumulator occupied
by the gas).

83

In order to account for the compressibility effects, a real gas model must be used. In this
case, the internal energy per unit of mass u is given by:
p

du c v dT T
p dv
dT v

(3.41)

Where v is the specific volume (per unit mass) of the gas charge.
For a real gas (N2), the Beattie-Bridgeman equation of state can be used to relate the p-vT characteristics [23]:
p

RT 1
v B A2
2
v
v

(3.42)

Where:
A A0 1 a / v

B B0 1 b / v

c / vT 3

(3.43)

All parameters in this formula are empirical constants specific for nitrogen gas and are
given below [23]:

A0 173.60 m 3 / kg Pa
a 9.342e 4 m 3 / kg
B0 1.801e 3 m 3 / kg
b 2.467e 4 m 3 / kg

(3.44)

c 1499.30 m 3 / kg K 3

R 296.80 m 3 / kg Pa / K

By differentiating Eq. (42) with respect to T and combining with Eq. (41), the following
equation can be obtained:

84

dT
1

dt
m g cv

p dV g

hA
T

dT v dt

(3.45)

Equation (45) is the energy equation for the nitrogen gas, which is numerically integrated
with known volumetric flow rate to give the temperature time history at each time step.
This temperature is then substituted into Eq. (42) to give the accumulator pressure history
for a process cycle. Note that the gas pressure and liquid pressure inside the accumulator
must be equal to each other.
Since the accumulator model is characterized by two states (volume and temperature),
two initial conditions must be given. In this case, it is assumed that the accumulator is
initially empty (hence, Vg t 0 V ), and that the initial temperature is equal to 25oC.
Table 14 to Table 16 summarize the model inputs/outputs and parameters.

Table 14. Accumulator Model Inputs

Inputs
Pump/Motor Volumetric Flow Rate
PRV Volumetric Flow Rate
Initial Volume Occupied by Gas (I.C.)
Initial Gas Temperature (I.C.)

Units
l/min
l/min
l
0
C

Table 15. Accumulator Model Outputs

Outputs
Fluid Volume
Accumulator Level
Gas Temperature
Accumulator Pressure

Units
l
%
0
C
bar

85

Table 16. Accumulator Model Parameters

Parameters
Accumulator Volume
Accumulator Diameter
Accumulator Mass
Pre-Charge Pressure
Heat Transfer Coefficient
Specific Gas Constant
Real Gas Model Parameters

Units
l
mm
kg
bar
W/m2K
J/kg-K
See Eq. (17)

Pressure Relief Valve (Flow Restriction)

A pressure relief hydraulic valve (PRV) must be incorporated into the system in order to
limit the maximum pressure of the accumulator. The PRV is a solenoid-operated poppet
valve, which controls the stem position in order to maintain the pressure of the system
within range.
This valve is modeled as a simple, steady-state flow restriction that connects the
accumulator to the low-pressure tank. A block diagram of the valve model is found below
in Figure 39.

Figure 39. Poppet Valve Model

86

The liquid flow through the PRV is modeled through the correlation for friction losses in
turbulent incompressible flow conditions:
Q prv Cd

2 pacc p tan k

(3.46)

Where is the reference area of the valve and Cd the discharge coefficient, which is a
function of the stem position. The two parameters must be identified from experimental
data or information from the OEM. Generally, the reference area is a constant term that
corresponds to the maximum opening area of the valve.
The functional relation between the discharge coefficient and the valve position can be
determined from the datasheets provided by product catalogues (which generally report
the pressure losses vs. flow characteristics of the valve). Figure 40 shows the discharge
coefficient curve considered for the valve model, as a function of normalized valve
position.

Discharge Coefficient [-]

0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
Normalized Position [-]

0.8

0.9

Figure 40: Discharge Coefficient Curve for the Pressure Relief Valve

The position of the PRV is operated by a simple flow controller, which activates the
valve when the pressure of the accumulator exceeds an upper threshold value (Pmax).
87

When the PRV position control is activated, a combination of a PI regulator and a feedforward compensator control the position of the valve in order to reach and maintain a
desired pressure of the accumulator. The controller is then deactivated when the pressure
reaches a lower threshold value (Pmin). Figure 41 shows a simple block diagram of the
controller logic.

Figure 41. Block Diagram of the PRV Controller Logic

The parameters of the controller have been calibrated in order to quickly reduce the
accumulator pressure once the upper threshold is reached, while minimizing the
chattering effects caused by the switching logic. Table 17 to Table 19 list the inputs,
outputs and parameters of the PRV model.

Table 17. PRV Model Inputs

Inputs
Accumulator Pressure
Reservoir Pressure

Units
bar
bar

Table 18. PRV Model Outputs

Outputs
PRV Flow Rate
PRV Position

Units
l/min
-

88

Table 19. PRV Model Parameters

Parameters
Valve Reference Area
Discharge Coefficient Curve
Hydraulic fluid density
Upper Pressure Threshold
Lower Pressure Threshold
Position Controller Parameters

Units
m2
kg/m3
bar
bar
N/A

Reservoir (Tank)
The hydraulic tank stores the fluid in the low-pressure portion of the system, and is used
as the supply for the pump. The tank is typically realized in polymer or steel, and its
characteristics can be found on datasheets of fluid power components manufacturers 0.
Similar to the accumulator, the reservoir is a pressurized vessel where a gas chamber is
separated from the liquid by a bladder.
The capacity of the reservoir and its pressure range are typically available from the
datasheets. Since the reservoir operates at low pressure conditions, the mass of the
component is typically in the range of 5-10kg, depending on the material. In general, the
manufacturers recommend sizing the capacity of the reservoir based on the maximum
capacity of the pump (one liter capacity per one liter per minute flow).
The model of the reservoir can be seen as a simplified version of the accumulator model.
Figure 42 shows a block diagram representation of the system.

89

Figure 42. Block Diagram of the Accumulator Model

Applying the continuity equation to the hydraulic fluid side and assuming incompressible
conditions, the volume occupied by the fluid is given by:
t

Vl t V0 Q pump Q prv dt

(3.47)

In this case, it is important to specify the initial condition V0, which represents the
volume initially occupied by the hydraulic fluid. Similar to the accumulator, the volume
occupied by the gas is Vg V Vl , where V is the tank volume.
Due to the limited pressure range of the reservoir, a simplified modeling approach can be
here adopted, by assuming a simple, steady-state isentropic transformation to characterize
the filling and emptying process of the tank.
By applying the isentropic model to the gas chamber, it is possible to determine the
pressure of the tank:

pt V g t p 0V g,0

(3.48)

Where V0 and p0 are the volume occupied by the gas and its pressure at the initial
condition, and is the specific heats ratio (which, for pure nitrogen, is 1.39). Since

Vg V Vl , the above expression can be further elaborated as follows:

90

pt V Vl t p0 V V0 p prechargeV

(3.49)

Where pprecharge is the pre-charge pressure of the reservoir (parameter). This allows for
obtaining the final expression for the tank pressure:
pt p precharge

V Vl t

Table 20 to Table 22 summarize the model inputs/outputs and parameters.

Table 20. Reservoir Model Inputs

Inputs
Pump/Motor Volumetric Flow Rate
PRV Volumetric Flow Rate
Initial Volume Occupied by Gas (I.C.)

Units
l/min
l/min
l

Table 21. Reservoir Model Outputs

Outputs
Fluid Volume
Reservoir Level
Reservoir Pressure

Units
l
%
bar

Table 22. Reservoir Model Parameters

Parameters
Reservoir Volume
Reservoir Mass
Pre-Charge Pressure
Specific Heats Ratio
Initial Volume of Hydraulic Fluid

91

Units
l
kg
bar
l

(3.50)

3.4 Conclusion
The development of dynamic models of the AESS components for both the mechanical
and hydraulic systems allows for integration into the powertrain model of the
conventional vehicle to produce a hybrid driveline. With modular components, multiple
configurations can be easily created with standard interfaces between the models. The
scalability of the above models allows for the design space to be explored easily by
simply changing the component parameters.
Appropriately combining the mechanical and hydraulic models respectively allows for
prediction and analysis of the systems behavior over varying conditions during drive
cycles. Also, the interactions between the components due to design changes can be
studied. For example, changing the gearing between the CVT and flywheel will impact
the efficiency of both the clutch and the CVT. By modeling the components and linking
their behavior, these types of analysis can be performed with the end goal of evaluating
and optimizing design of the system parameters. In lights of the development of a design
procedure of short-term energy storage systems, the models provide a crucial tool to
evaluate the relative performance of designs when the design parameters within the
models are altered. The models developed in this chapter will be used to evaluate designs
which are based on statistical processing of drive cycles.

92

3.5 References
[1]

Bayar, K., Bezaire, B., Cooley, B., Kruckenberg, J., Schacht, E., Midlam-Mohler,
S., and Rizzoni, G. Design of an Extended-Range Electric Vehicle for the
EcoCAR Challenge, Proc. of the ASME 2010 IDETC/CIE Conference, 2010

[2]

Koprubasi, K. Modeling and Control of Hybrid-Electric Vehicle for Drivability

and Fuel Economy Improvements, Ph.D. dissertation, The Ohio State University,
2008.

[3]

Serrao, L. A Comparative Analysis of Energy Management Strategies for Hybrid

Electric Vehicles, Ph.D. dissertation, The Ohio State University, 2009.

[4]

The Ohio State University 2006 Challenge X Team, Final design and vehicle
technical specifications, challenge x 2006 fall technical report, The Ohio State
University, Tech. Rep., 2006.

[5]

Arnett, M., Bayar, K., Coburn, C., Guezennec, Y., Koprubasi, K., MidlamMohler, S., Sevel, K., Shakiba-Herfeh, M., and Rizzoni, G. Cleaner diesel using
model-based design and advanced aftertreatment in a student competition
vehicle, in SAE World Congress. Detroit, MI, USA: SAE, 2008.

[6]

Rizzoni, G., and Srinivasan, K. Powertrain Dynamics, Lecture notes, The Ohio
State University.

[7]

Kotwicki, A. Dynamic models for torque converter equipped vehicles, SAE

Technical Papers, no. 820393, 1982.

[8]

Body, W., and Brockbank, C. Simulation of the fuel consumption benefits of

various transmission arrangements and control strategies within a flywheel based
mechanical hybrid system. Torotrak (Development) Ltd.
http://www.torotrak.com/

[9]

Samie, F., and Gecim, B. Comparison of Efficiency Measurements and

Simulation Results for Automotive Traction Drives. SAE Paper 2005-01-1463.

[10]

Hearn, C. and Flynn, M.. Low Cost Flywheel Energy Storage for a Fuel Cell
Powered Transit Bus.Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference, Sept 9-12,
2007. VPPC 2007. IEEE

[11]

SKF Product Website. http://www.skf.com ->Products ->Calculations ->

Frictional moment - power loss.
93

[12]

Yang, Y., Lam, R., and Fujii, T. Prediction of Torque Response During the
Engagement of Wet Friction Clutch. SAE Paper 981097.

[13]

Bolund, B., Bernhoff, H., and Leijon, M. Flywheel Energy and Power Storage
Systems. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 11 (2007) 235-258.

[14]

Toulson, E. Evaluation of a Hybrid Hydraulic Launch Assist System for use in

Small Road Vehicles, Proc. of IEEE Symposium on Industrial Electronics, 2008.

[15]

Wu, B., Lin, C., Filipi, Z., Peng, H., and Assanis, D. Optimal Power
Management for a Hydraulic Hybrid Delivery Truck, Vehicle System Dynamics
2004, Vol. 42, Nos. 1-2, pp. 23-40.

[16]

Parker Hannifin, Service Information Bulletin P1/PD Series 18cc, 28cc, 45cc
Medium Duty Axial Piston Pumps - Variable Displacement.

[17]

Sun, Z., and Miao, H. Hydraulic Assist Power System, Proc. of ASME IMECE,
2006.

[18]

HYDAC US, Bladder Accumulators Catalog, 2010;

[19]

Bosch Rexroth Group US, Bladder-type Accumulators, 2010

[20]

Otis, D. Predicting Performance of Gas Charged Accumulators, Fluid Power

Controls and System Conference, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1973.

[21]

Green, W. Accumulator Time Constants and The Index Method: Some

Comparisons Based On Experimental Power, 35th National Conference on Fluid
Power, 1979.

[22]

Pourmovahed, A., Beachley, N., and Fronczak, J. Modeling of a Hydraulic

Energy Regeneration System Part I: Analytical Treatment, Journal of Dynamic
Systems, Measurement and Control, Vol. 114, 1992.

[23]

Sonntag, R., Borgnakke, C., and Van, G. Wylen,Fundamentals of

Thermodynamics, 5th Edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, 1998.

[24]

Bosch Rexroth Group US, Hydraulic Tank Data Sheet, 2010

94

Chapter 4: Proposed Method for Design of Short-Term AESS

4.1 Introduction
The following chapter proposes a methodology to conduct preliminary design and sizing
of the main components of mechanical and hydraulic energy storage systems. The goal of
this method is to begin with basic drive cycle information and based on the constraints
and attributes of the system create a preliminary set of design parameters. Afterward, the
design can be optimized until a set of parameters which best match the desired
performance in terms of effectiveness, cost, weight, and volume is reached. Current
methods for design of energy storage systems focus on long-term energy storage batteries
and the advantages and limitations imposed by systems with batteries. In cases where
short-term energy storage is desired in order to take advantage of the benefits of
mechanical or hydraulic energy storage, a method for designing such an energy storage
system is needed. Figure 43 shows the flowchart for the proposed method laid out in this
chapter.
The design procedure begins with selecting a relevant drive cycle. This cycle should be
representative of the typical users behavior. Regulatory cycles are also useful if the
desire is to optimize the benefit over regulatory testing. Beginning with vehicle velocity
profile and its accompanying grade profile along with basic vehicle parameters, relevant
cycle statistics can be generated. These braking event statistics tell the designer under
95

what conditions braking energy is available for recovery. Weighting methods can then be
applied to these statistics in order to arrive at initial AESS design targets. Multiple
weighting methods can be used for comparison purposes. Once design targets are known,
it is possible to decide on preliminary design parameters using component constraints and
engineering fundamentals. Using correlations based on specifications of currently
manufactured AESS components, estimates of mass, volume, and cost can be produced
and applied to the estimated vehicle parameters. Knowing both the AESS design
parameters and the new estimated vehicle parameters, simulations can be performed
which predict the performance of the design over a given cycle or cycles. The simulations
reveal the actual performance of the individual design over a given drive cycle. Finally, a
cost function is used to weight the performance in simulation and system attributes such
as mass, volume, and cost in order to revise the design parameters until a design which
minimizes the cost function is achieved. The weights which are applied in the cost
function depend on the relative importance of the design attributes including the
performance.
A section of this chapter will be devoted to each step in the design process. The end result
is a design procedure which is tailored to short-term energy storage systems. Applying
the procedure results in a design which emphasizes capturing and releasing as much of
the available braking energy as possible while maintaining low mass, volume, and cost.

96

Cycle
Profile
Vehicle
Parameters

Drive Cycle
Analysis

Cycle
Statistics
Weighting
Method

Statistical
Weighting
Process
Design
Targets

Design
Constraints

Preliminary
Design
Procedure
AESS Design
Parameters
Design
Parameter
Optimization

Cost
Function
Feedback

Adjusted
Design
Parameters
Drive Cycle
Vehicle
Simulation

Adjusted
Vehicle
Parameters

Composite
Efficiency
Weighting
Factors

Parameter to
Attribute
Correlations

System Attributes
(mass, vol, cost)

Cost Function
f(Mass, Volume, $,
Efficiency)

Figure 43. Proposed AESS Design Flowchart

97

4.2 Drive Cycle Analysis

The foundation of design begins with knowing the purpose or use of the object to be
designed. In this case, the starting point for AESS design needs to be the speeds and
conditions that will characterize the typical operation of the vehicle. A common method
for describing a vehicles operating conditions is a velocity versus time profile also
known as a drive cycle. These profiles are used both for government regulation as well as
manufacturer internal evaluation and product testing. They can be generated in a number
of ways including being based on real-world driving data and can range from being
entirely urban type driving with frequent stops to high speed highway driving for long
distances at constant speed. Typical passenger cars must be designed and optimized to
operate efficiently over a wide range of potential drive cycles; however, typically
emphasis is placed on regulatory cycles which can provide a proxy for performance over
a range of cycles.
Starting with the velocity versus time profile for a driving cycle, a variety of design
relevant statistics can be derived. Figure 44 shows the velocity profile for the US FTP-75
test cycle. This particular cycle is used for regulatory purposes and is therefore an
important cycle for design considerations.

98

Figure 44. US FTP-75 Test Cycle Velocity Profile [1]

Accompanying the velocity profile can be a grade profile, which represents the elevation
change of the vehicle over the cycle. Based on the grade of the cycle, the loading seen by
the vehicle may vary significantly. The majority of regulatory cycles assume level grade,
however, it represents a significant influence on vehicle behavior.
Fundamentally, two types of statistics can be derived from the velocity and grade
profiles. The first type is information about the drive cycle that is vehicle independent.
Statistics such as maximum, minimum, and mean velocity, acceleration statistics, number
of stops, time spent at rest, and other information that is solely a function of the velocity,
grade, and direct functions of those are independent of the vehicles parameters (mass,
physical dimensions, etc). The other type of statistics is based on vehicle parameters and
allow for statistics based on energy and power to be derived. Knowing the drive cycle
along with the vehicles physical parameters allows for information such as instantaneous
power to be calculated and used in generation of statistics. These vehicle specific

99

statistics provide more detailed information for design purposes than velocity and grade
only. Table 23 lists a sampling of the statistics available for each type.

Table 23. Sample of Possible Drive Cycle Statistics

Information Used
Velocity and Grade Only

Statistics Available
- Velocity (mean, min, max, etc)
- Grade (mean, min, max, etc)
- Acceleration (mean, min, max, etc)
- Deceleration (mean, min, max, etc)
- # and duration of stops
-

Velocity and Grade + Vehicle Parameters

Traction power (mean, min, max)

Braking power (mean, min, max)
Traction energy necessary
Braking energy available
Road load loss estimation

Velocity based statistics are easily generated by either analyzing the velocity itself or
taking the derivative of the velocity to generate the acceleration profile. Table 24 shows
basic statistics from three regulatory driving cycles.

Table 24. Sample Velocity Based Statistics for Regulatory Cycles

Mean Velocity [mph]
Mean Acceleration [m/s2]
Mean Deceleration [m/s2]
Max Speed [mph]
Max Acceleration [m/s2]
Max Deceleration [m/s2]
# of Stops
Cycle time [s]
Cycle Length [mi]
# of Stops/mi

US06
48
0.67
-0.73
80
3.75
-3.08
5
600
8
0.63

100

FTP Highway
48
0.19
-0.22
60
1.43
-1.21
0
765
10.3
0

FTP Urban
21
0.51
-0.57
56
1.48
-1.47
18
1874
11
1.6

While the statistics in Table 24 are relevant to vehicle design, they become immensely
more relevant when paired with vehicle parameters. For example, desired maximum
deceleration sheds light on the deceleration a regenerative braking system must be
capable of providing in order to capture all available energy, however, the actual power
or torque necessary to achieve this level of deceleration is a function of the vehicles
parameters such as mass and road loads. For the purposes of AESS design, the velocity
based statistics must be coupled with vehicle parameters and longitudinal vehicle
dynamics to arrive at statistics which are immediately applicable to design, such as
energy, power, and torque.

4.2.1 Generation of Vehicle Based Drive Cycle Statistics

In order to arrive at corresponding statistics of energy, power, and torque for a given
drive cycle, the longitudinal dynamics of the vehicle must be considered. These dynamics
include the road loads such as aerodynamics resistance, rolling resistance, grade effects,
and inertial forces. While multiple methods of describing these road loads are possible,
the same models proposed in the Vehicle Dynamics section of Chapter 3 can be solved in
reverse to arrive at the necessary traction or braking force for a given vehicle velocity and
acceleration or deceleration. These methods are discussed at length in [1] and are
considered sufficient for the purposes of this analysis. For the analysis presented below,
the following assumptions where used:

Air density was assumed constant

101

Rolling resistance was calculated assuming the same tire at all

locations on the vehicle and on a level road

The grade was assumed to be level

Vehicle inertial loads were considered to be the vehicle mass + 10% to

account for the effect of rotating drivetrain components

Additionally, the following vehicle parameters were used:

Table 25. Sample Vehicle Parameters

Mid-sized SUV Data
1680
Vehicle mass [kg]
2.64
Frontal area [m2]
0.42
Drag coefficient

Using the vehicle dynamics described in Chapter 3 along with the sample vehicle
parameters and FTP-75 drive cycle, the power profile in Figure 45 can be created.

102

Figure 45. Velocity and Power Profiles for Mid-sized SUV over FTP-75 Cycle [2]

From power, torque can be easily calculated with the knowledge of the rolling wheel
radius of the drive wheels. Energy, on the other hand, must be based on the integral of the
power over time. With the power known, the time over which the power is integrated
must be systematically determined.
To assist in this, the power can be broken down into three distinct phases.

P > 0 is traction power where the vehicle powertrain must provide propulsion

P < 0 is braking power where the some method of providing a torque

opposite the direction of drivetrain rotation must be provided

P = 0 is where the vehicle is either:

o At rest (velocity is zero)
o Coasting and the road loads are exactly matching the traction force
103

Defining energy as the integral of power between two time points (t0 and t1),
(4.1)

In discrete time, the integral becomes the summation of the power multiplied by the time
step over successive time steps between the end points
(4.2)

Where

is defined as
(4.3)

The amount of braking energy is therefore, the integral when the calculated power is
negative. This calculation has the potential to give insight into the amount of braking
energy that is available for recovery through regenerative braking but heavily depends on
the time points chosen for the integration. In order to distinguish between traction and
braking, the sign of the power term should be consistent over the time span. Keeping the
sign of the power constant between t0 and t1 leads to the creation of discrete events over
which the power is either positive or negative. If the power term is then integrated over
those bounds, the energy (positive or negative) for that specific event is known. Negative
energy events correspond to braking energy available for recovery while positive energy
events correspond to the energy that must be supplied by the powertrain. In terms of
regenerative braking, the negative events have tremendous implications for the energy
storage capacity needed. Figure 46 shows a section of the FTP-75 cycle power profile

104

and the points where the sign of the power switches from either positive to negative
(green point) or negative to positive (red point).

Figure 46. Sample Power Sign Changes on FTP-75 Cycle [2]

105

For short term energy storage systems with relatively small absolute energy storage
capability, the goal is not to store energy over extended periods of time, but rather
recover the available energy as quickly and effectively as possible and release it during
the following acceleration and before the next storage opportunity occurs. If the energy is
not released soon enough, the available energy in the following braking event may not be
able to be captured. Hence, rather than creating a single statistic for the cycle as a whole,
a more informative approach is to look at the cycle power event by power event to better
assess the desired traits of a short-term AESS [13].
By analyzing a cycle on a per power event basis, statistics for power and energy can be
generated for each individual event. Combining the statistics from each individual event
over the entire cycle allows for the events themselves to be characterized in respect to the
other events in the cycle in order to form a distribution of the statistic on a per event
basis. For example, inspecting the distribution of braking energy per event is useful for
designing the energy storage capacity of a system. If the maximum braking energy
available in an event over the entire cycle is much greater than the average braking
energy per event, it might be desirable to design closer to the mean energy available in
order to reduce system weight and cost. However, if the distribution is grouped near the
maximum value, then designing to the maximum value may be well justified.
Figure 47 shows an example of the normalized frequency for braking energy available
per event on the FTP-75 cycle with the x-axis normalized by the maximum value. The
distribution for the FTP-75 cycle shows the energy is spread out among events with

106

varying amounts of energy. However, with the controlled nature of the regulatory cycles,
the normalization value for the maximum braking energy per event is relatively low.

Figure 47. Distribution of Braking Event Energy, FTP-75 Drive Cycle

Similar normalized distributions can be generated for all of the relevant power and
energy statistics. Of particular interest, excluding the aforementioned braking energy per
event, are metrics such as average and peak braking power, vehicle speed during braking,
and deceleration rate during braking. These distributions will become the basis for
creating design targets. However, a systematic method for choosing the appropriate

107

location within the distribution is still needed. The following subsection will address this
need.

4.3 Statistical Weighting Process

Once the distributions of the relevant energy and power metrics are known, the task
becomes extracting the proper AESS design targets from the statistical information. The
ideal targets will provide the design which minimizes the end cost function, however,
without complete exploration of the design space these ideal targets cannot be known.
Instead, several statistically based methods are proposed, which can be compared in
parallel in order to provide the starting point for refined optimization based on the cost
function.
The weighting methods proposed are:

Maximum Values

Mean Values

Weighted Mean Values

Mean Values Weighted with Maximum Power Distribution

Maximum values are arrived at by examining all of the events and selecting the
maximum values of the statistics. These are the normalization values used for the
distribution profiles. This method is favored when a large percentage of the events are
characterized with values near the maximum. This method also ensures that the storage
system is potentially capable of recovering all of the available braking energy.
108

Mean values are arrived at by finding the average of a statistic such as braking energy
over all of the events. The equation describing this calculation for a given statistic , is
(4.4)
Weighted mean values are arrived at by weighting the statistics by their frequency of
occurrence. This shifts the mean value towards the most common values, effectively
compensating for a trend in the distribution profile. The following equation describes the
calculation of weighted mean values:
(4.5)

If the distribution of a particular statistic is thought to be more important than the others,
the other statistics can be weighted by the same distribution. In such a case, the subscript
of the weighting variable is changed (from i to j):
(4.6)

One such weighting which might be of interest is the maximum power distribution.
Weighting all of the relevant statistics by the maximum braking power distribution could
potentially skew the targets to allow for more energy to be captured without going to the
extreme of maximum values targets. For AESS designs, this may allow for the energy
and power statistics to be paired. The benefit is that the energy storage is increased to
capture the energy in high power events. Otherwise, the energy storage capacity may be
undersized for the higher power braking events.

109

As a sample of this process, the following design targets were generated for the FTP-75
cycle braking events of a mid-sized SUV using the methods listed above.

Table 26. Relevant Braking Statistics for Mid-Sized SUV on FTP-75 Cycle

Energy
[kJ]
Maximum Power
[kW]
Mean Power
[kW]
Maximum
Deceleration [m/s2]
Mean Deceleration
[m/s2]
Maximum Velocity
[m/s]
Mean Velocity [m/s]

Maximum
Values

Mean Values

Weighted
Mean

211.7

76.0

78.3

Weighted Mean
with Max Power
Dist.
97.4

32.9

14.6

15.2

15.2

16.8

7.21

7.4

7.7

-1.47

-0.67

-0.98

-0.67

-1.29

-1.00

-0.67

-0.59

24.2

12.7

12.6

11.1

23.7

9.6

9.7

10.9

The statistics in Table 26 can be used as design targets for generating preliminary design
AESS design parameters. The next section will cover the process of turning design
targets into component sizes which are capable of achieving those targets.

4.4 Definition of Target System Behavior

The purpose of the alternative energy storage system (AESS) is to replace as much of the
engines output as possible with energy that was recovered through regenerative braking.
From this perspective, an efficiency for the AESS can be defined as the total energy

110

transferred to the vehicle from the AESS divided by the total energy available for
recovery. Equation 4.7 describes this efficiency of energy return:
(4.7)

Both the numerator and denominator of 4.7 can be broken down further. The energy
available for recovery is the braking energy plus any energy that is absorbed by the
AESS.
(4.8)

It is important to note, that for a given vehicle, its properties, and drive cycle the energy
available for recovery is constant. The split between braking energy and absorbed energy
may differ, but the sum is constant since the vehicle must follow the prescribed path.
The returned energy can be described as the energy which is sent from the AESS to the
vehicle. Any difference between the initial and final energy stored by the AESS must be
accounted for by adding the difference of the final energy minus the initial energy.
(4.9)
Where

is the energy sent to the vehicle from the AESS,

stored by the AESS at the end of the cycle, and

is the energy

is the energy stored by the

AESS at the beginning of the cycle.

In order to increase the efficiency of energy return, the only option is to increase
. The energy sent to the vehicle from the AESS is a function of the energy
absorbed by the AESS and the average efficiency in storing and releasing.
111

(4.10)
Where

is the efficiency from moving energy from the vehicle to the AESS,
is the efficiency from moving energy from the AESS to the vehicle, and

is the energy absorbed by the AESS from the vehicle.

represents the time averaged

value for the efficiency.

Three methods exist for improving

: the quantity of energy absorbed, the storage

efficiency can be improved, or the releasing efficiency can be improved. Both the storing
and releasing efficiencies are a function of not only the design parameters, but also the
state variables in the system at the time such as speed. The energy into the AESS
multiplied by the average storage efficiency can be described as the stored energy.
Looking at the stored energy on an event by event basis, rather than over the entire cycle,
the stored energy is the integral of the braking power over the duration of the braking
event.
(4.11)

Where

is the power absorbed by the AESS,

is the ending time of the event, and

is the beginning time for the event.

is subject to the constraints of the system and cycle. It cannot be larger in
magnitude than the braking power required by the vehicle; otherwise the vehicle will
deviate from the intended profile. The system constraints such as maximum torques must
be upheld as well. Also influencing the energy stored by the AESS in one event is the
maximum energy storage capacity of the AESS system. The energy stored in one braking
112

event cannot exceed the maximum energy storage capacity. In terms of controlling the
design, the design parameters affect both the maximum energy storage capacity as well as
the maximum power level of the AESS. In fact, it is possible to estimate the quantity of
energy which the AESS will be able to store over an entire cycle based on the vehicles
parameters.
In order to estimate the energy available for recovery by the AESS, the methods of cycle
analysis discussed earlier in this chapter must be first used to generate a profile of the
total traction and braking power. This is shown in Figure 48 for the FTP-75 cycle and the
aforementioned mid-sized SUV.

Figure 48. Net Traction and Braking Power FTP-75 Cycle

From the power profile, the positive and negative events can be divided and the negative
events can be used to better understand the regenerative braking opportunities within the
cycle.
113

Figure 49. Energy per Braking Event FTP-75

The braking events can also be characterized by their maximum power.

114

Figure 50. Maximum Braking Power per Event FTP-75

One analysis that can be performed is to group the events by their individual energy.
This information can be normalized and compiled to form Figure 51. The y-axis
represents the percent of the cycles total recoverable braking energy that is characterized
by a certain range of energy storage capacity. For example, over 25% of the cycles
energy available for recover comes from events that are 60-70% of the maximum energy
event (212kJ).

115

Figure 51. Energy Distribution for Energy Storage Capacity FTP-75

The same procedure can also be performed for maximum power per event. Figure 52
shows the distribution of braking energy in the various power ranges.

116

Figure 52. Energy Distribution for Maximum Braking Power

It is seen that for the FTP-75 cycle, the events which compose over 30% of the available
braking energy have a maximum power value between 90% and 100% of the absolute
maximum braking power. Note, this does not indicate that a maximum braking power is
needed to recover that energy; only the maximum power is needed if all of the braking
energy is to be potentially recovered. For example, a design with a maximum power of
70% of the normalization value may still be able to recover the vast majority of the
energy in events where the maximum power is higher than 70%.

117

Figure 53. Event Maximum Power compared to Event Energy FTP-75

The correlation between maximum power per event and event energy can be looked at to
determine the relationship. A relatively wide spread is seen in this cycle, higher power
events may be high or low energy. The reverse is also true, but a general trend is seen
between the maximum power and braking energy of an event.
Lastly, constraints may be placed on the power integration calculation such as limitations
on maximum energy stored, maximum power, and maximum speed to arrive at estimates
for the total quantity of energy which could be stored by the AESS over the entire cycle.
Once this is done, the design targets based on the four preliminary designs can be shown
on the figure to give insight into the designs potential for storing energy.
The first example shown is the constraint on maximum energy storage. The figure is
created by assuming the AESS can store energy in each event up to its maximum value
118

with no restrictions on power or speed. Any amount of energy over the maximum is
discarded and not considered stored.

Figure 54. Effect of Energy Storage Capacity on Total Energy Storage

Diminishing returns be seen due to the change in slope of the graph from low energy
storage capacity to high. At the higher levels of energy storage, one additional unit of
energy storage no longer returns as much total energy storage. Notice the weighted mean
with maximum power distributions slightly higher design target. This could potentially
allow for higher efficiency of energy return.
Next, a constraint is placed on maximum power. The energy storage capacity is assumed
to be sufficient and no limitations were placed on speed. The result is Figure 55.

119

Figure 55. Effect of Maximum Power on Total Energy Storage

The maximum power design target shows even more diminishing returns. In this case,
increasing the maximum power does continue to increase the theoretically recovered
energy. The mean, weighted mean, and weighted mean with maximum power distribution
design targets are grouped closely together. This location provides the majority of the
braking energy with only ~45% of the maximum power.
Lastly, the constraints on power and energy can be lifted and speed used as the limiting
factor instead. With the integration of power constrained to only when the vehicle is
below the target maximum speed, the following figure is produced.

120

Figure 56. Effect on Maximum Speed on Total Energy Storage

In this case, the design target for the weighted mean with maximum power distribution is
slightly lower than the mean and weighted mean. The majority of the braking energy
appears to be in the 20-50% range, which corresponds to 5.0 to 12m/s. Increasing the
maximum speed beyond 50% gives little improvement in total energy stored.
It should be noted that through this definition of goals for the AESS, the focus is on both
storing and releasing energy. The compromises between the designs can be seen and used
to help understand the potential benefits. However, interaction between the design targets
was not analyzed in this section. Handling the complexity of some parameters changing
and affecting others along with the influence of control and changing efficiencies within
the specific systems will be addressed in Chapter 5.

121

4.5 Preliminary AESS Design Procedure

To begin the optimization process, an initial set to design parameters detailing the
components of the system are needed. These parameters are based on the design targets
from the relevant cycle statistics, individual component constraints imposed by physical
limitations, and engineering judgment. The following subsections will outline the
preliminary design procedure for both the mechanical and hydraulic energy storage
systems.

4.5.1 Mechanical Energy Storage System Design

Multiple options for configuring a parallel mechanical ESS exist. Possible configurations
include connecting the ESS either between the engine and transmission input, between
the transmission output and final drive reduction, or aft of the final drive reduction.
Connecting between the engine and output shaft has the added complexity and potential
benefit of variable gear reduction. The option of connecting the system between the
transmission output and final drive reduction benefits from the additional gearing
provided by the final drive ratio. For this design method development, the case where the
mechanical ESS is connected in parallel between the transmission output and final drive
reduction is the focus, however, if the variations are taken into consideration, the design
method remains applicable. For a parallel mechanical energy storage system consisting of
a flywheel, CVT, clutch, and gears (as shown in Figure 57), the list of the main design
parameters is presented in Table 27.
122

CVT

Gears

Flywheel

Gears

Drivetrain

Clutch

Figure 57. Mechanical ESS Design Configuration

Table 27. Mechanical ESS Design Parameters

Design Parameter
Flywheel
- Inertia
- Maximum speed
Gears
- Flywheel to CVT
- CVT to driveshaft
Clutch
- Diameter
- Number of friction surfaces
- Available pressure

Before the preliminary selection of the design parameters can commence, the main
physical limitations of the components must be understood since they will impose design
constraints on the system. For the mechanical system, the main physical limitations can
be found in the flywheel, CVT, and clutch.
The flywheel is limited to a maximum speed due to limits of material strength and
bearing type. In detail the radial tensile strength on the flywheel structure is mainly due to
the centrifugal force due to the rotation of the flywheel around its axis:
123

(4.12)

where r is the radius vector of the generic infinitesimal portion of the body with respect

to the axis of rotation, ( r ) is the mass density at the same point and

is the flywheel

velocity. The maximum radial tensile strength of the flywheel depends upon the
geometry of the flywheel and the physical structure of the material. Some data on typical
values of maximum tensile strength of material used in the construction of flywheels are
summarized in [3] and [4].
The clutch, based on its design parameters, can only transmit up to a maximum torque
during lockup mode. Typically the maximum clutch torque is based on the maximum
static coefficient of friction for the material.
(4.13)
Where Tclutch,max is the maximum clutch torque, Rc is the effective clutch radius, Nfs is the
number of friction surfaces Ac is the friction surface area, static is the static coefficient of
friction between the friction material and reaction plates, and pclutch is the hydraulic
pressure of the clutch operating fluid.
The CVT mechanical performance is limited in the form of maximum speed and ratio
spread capability. The minimum and maximum CVT speed ratios must be used as
constraints in system design. The CVT maximum torque capacity must also be respected.
Table 28 lists the constraints for the mechanical ESS.

124

Table 28. Mechanical ESS Design Constraints

Design Constraints
- Maximum Flywheel Speed
- Maximum CVT Speed
- Maximum CVT Ratio
- Minimum CVT Ratio
- Maximum CVT Torque
- Maximum Clutch Torque

Once the design constraints are understood, the constraints and parameters must be
coupled to the design targets. Coupling through use of mathematical relationships allows
for intuitive alteration of the design parameters until the design targets are met within the
constraints. The primary design targets are designated as desired energy storage, desired
power capability, and desired speed operation range.
Desired Energy Storage
The main storage device in a mechanical ESS is the flywheel. The flywheel must be
capable of storing a prescribed quantity of energy which becomes available due to
vehicle deceleration. The energy is stored my means of a rotating mass with a specified
inertia. The equation for flywheel kinetic energy is presented below:
(4.14)

Where Efly is the flywheel kinetic energy, Ifly is the flywheel inertia, fly,max and fly,min are
the maximum and minimum flywheel speeds, respectively.
As previously mentioned, the maximum flywheel speed is dependent on the flywheel
material and type of bearings used. Low speed flywheel systems with steel flywheels and
conventional ball bearings typically have a maximum speed of around 20,000 rpm. High
125

speed flywheel systems use composite material flywheels with magnetic bearings to
achieve speeds in excess of 40,000 rpm. Minimum flywheel speed is a self-imposed
value, in order to extend the range of vehicle speeds when the mechanical energy storage
system can operate with the clutch locked. More information on this subject will be
covered in the section below where the vehicle speed range of operation is discussed.
Desired Power Capability
The power that can be absorbed or provided by the ESS is a function of the flywheel
speed and acceleration, provided that the torque capacity of the system is sufficient.
By differentiating the energy equation to derive an expression for power one can obtain
the following equation:
(4.15)
The flywheel speed is a function of the vehicle speed, gearing, and CVT ratio:
(4.16)

where Vveh is the vehicle speed, rw is the drive wheel ratio, gFD is the final drive ratio.gCVT
is the CVT to driveshaft gearing gfly is the flywheel to CVT gearing and NCVT is the CVT
ratio.
By differentiating equation 11 the following expression is obtained:
(4.17)

126

By combining the gear ratios into a single term (

) and rewriting the equation for

power in terms of CVT ratio and vehicle speed the following expression for flywheel
power can be obtained:
(4.18)

Given a vehicle speed, a rate of change of vehicle speed (prescribed by the desired speed
trace) and tire radius, the flywheel power is a function of flywheel inertia, CVT ratio and
its rate of change, and the gear ratios of the system.
On the other hand, the torque constraints of the system (clutch, CVT, shafts, etc) must be
met in order to transmit the desired power. The necessary coupling points torque can be
calculated by knowing the desired vehicle deceleration (or acceleration):
(4.19)

Where

is the torque at the coupling point (between transmission output and final

reduction gearing), Meff is the effective vehicle mass,

is the vehicle speed, and

is

the road load force.

In steady state conditions, the torque at the driveshaft can be equated to the torques at
different locations in the system based on the gearing between them.
By performing this calculation, the maximum torque on each side of the CVT can be
obtained and compared to the CVT rated torque capacity.
(4.20)

127

The torque that the clutch can transmit during lockup is a function of the clutch design
and clutch hydraulic pressure:
(4.21)
Where Tclutch,max is the maximum clutch torque, Rc is the effective clutch radius, Nfs is the
number of friction surfaces Ac is the friction surface area, static is the static coefficient of
friction and pclutch is the hydraulic pressure of the clutch operating fluid.
Based on a desired maximum coupling point torque, available clutch pressure, and
coefficient of friction for the clutch plates, the necessary size and number of friction
surfaces can be calculated.
Range of Vehicle Speed Operation
For optimum system efficiency, the system must be operated with the clutch in lockup
mode in order to prevent excessive energy losses due to clutch slip. Under these
conditions, based on the range of CVT ratios available, flywheel speed is limited based
on vehicle speed and gear ratios of the intermediate gearings. From equation 11 the
following expression of the flywheel speed as a function of vehicle speed can be
obtained:
(4.22)

For a given vehicle speed, there exists a maximum and a minimum flywheel speed based
on minimum and maximum CVT ratios:

128

(4.23)

The nature of these constraints becomes apparent when considering the actual operation
of the energy storage system. In fact, in order to store mechanical energy, the flywheel
speed must increase when the vehicle decelerates. In practice this is accomplished by
appropriately increasing the CVT ratio in a smooth fashion. In details, as also equation 13
shows, the mechanical power is transferred to the flywheel by acting on the rate of
change of the CVT ratio. This term, within brackets in equation 13, must be positive to
transmit energy to the flywheel, counteracting the effect of the negative vehicle
acceleration term.
As the CVT ratio is increased and the flywheel accelerates, the vehicle decelerates due to
the inertial torque applied to the flywheel. At a certain vehicle speed, the CVT ratio will
be at its maximum limit and the clutch must be disengaged to prevent the flywheel from
slowing down with the vehicle. This specific value of the vehicle speed also serves as the
speed at which the clutch can be re-engaged to provide acceleration assistance. Unlike the
deceleration condition, the clutch can be slipped to provide acceleration from vehicle
stop, at the cost of a lower operating efficiency due to an initial clutch slip operation.
At the other extreme of the operating range, the vehicle speed can become sufficiently
high as to prevent the flywheel from being engaged, even at the lowest CVT ratio
available. Under these conditions, it is beneficial to limit the minimum speed of the
flywheel in order to extend the range of vehicle speed where the clutch can be fully
engaged.
129

The speed constraints can also be regarded in terms of energy storage capability. In
details, the maximum and minimum flywheel speeds are directly related to the amount of
energy that can be recovered and stored. Flywheel inertia affects the speed of the
flywheel in order to store a given amount of energy. By combining equation 9 with
equation 18 of flywheel speed as a function of vehicle speed, the following general
equation for the variation of the flywheel energy can be derived:
(4.24)

By properly simplifying equation 19 the following expression can be obtained:

(4.25)

Equation 20 must be coupled with the constraint on the maximum flywheel speed:
(4.26)

Where

is the maximum allowable flywheel speed.

Using the derived expressions, values for each of the design parameters can be attained.
An example of applying this method to the mechanical ESS is shown in Chapter 5.

4.4.2 Hydraulic Energy Storage System Design

Multiple options for configuring a parallel hydraulic ESS exist. Possible configurations
include connecting the ESS either between the engine and transmission input, between
the transmission output and final drive reduction, or between the final drive reduction and
130

drive wheels. Connecting between the engine and output shaft has the added complexity
and potential benefit of variable gear reduction. The option of connecting the system
between the transmission output and final drive reduction benefits from the additional
gearing provided by the final drive ratio. For this design method development, the case
where the hydraulic ESS is connected in parallel between the transmission output and
final drive reduction is the focus, however, if the variations are taken into consideration,
the design method remains applicable. For a parallel hydraulic energy storage system
consisting of a pump/motor, accumulator, reservoir, and gears (as shown in Figure 58),
the list of the main design parameters is presented in Table 29.

Pump/
Motor
Accumulator

Reservoir
Gears

Drivetrain
Figure 58. Hydraulic ESS Design Configuration

131

Table 29. Hydraulic ESS Design Parameters

Design Parameter
Accumulator
- Volume
- Maximum pressure
- Pre-charge pressure
Reservoir
- Volume
- Pre-charge pressure
Pump/Motor
- Maximum displacement
- Maximum pressure
Gears
- Pump to driveshaft

Before the preliminary selection of the design parameters can commence, the main
physical limitations of the components must be understood since they will impose design
constraints on the system. For the hydraulic system, the main physical limitations can be
found in the pump/motor and accumulator. The pump is limited to a maximum pressure
differential as well as maximum and minimum speeds. The accumulator is limited by
maximum pressure and pressure ratio between the operating pressure and the pre-charge
pressure. Table 30 lists the constraints for the hydraulic ESS.

Table 30. Hydraulic ESS Design Constraints

Design Constraints
- Maximum pump pressure
- Maximum pump speed
- Minimum pump speed
- Maximum accumulator pressure
- System pressure to accumulator precharge pressure ratio

132

Once the design constraints are understood, the constraints and parameters must be
coupled to the design targets. Coupling through use of mathematical relationships allows
for intuitive alteration of the design parameters until the design targets are met within the
constraints. The primary design targets are designated as desired energy storage, desired
power capability, and desired speed operation range.
Desired Energy Storage
The energy storage device in a hydraulic ESS is the hydraulic accumulator. The potential
energy stored in an accumulator can be calculated as the integral of the work done on the
gas in the accumulator by the hydraulic fluid. For a bladder type gas charged
accumulator, the pressure of the gas is a function of the instantaneous volume. As a first
approximation, by neglecting the heat transfer to the surroundings and assuming adiabatic
gas compression, the following expression for the energy stored in the accumulator can
be derived:
(4.27)

Where Eaccumulator is the accumulator potential energy, Po is the accumulator pre-charge

pressure, Vmin, Vmax and Vacc are the initial volume, the final volume and the total volume
of the accumulator, V is the fluid volume in the accumulator and is the specific heat
ratio of the pre-charge gas. In this case, the main physical constraint is represented by the
maximum accumulator pressure:
(4.28)

133

Where Pacc,max is the maximum accumulator pressure.

The integral in 22 can be evaluated over the range of available pre-charge pressures in
order to find the maximum energy storage capacity for a given total accumulator volume
and maximum pressure. The optimum pre-charge pressure must satisfy the constraint of
the accumulator maximum pressure ratio (system pressure to pre-charge pressure)
limitation. Figure 59 shows the effect of pre-charge pressure on the energy stored in the
accumulator (the example refers to a bladder-type accumulator with total volume of 20
liters and maximum pressure of 350bar).

Figure 59. Pre-charge pressure Energy Storage Relationship

134

Desired Power Capability

The power that can be absorbed or provided by the hydraulic ES system is a function of
the hydraulic pump speed, maximum pump displacement, and accumulator pressure. In
details:
(4.29)
Where Ppump,max is the maximum pump power, Ppump is the pressure differential across
the pump, Dpump,max is the maximum pump displacement and pump is the pump speed.
Maximum pump displacement is dependent on the specific pump model chosen.
The pressure differential across the pump is the difference between the accumulator
pressure and the reservoir pressure:
(4.30)
The pump speed is a function of the pump gearing, final drive reduction, and vehicle
velocity:
(4.31)

Where Vveh is the vehicle velocity, rw is the tire radius, gFD is the final drive ratio and
gpump is the gear ratio between pump and driveshaft.
For a given vehicle speed, the torque demand on the pump can be found as a function of
the desired acceleration or deceleration of the vehicle according to the following
expression:
(4.32)

135

where

is the effective vehicle mass and

is the road load force. The desired

pump torque can be compared to the available pump torque (physical constraint):
(4.33)
If the available torque matches or exceeds the desired pump torque for a given vehicle
speed, the target power can be met (assuming pump speed constraint is met).
Range of Vehicle Speed Operation
Due to limitations on pump speed, consideration must be given to the desired range of
vehicle speed operation for the system. The pump speed is directly related to vehicle
speed through the following equation:
(4.34)

The constraints on maximum and minimum pump speed limit the range of vehicle speed
operation for a given gear ratio between the pump and the drivetrain.
Using the derived expressions, values for each of the design parameters can be attained.
An example of applying this method to the hydraulic ESS is shown in Chapter 5.

4.6 Correlations between Design Parameters and Physical Properties

Once a set of physical parameters are developed, correlations between the parameters and
the physical properties of the design such as mass, volume and cost are needed in order to
evaluate the system performance in simulation and to evaluate the effectiveness of the
design. The basic premise in this approach is to use information derived from the
136

manufactured components to determine how the physical properties scale with the design
parameters. In many cases, datasheets which show the change in physical properties
between common product lines can be used to create the correlations. From these
correlations, estimates of the physical properties can be made. In some cases, the
estimates can be quite accurate if the products are well developed and established. In
other cases, especially in estimates of cost the accuracy may depend heavily on
information not considered in this section such as economies of scale in production. The
following section presents methods for correlating the parameters to properties for both
the mechanical ESS and the hydraulic ESS. Samples will be shown; however, the actual
correlations may vary significantly if the same type or technology level of components is
not chosen. Accurate information is used where possible, however, in some cases, such as
cost, limited information is available and significant simplifying assumptions must be
made.

4.6.1 Mechanical ESS Correlations

Mass, volume and cost estimates must be made for the flywheel and its containment
structure, the CVT, the clutch, and gears connecting the components. Mass and volume
will be looked at individually for each element and the total values for the system will be
the sum of the parts. For simplification, the clutch will be assumed to be incorporated
into the CVT. Cost will be simplified as a function which scales with energy storage and
power capability of the system.
137

Flywheel and Containment Structure Mass and Volume

The mass of the flywheel itself is dependent on the inertia and radius of gyration based on
the following formula:
(4.35)
The radius of gyration depends on the shape of the flywheel.
For a solid disc,
(4.36)

Where r is the outer radius of the disc

For a thin cylindrical shell:

, where r is the radius of the shell.

Knowing the target inertia for the system and the radius of gyration for the shape of the
flywheel allows the resulting mass to be calculated.
In order to determine the mass of the containment system, it must be observed that the
main function of the system is to absorb the energy of the flywheel in the event of a
catastrophic failure of its structure, avoiding the projection of the pieces of the system far
from the AESS. In case this event happens, it is reasonable to assume that the energy that
must be absorbed by the containment system is a fraction of the actual kinetic energy
carried by the flywheel itself. For this reason, the mass of the flywheel containment
structure can be approximated as proportional to the maximum energy stored by the
flywheel. In order to develop a reasonable correlation, a review of significant technical
literature has been performed. A containment system designed by the University of Texas
Austin comprised of an aluminum housing, steel shell, and metallic honeycomb layer
138

weighed 235kg in order to contain a flywheel with 3370 kJ of energy [4]. Based on this
design, in first approximation, this ratio of containment weight to flywheel energy has
been used to determine a relationship of 0.070kg of containment structure weight per kJ
of flywheel energy.
The volume of the containment structure depends on the volume of the flywheel.
Knowing the radius and width of the flywheel allows for a reasonable estimation of
containment structure to be a cylinder with radius approximately 50mm larger than the
flywheel to be contained. This additional volume allows for the three piece containment
system structure.
CVT Mass and Volume
Transmissions are typically designed to a torque limitation. As torque increases, the size
and weight of the transmission must increase to transmit the desired torque. This provides
grounds to base CVT mass and volume on torque capacity. Limited information is
available for mass and volume for CVTs due to limited mass production at higher torque
levels. A small amount of information is available from Torotrak for full toroidal CVTs.
Torotrak CVTs have a 6.25 ratio spread and a range of torque capacities from 100Nm to
450Nm. Using the information available, a correlation can be developed between CVT
torque capacity and CVT mass [5],[6]. Plotting the data (torque and mass) for the three
Torotrak examples is shown in Figure 60. A linear correlation between torque capacity
and CVT mass has been found to match the data very well.

139

100
90
y = 0.1279x + 30.488
Mass (kg)

80
70
60
50
40
50

150

250

350

450

Torque Capacity (Nm)

Figure 60. Sample CVT Torque to Mass Correlation (Torotrak CVT)

Other sources for CVT mass estimates include Nissan and Hyundai CVTs which are
currently in production. JATCO Ltd. supplies belt type CVTs to Nissan for vehicles with
a range of displacements from under 1.8L up to 3.5L. However, component weights are
not published by JATCO and the components supplied to Nissan also include a torque
converter in the design [7].
CVT volume can also be estimated based on data available from Torotrak. Based on the
diameter and length of the transmission, the volume of the smallest cylinder the CVT can
fit within, can be used to estimate the volume occupied. Figure 61 shows the correlation
between CVT torque capacity and CVT volume.

140

25

Volume (liters)

20

y = 0.031x + 6.7

15

10

5
50

150

250

350

450

Torque Capacity (Nm)

Figure 61. Sample CVT Torque to Volume Correlation (Torotrak CVT)

Gear Set Mass and Volume

The mass and volume for additional gearing between the components and the drivetrain
can be estimated by the physical size of the gearing. For helical gears, the pitch diameter
can be used to estimate the volume for a given width.
Mass can be estimated based on material density. For a 15cm diameter steel (7.87g/cc
density) gear with a width of 3cm, the mass is 4.2kg with a volume of 530cc. Coupling
this with a gear of 7.5cm diameter and same width gives a mass of 1.0 kg and a volume
of 132cc.
Adding a reasonable mass to consider the housing and lubrication, gives a conservative
estimate of 7kg and 1 liter of volume per pair of gears. This estimate is reasonable when
compared to off the shelf ground helical gears available for purchase [8].

141

Estimates of Mechanical System Cost

For the mechanical system, the energy storage is primarily a function of flywheel size.
Therefore as energy storage increases, the additional cost is primarily a due to the added
flywheel material and resulting increase in cost for containment. The power capacity will
scale with CVT, clutch, and gearing costs. In addition to the costs that scale with energy
and power, additional fixed costs will be present due to overhead for design and
manufacturing regardless of system size. As a result, the cost model in equation 32 is
proposed.
(4.37)
Where

is the price of the mechanical system,

multiplier for maximum power, and

is the fixed cost,

is the

is the multiplier for maximum energy storage.

Actual values for the coefficients should be based on estimates for the scaling behavior of
the component costs.
Additional Remarks
The above correlations are primarily based on available components and reasonable
engineering estimates. Actual weight and volume of a production energy storage system
will vary due to vehicle packaging and final system configuration. These estimates are
meant to be used in establishing a process which can be revised and improved upon as
detailed component information becomes available.

142

4.6.2 Hydraulic ESS Correlations

Mass, volume and cost estimates must be made for the hydraulic systems components
including the pump/motor, accumulator, reservoir, and gearing. Mass and volume will be
looked at individually for each element and the total values for the system will be the sum
of the parts. Additional to the mass of the components, the mass of the fluid in the system
should also be considered. Cost will be simplified as a function which scales with energy
storage and power capability of the system.
Pump Mass and Volume
The main design parameter for pumps is the displacement. Increasing pump displacement
increases both the mass and volume of the pump. Using a medium duty, variable
displacement axial piston pump designed for mobile applications by Parker Hannifin as
the basis for the correlation, pump displacement can be plotted against mass and volume.
Example values for pump mass were taken from the appropriate product datasheet [9].
Volume was calculated by using the maximum dimensions in each direction and
multiplying to find the smallest box volume the pump would fit inside. Actual pump
physical volume is obviously slightly smaller.
In Figure 62, the length for a Parker P1 Series 18cc/rev pump is shown as 164.2mm.
Figure 63 shows the height and width as 193.3mm (77.0 + 116.3) and 175.2 mm (67.5 +
107.7), respectively. The results of computing the volume and plotting against
displacement are shown in Figure 64.
Plotting published pump mass against displacement gives Figure 65. Both correlations
are nearly linear, especially at the lower displacement ranges. The linear correlations
143

provide a good estimate for pump mass and volume based on the displacement design
parameter.

Figure 62. Sample Pump Length (Parker P1 18cc/rev, End Port Design)

144

Figure 63. Sample Pump Width and Height (Parker P1 18cc/rev, End Port Design)

145

Parker P1 Axial Piston Pump Volume

Correlation
Pump VJolume (L)

25

y = 0.12x + 2.9
R = 0.971

20
15
10
5
0
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Pump Displacement (cc/rev)

Figure 64. Pump Displacement to Volume Correlation

Pump Mass (kg)

Parker P1 Axial Piston Pump Mass

Correlation
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

y = 0.45x + 3.3
R = 0.9645

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Pump Displacement (cc/rev)

Figure 65. Pump Displacement to Mass Correlation

146

160

Accumulator Mass and Volume

The nominal accumulator volume chosen for energy sizing purposes can be used to
determine the actual volume occupied by the accumulator as well as the accumulator dry
mass for a given pressure and material.
Off the shelf Bosch Rexroth bladder type accumulators made from steel were used to
develop the following relationships [10]. Information for accumulators made of
composite materials (produced by Structural Composites Industries and sold by
LightningHybrids) [11] was also included for comparison.

250
y = 4.0x + 18.1
R = 0.9923

Mass (kg)

200

y = 2.3x + 13.0
R = 0.9949

150

3000 PSI
5000 PSI

100

6000 PSI Composite

50

y = 0.48x + 27.3
R = 1

0
0

10

20

30
40
Nominal Volume (L)

50

60

Figure 66. Accumulator Mass Correlation

As expected, accumulator volume scales linearly with nominal volume (Figure 66). The
higher pressure steel accumulators are considerably heavier for a given volume. Due to
much higher material strength, the composite accumulators have much lighter weight
147

even with higher operating pressure. The data for the 6000 PSI composite accumulator
has a perfectly linear correlation due to the mass being based on approximations by the
manufacturer (Lightning Hybrids).
Using the published outer dimensions for the cylinders, an approximation for the actual
ones, cylinder volume can be calculated by multiplying the cross-sectional area by the
length of the body of the accumulator. Figure 67 is an example schematic of a bladder
type hydraulic accumulator. The dimensions B and C were used to calculate a cylinder
volume for estimating the actual volume occupied by the accumulator.

Figure 67. Accumulator Outer Dimensions (Bosch HAB-5X) [10]

Figure 68 shows the estimated cylinder volume as a function of the nominal accumulator
volume. The relationship is linear, but it does depend on operating pressure and type of
148

construction material. Higher pressures require thicker walls for a given material,
increasing the total volume of the accumulator for a given nominal volume.

90

Cylinder Volume (L)

y = 1.2766x + 4.1777
R = 0.9999

y = 1.6537x + 2.2717
R = 0.9954

80
70
60

y = 0.9506x + 11.616
R = 1

50
40

3000 PSI
5000 PSI

30

Composite

20
10
0
0

10

20

30
40
Nominal Volume (L)

50

60

Figure 68. Accumulator Actual Volume Correlation

Fluid and Reservoir Mass and Volume

The necessary reservoir volume is based on the fluid volume needed to fill the
accumulator from empty to maximum pressure. This volume also depends on pre-charge
pressure which can vary based on design requirements. Tables, such as the one presented
on Figure 69, provided by the accumulator manufacturer, give the maximum fluid
volume for each accumulator size based on pre-charge pressure and either adiabatic or
isothermal conditions.
Since the fluid storage will occur rapidly under most conditions, the adiabatic case can be
used to estimate the volume of fluid storage for a given accumulator.

149

Figure 69. Accumulator Maximum Fluid Volume, Adiabatic Compression [10]

If pre-charge pressure is assumed to be constant, a correlation between available volume

(maximum fluid volume) and nominal accumulator size can be determined. Based on a
pre-charge pressure of 1400 psi (97 bar) calculations were preformed, assuming adiabatic
compression, to estimate the fluid volume in the accumulator at maximum pressure. The
following equation for maximum accumulator fluid volume was used:
(4.38)

Where

is the maximum fluid volume,

is the pre-charge pressure, and

is the nominal accumulator volume,

is the maximum accumulator pressure.

150

To confirm the validity of the above equation, by comparing it with the results of Figure
69, a sample case was examined, under the condition of a maximum pressure of 3000PSI
and a pre-charge pressure of 1400PSI. Using Figure 69, the estimate for fluid volume is
approximately 255 cubic inches for a 2.5 gallon accumulator. This equates to 4.18 liters
of fluid. Using the above equation for adiabatic compression, with a ratio of specific
heats of 1.4 for air, gives a fluid volume of 3.97L, a difference of 5%, which is can be
attributed also to the error of reading the graphs accurately. For a fixed pre-charge
pressure of 1400PSI, the calculations produce the results shown in Figure 70.

40

y = 0.646x + 0.0184

Fluid Volume (liters)

35
30

y = 0.5978x - 0.0252

25
20

3000 PSI
y = 0.4199x - 0.0072

15
10

5000 PSI
6000 PSI

5
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Nominal Accumulator Volume (L)

Figure 70. Accumulator Fluid Volume Correlation (1400 PSI Pre-charge)

For the more general case where pre-charge pressure can vary, a surface plot can be
generated based on the above equation (Figure 71).

151

Figure 71. Accumulator Fluid Volume (5000PSI Max, Varying Pre-charge Pressure)

Fluid volume does decrease significantly as pre-charge pressure is increased, especially

in larger nominal accumulator sizes. For a given pre-charge pressure fluid volume scales
linearly with nominal volume. Knowing the aforementioned relationship, allows for
estimation of fluid volumes for accumulators sizes which are not available off the shelf.
Once fluid volume is known, fluid density can be used to estimate the mass of the fluid in
the system. To this purpose, a typical hydraulic fluid such as Mobil Hydraulic Oil M 46
having a density of 0.875kg/liter [12] can be used in the calculation.
Volume for the reservoir can be estimated as the same as the fluid volume for the system.
Knowing the volume of the reservoir, an approximate mass for the reservoir can be
calculated based on material type, wall thickness, and a rectangular cross section. Using a
cross section of 25cm x 25cm, the dry mass for the reservoir is shown in Figure 72 for
152

aluminum (39 g/cc density, 4mm wall thickness) and steel (7.87 g/cc density, 2mm wall
thickness).

14

Reservoir Mass (kg)

12

y = 0.2518x + 1.9675

10
8
y = 0.1728x + 1.35

Aluminum (4mm)
Steel (2mm)

4
2
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

Reservoir Volume (L)

Figure 72. Reservoir Mass Correlation

Estimates of Hydraulic System Cost

For the hydraulic system, the energy storage is primarily a function of nominal
accumulator volume. Therefore as energy storage increases, the additional cost is
primarily a due to the increased accumulator cost. The power capacity scales with pump
displacement. Cost also scales with pump displacement causing cost to scale with power
capacity. In addition to the costs that scale with energy and power, additional fixed costs
will be present due to overhead for design and manufacturing regardless of system size.
As a result, the cost model in equation 34 is proposed.

153

(4.40)
Where

is the price of the hydraulic system,

multiplier for maximum power, and

is the fixed cost,

is the

is the multiplier for maximum energy storage.

Actual values for the coefficients should be based on estimates for the scaling behavior of
the component costs.
Additional Remarks
The calculations presented in the previous sections are based upon information related to
off-the-shelf components that are not necessarily designed in an optimum way for use on
board a vehicle. As a result, careful design may allow for reduction in the mass and/or
volume of the system when compared to the total system estimates from summing the
results of the above correlations.
In addition to the main components of the system, accessories necessary for operation
such as hydraulic controls, hydraulic lines, mechanical shafts, etc. will add mass and
volume to the system. Other factors such as designing for vehicle safety may also alter
the physical properties of individual components.

4.6.3 Combining the Correlations to Form Properties

Once all of the correlations are developed, estimates of mass, volume, and cost can
quickly be determined based on the design parameters by adding the masses and volumes
for all of the individual components in each system. Sensitivities can also be determined
to see the effect of changing just one parameter. Examples of applying these correlations
154

to actual designs will be shown in chapter 5. In the scope of the design process, the
properties are passed to both the simulation evaluation tool in order to adjust the vehicle
mass and to the optimization cost function to determine the optimization value which is a
function of system performance, cost, volume, and mass.

4.7 Vehicle Simulator for Evaluation

With the end goal of the ESS to be an increase in fuel economy of the vehicle, the
resulting design in both its preliminary and optimized state must be evaluated to
determine the predicted benefit of adding the system to a vehicle. Due to the high cost of
building and testing prototype systems, it is desirable to model the behavior and evaluate
in a simulation environment where computer processing can be used to solve the dynamic
equations very quickly at relatively low cost. In Chapter 3, models for the various vehicle
and AESS components were developed for this purpose.
Within the realm of evaluation through modeling and simulation, multiple methods are
possible. Two basic categories of vehicle simulations exist, forward and backward. In this
context, forward simulation involves controlling the torque production of any possible
energy sources to match the desired speed profile, such as a drive cycle. Backward
simulation instead begins with the speed profile and calculates the required torque to
meet the velocity and rate of change of velocity. Backward simulation works very well
when there is only one possible flow path for the torque. Otherwise, dynamic
programming along with simplifying assumptions are needed to determine the proper
155

split of torque between possible sources, considerably complicating the equation solving
process. Due to these reasons, forward simulation will be used to evaluate the AESS
systems.
Forward simulation is not without its own set of complications in this context. If a full
vehicle model (including powertrain, AESS, and vehicle dynamics) is used, with two
possible options for torque generation, a decision must be made at each point in time
regarding the torque split between the two possible options. A number of control
strategies are possible, ranging from simple rule-based to more complicated logic which
takes into account vehicle state variables and component efficiencies. The problem with
any forward simulation control strategy is that it will always be sub-optimal by some
amount. Knowing that full vehicle forward simulation will be sub-optimal, the focus
should be on consistent control which will allow for fair comparison between the models.
The following sub-sections present the basic outline of the vehicle simulator along with
the ESS control strategy used.

4.7.1 Overview of Vehicle Simulator

The simulator uses the system dynamics models presented in Chapter 3 with the AESS
connected in parallel configuration between the transmission output and final drive
reduction. Figure 73 shows the signal flow path for the simulator.

156

Engine
Driver

Torque
Request

High Level
Controller

Transmission

Conventional
Drivetrain Torque

Torque Split
Command

AESS

AESS Torque

Mechanical
Torque
Summation

Vehicle
Dynamics

Vehicle Speed

Figure 73. Diagram of Vehicle Simulator

The driver operates on the difference between the actual vehicle speed and the desired
vehicle speed from the drive cycle. A torque request signal is sent to a high level
controller which decides on the appropriate torque to request from both the engine and
the AESS. The torque is then summed at a mechanical summation node before it is sent
to the final reduction and the vehicle dynamics block. The component speed signals are
fed backward starting from the vehicle dynamics block.
Low level controllers exist for the transmission and AESS. The transmission controller
decides when to change gears based on a lookup table with speed and torque. The AESS
controller modifies the behavior of the AESS in order to deliver the desired torque
coming from the torque split command. In the hydraulic ESS, the pump displacement is
modified. In the mechanical ESS the clutch and CVT ratio are controlled to provide the
torque requested.

157

The main outputs of the simulator include all of the state variables for each component in
the system. Of particular interest is the quantity of energy stored and released by the
AESS. The amount of energy lost to braking is also calculated. Other conventional
powertrain variables can be examined, such as fuel consumption and energy losses in the
various components. Torque split between the AESS and conventional powertrain can
also be plotted and analyzed. Emphasis is placed on the ability of the AESS to recover
and release all available braking energy as this represents the potential benefits of the
systems, regardless of what the predicted fuel economy benefits may be. As a result, the
primary output of the simulator that will be used for cost function analysis will be the
percentage of total available braking energy that is both captured and released by the
AESS.

4.7.2 High Level Torque Split Control Strategy

The purpose of the high level controller is to decide on the torque split strategy between
the conventional powertrain and the AESS. As previously stated, multiple methods of
accomplishing this task are possible. For this design method, a simple rule based strategy
is proposed in order to allow for consistent behavior between system designs.
The basic constraints on AESS use are the physical limitations of the system components.
For the mechanical ESS, this is maximum flywheel speed, maximum CVT torque, and
the maximum and minimum CVT ratios. For the hydraulic ESS, maximum pump

158

displacement and maximum accumulator pressure are the constraints. These limitations
will be used to dictate the control strategy.
The premise for control of the AESS in regenerative braking is to capture all available
braking energy up to the point where the physical limitations are reached. This strategy
ensures the largest possible amount of braking energy recovery and the smallest possible
amount of friction brake use. In general, for short-term energy storage systems, this is a
good strategy so long as the system efficiency doesnt change drastically with the control
inputs. If this is true, the main task for the controller is to increase energy stored by
maximizing the energy that can be stored at any given time. This is accomplished by
using the AESS to the fullest extent anytime energy is available and the constraints are
met.
In the mechanical ESS, all braking torque command (Treq) will be satisfied by the ESS up
to the maximum CVT torque (Tmax) until the maximum CVT ratio is reached, at which
point the flywheel must be decoupled via the clutch and allowed to freewheel. In the
hydraulic ESS, all braking torque (Treq) will be satisfied by the ESS up to the maximum
pump torque (Tmax) until the maximum accumulator pressure is reached, at which point
the bypass valve must be opened to prevent accumulator over-pressurization. Figure 74
shows the control flowchart for the braking torque split.

159

Braking Torque
Request

No

Can energy be
stored?

Yes

No
No ESS Use

Yes
Treq > Tmax?

Command Treq
from AESS

Command Tmax
from AESS and
remainder from
friction brakes

Figure 74. AESS Brake Control Flowchart

With limited energy storage capacity, in order to maximize the amount of energy that can
be stored in the next braking event, the AESS system must be quickly depleted between
regenerative braking events. Due to this situation, the premise for AESS traction torque
control is very similar to the braking control strategy. Any time energy is in the ESS and
available for use, the controller will favor it over the conventional powertrain until the
energy is depleted. Obviously, the same restraints on torque capacity must be respected.
Figure 75 shows the AESS control flowchart for traction torque requests.

160

Traction
Torque
Request

No

Is AESS
Energy
Available?

Yes

No
No ESS Use

Yes
Treq > Tmax?

Command Treq
from AESS

Command Tmax
from AESS and
remainder from
Engine

Figure 75. AESS Traction Torque Control Flowchart

While the proposed control method is not optimal, it provides a consistent and intuitive
strategy for AESS use which caters to the advantages of the systems such as high power
capacity and ability to operate from low to high SOE repeatedly without performance
degradation.

4.7.3 Vehicle Information Needed for Simulation

Based on the vehicle components models shown in Chapter 3, information about the
components is needed to characterize the models in simulation. The following tables list
the information needed for all of the conventional vehicle components.
161

Table 31. Required Vehicle Information for Simulation

Component
Engine

Torque Converter
Transmission

Wheels and Tires

Vehicle Dynamics

Characterizing Information
-Maximum brake torque curve
- Efficiency map
- Idle fuel consumption
- Maximum Speed
- Mass
- Effective Inertia
- Fuel lower heating value
- K factor over speed ratio range
- Torque ratio over speed ratio range
- Gear ratios
- Efficiency
- Shift scheduling (up and down shifts)
- Final drive ratio
- Effective rolling radius
- Coefficient of rolling resistance
- Mass of vehicle
- Frontal area
- Drag coefficient

With the above vehicle information and using the aforementioned control strategy, full
vehicle simulation is possible. The output of the simulations can then be taken into
account by the cost optimization function and used to revise the design.

4.8 Cost Function Definition and Design Optimization

Once the design has been evaluated in simulation and the design attributes such as mass,
volume, and cost have been estimated the task becomes weighting these factors in a
proper manner to assess the overall quality of the design. One method for this assessment
is to define a total cost function which weights all of the factors and combines them into a
single expression which can be optimized through finding the minimum value. Each
162

factor is normalized by a target value. For instance, if the target system price is $2,000,
the estimated price for a given design would be divided by $2,000 (the normalization
value). The result is an expression which in the most desirable case would be as small as
possible, representing an estimated cost less than the target cost. Defining the factors of
interest to be the percentage of total braking energy recovered (
(

), system volume (

), and price (

), system mass

, the following cost function can be

written:
(4.41)

Where the subscript T denotes the target value for each of the factors.
The weighting coefficients,

, , and

are left to the designer to specify, but in

general should sum to equal 1. They allow the relative importance of the different factors
to be changed depending on the context of the design. For instance, in some applications
such as large trucks, volume and mass may be of very little concern. In such a situation,
the

and

coefficients would be small in comparison to

and

coefficients. Targets

values should also be carefully specified by the designer. One possible source of target
values would be an equivalent electrical energy storage system. Target values might also
be factors from the initial design before any revisions are made.
Using the cost function as defined above, designs can be readily compared. With this
comparison method, several tactics can be used to refine the design until a minimum
value for

is found. Conceptually, the simplest method for performing the

optimization would be evaluating the cost function for all possible design parameter
163

combinations. While in some cases this may be possible, with many design parameters
the task of evaluating the very large number of possible combinations is computationally
intensive and can be avoided by systematically narrowing the range where the optimal
design is thought to exist. The first tactic involves comparing designs based on the
different statistical weighting methods. In terms of the statistical weighting methods
shown in Section 4.3, designs based on the maximum values, mean values, weighted
mean values, and weighted mean values with maximum power distribution design targets
can be evaluated in simulation and compared in terms of cost function value. The design
with the minimum cost function value is then selected as the focus of a refinement to
further decrease the cost function and improve the design.
The refinement process involves varying the main design parameters which affect energy
storage capacity, power limitations, and AESS speed range operation in order to find the
net effect on the cost function. By iterating the design process with parameter values a
small percentage above and below their nominal values, the local gradient of the cost
function with respect to the design parameters can be found and used to revise the design.
The local revision of the design prevents exhaustive search of the design space for the
optimal solution by first narrowing the window of examination. For example, the
flywheel inertia can be modified ten percent above and ten percent below the nominal
and the cost function evaluated for both cases. If the cost function value is lower with
greater flywheel inertia, the flywheel inertia can be increased in steps and re-evaluated
until the minimum cost function is found. Refinement can also come from analyzing the
simulation outputs. Looking at the behavior of the ESS during simulation can provide
164

meaningful information that can lead to design improvements. For example, looking at
not only the composite AESS efficiency, but also the one-way storage and return
efficiencies might give insight into where the AESS is lacking performance and
consequently where the design parameters can be adjusted to improve the performance.
Understanding the sensitivity of the design to the cost function weighting coefficients is
also of interest. Performing the design method and optimization process for different
values of the weighing coefficients in the cost function can help the designer to better
understand the influence of these coefficients on the resulting design. Some connections
may be intuitive such as lowering the relative weighting of the price and volume will
result in a larger, possibly more effective system, however, some trends may not be as
apparent, especially if additional factors are included in the cost function.
Despite the optimization methods proposed above, the design optimization process is not
an exact science. The cost function provides the tool necessary to compare designs,
however, the actual process of deciding how to vary the parameters in order to improve
the design takes a combination of engineering judgment and understanding of the system
behavior. Experimental design techniques can also be applied to make more efficient use
of each design evaluation.

4.9 Design Method Conclusions

The design method proposed in this chapter begins with knowledge of the base vehicle
parameters and drive cycles of concern and provides the process and tools for the design
165

of a mechanical or hydraulic ESS which best meets the criteria of the designer. Like any
method the quality of the output will heavily depend on the quality and accuracy of the
information used during the process. Care should be taken to ensure that the inputs are as
accurate as possible. If it is known that some inputs are not accurate or may change due
to outside factors, the design process should be revisited once the inputs are better
understood. Due to this likelihood, it is suggested that design parameters with very
similar cost function values be kept in consideration until confidence in the accuracy of
the inputs exists. In some cases additional constraints may also be placed on the design
parameters or attributes due to restrictions. A case of this may be a constraint on total
system volume due to vehicle packaging. In general, the cost function is only applicable
as long as the constraints are met.

166

4.10 References
[1]

Guzzella, L., Sciarretta, A. Vehicle Propulsion Systems Introduction to Modeling

and Optimization (2nd ed.). Springer: New York.

[2]

Bolletta. Alberto. Design of alternative energy Storage Systems for Hybrid

Vehicles Based on Statistical Processing of Driving Cycles Information. Thesis.

[3]

B. Bolund, H. Bernhoff, M. Leijon. Flywheel Energy and Power Storage

Systems. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 11 (2007) 235-258.

[4]

Hearn, C., Flynn, M. et al. Low Cost Flywheel Energy Storage for a Fuel Cell
Powered Transit Bus. Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference, Sept 9-12,
2007. VPPC 2007. IEEE

[5]

Brockbank, C. and Burtt, D. Infinitely and Continuously Variable Full Toroidal

Traction Drive Transmissions for Transverse Applications in Sub A, A & B
Sector Vehicles. Torotrak, Ltd.
http://www.torotrak.com/pdfs/tech_papers/2007/SIA_2007.pdf

[6]

Torotrak plc. Example Automotive Applications. http://www.torotrak.com

[7]

JATCO Ltd. http://www.jatco.co.jp/ENGLISH/CVT/index.html

[8]

Quality Transmission Components online catalog. http://www.qtcgears.com

[9]

Parker Hannifin. P1/PD Series Medium Duty Axial Piston Pumps. Catalog HY282665-01/P1/EN. Effective February 01, 2010.

[10]

Rexroth (Bosch Group). HAB Series 5X Bladder Accumulator Data Sheet.

http://www.boschrexroth.com/

[11]

LightningHybrids. Lightweight High Pressure Bladder Accumulators.

Accumulator Catalog Sheet. http://lightninghybrids.com/

[12]

Mobil Hydraulic Oil M 46 Specifications. http://www.mobil.com

[13]

Bolletta, A., Chiara, F., Canova, M., McDonough, J., Koprubasi, K., Raghavan,
M. A Design Procedure for Alternative Energy Storage Systems for Hybrid
Vehicles. ICE 2011 International Conference on Engines & Vehicles.

167

Chapter 5: Application of Design Method to Mechanical and Hydraulic AESS

5.1 Introduction
The following chapter uses the design procedure outlined in Chapter 4 and applies it to
both the mechanical and hydraulic energy storage systems. First, the vehicle details are
outlined followed by the choice of drive cycle for the design. For this example, the drive
cycle chosen is a custom drive cycle synthesized from fleet studies data gathered by the
Center for Automotive Research at The Ohio State University. With the vehicle and drive
cycle information, preliminary design parameters are generated for the four statistical
weighting methods presented in Chapter 4. Next, the four preliminary designs are
compared both in terms of design attributes and performance in simulation. The cost
function is then defined and calculated for the preliminary designs using a defined set of
weights. Based on the cost function value, the best design is chosen and optimized
through iteration of the design process. Once the optimized designs are found for both the
mechanical and hydraulic systems, the performance of each is examined on a real-world
drive cycle to confirm the performance. Throughout the chapter, the results are analyzed
and conclusions are drawn.

168

5.2 Vehicle Details and Cycle Statistics

This section outlines the vehicle that is used in the design process. The vehicle chosen for
demonstrating design process is a 2009 Saturn VUE mid-sized SUV. The basic vehicle
information is presented in Table 32.

Table 32. Vehicle Details

Vehicle:
Weight:
Engine:
Transmission:
Transmission ratios:
Final drive ratio:
Tire Size:
Frontal Area:

2009 Saturn VUE

1900kg
3.5L V6 LZ4
6 speed automatic
4.48; 2.87; 1.84; 1.41; 1.00; 0.74
2.77
0.713m diameter (235/60/R17)
2.9 m2

Figure 76. 2009 Saturn VUE

169

Specific vehicle information necessary for simulation was provided by General Motors.
This included detailed engine performance and fuel consumption maps, torque converter
data, transmission efficiency, and road load information.
The drive cycle chosen for this example is based on fleet studies data of individual users
in mixed urban and highway driving. From the fleet studies data, a process of generating
synthetic drive cycles which captures the general driving pattern is used to create
additional cycles which are statistically representative of actual driving patterns [1].
Figure 77 shows a sample of the driving cycle. The complete cycle is over 60,000
seconds long and covers a distance of over 480 miles. This length was chosen to
represent the behavior of a driver over an entire tank of fuel.

Figure 77. Sample of Synthetic Driving Cycle

Using the synthetic drive cycle coupled with the vehicle information, the relevant cycle
statistics were calculated. The statistical methods used were maximum values, mean
values, weighted mean values, and mean values weighted with the maximum power

170

distribution. The information shown in Table 33 is the basis for the preliminary design
procedure.

Table 33. Design Relevant Drive Cycle Statistics for 2009 Saturn VUE on Synthetic
Cycle

Energy
[kJ]
Maximum
Power [kW]
Maximum
Velocity [mph]

Maximum
Values

Mean Values

Weighted Mean

499

32

120

Mean
Weighted
with Max
Power Dist.
175

81

11

28

28

73

21

32

25

Looking at the relevant statistics, the maximum values are much greater than both the
mean and the weighted mean values. The weighted mean values are significantly higher
than the mean values, suggesting a high frequency of very small braking event which do
not contain significant energy.

5.3 Preliminary Design Procedure

The following sub-sections cover the preliminary design procedure for both the
mechanical ESS and hydraulic ESS. For both types, a design example is shown for one
set of design targets. Afterwards the design parameters for each of the four preliminary
designs are shown. Then, all four preliminary designs are evaluated in simulation and

171

compared based on a cost function. The best of the four designs is further refined until a
minimum value for the cost function is found.

5.3.1 Mechanical ESS Preliminary Design

The following section covers the preliminary design procedure for the mechanical ESS.
This includes the process of using the design targets to generate the initial design
parameters. Once the process is shown for one design case, the results of applying the
same procedure to each of the sets of design targets is shown in a table for comparison.
Before the design procedure can commence, the type of components to be used must be
specified. This important step dictates the constraints that must be applied. The
mechanical system considered consists of a steel flywheel coupled to a CVT through a
clutch and set of gears. The CVT is coupled to the drivetrain between the transmission
output and the final drive reduction using another set of gears. The clutch and CVT are
used to change the flywheel speed in order to store and release energy. It is assumed that
the necessary control actuators are present and do not impose restrictions on the
operation. Table 37 and Table 38 list the resulting constraints and parameters which must
be specified for the configuration considered, respectively. It is assume that the clutch is
designed to accommodate the torque sent to the flywheel, and therefore, the resulting
clutch parameters will not be covered in detail.

172

Table 34. Mechanical ESS Design Constraints

Design Constraints
Maximum flywheel speed
Maximum CVT Speed
Maximum CVT ratio
Minimum CVT ratio
Maximum clutch torque
Maximum CVT torque

2100 rad/s (20,000 rpm)

420 rad/s (4,000 rpm)
2.2:1
0.4:1
300 Nm
300 Nm

Table 35. Mechanical ESS Design Parameters

Design Parameter
Flywheel
- Inertia
Gears
- Flywheel to CVT
- CVT to driveshaft
CVT
- Maximum input torque

The example sizing exercise shown here is for the design based on the weighted mean
with maximum power distribution.
A preliminary value of the inertia of the flywheel can be calculated starting from the
equation of the mechanical energy:
(5.1)

For this case, with a minimum flywheel speed of 10,000 rpm and a desired energy of
175kJ, the required inertia is 0.106 kgm2. Assuming a minimum flywheel speed of half
the maximum flywheel speed over-sizes the inertia by 33% compared to a minimum of
zero, but allows for operation at higher vehicle speeds.

173

In order to determine the torques at the individual components, the gearing between the
components must first be decided. The gearing between the CVT and the flywheel is
determined by the maximum flywheel speed and the maximum CVT speed. Dividing the
maximum flywheel speed by the maximum CVT speed, will set the highest gear ratio
where both conditions are met simultaneously. For this example, a gear ratio of 5:1
between the flywheel and CVT is used.
Once the gearing between the flywheel and CVT is determined, the gearing between the
CVT and drivetrain can be computed based on the maximum desired vehicle speed for
mechanical ESS use. To decide this gear ratio, the case with minimum flywheel speed
and maximum vehicle speed must be considered. For this example, the maximum vehicle
speed for regenerative braking comes from the design targets as 25mph. During this
scenario, the flywheel is at 10,000 rpm and the CVT ratio is at the minimum ratio of
0.4:1. Knowing these values along with the radius of the drive wheels and final drive
ratio, the gear ratio between the CVT and drivetrain that will allow for coupling can be
determined. For this case, the ratio is 6.0:1.
Once the gear ratios are determined, the necessary CVT torque capacity to achieve the
desired braking power target can be calculated. Making the assumption that the highest
power occurs at the maximum vehicle velocity cycle statistic (25mph), the resulting CVT
speed is known. Assuming the worst case scenario where the CVT ratio is at its minimum
of 0.4:1, the necessary torque to provide 28 kW of power is calculated to be 134 Nm.
Applying this preliminary design procedure to each of the sets of design targets results in
the preliminary design parameters shown in Table 36.
174

Table 36. Mechanical ESS Preliminary Design Parameters

Design Parameters

Flywheel Inertia
(kg*m^2)
Flywheel to CVT ratio
CVT to driveshaft Ratio
CVT Torque Capacity
(Nm)

Max
Values

Mean
Values

Weighted
Mean

Weighted Mean
Max Power

0.303

0.019

0.073

0.106

5.0:1
2.1:1

5.0:1
7.2:1

5.0:1
4.6:1

5.0:1
6.0:1

386

51

134

134

In the next phase of the design process, these preliminary design parameters are evaluated
in simulation and compared based on the performance and design attributes.

5.3.2 Hydraulic ESS Preliminary Design

The following section covers the preliminary design procedure for the hydraulic ESS.
This includes the process of using the design targets to generate the initial design
parameters. Once the process is shown for one design case, the results of applying the
same procedure to each of the sets of design targets is shown in a table for comparison.
Before the design procedure can commence, the type of components to be used must be
specified. This important step dictates the constraints that must be applied. The hydraulic
system considered consists of a variable displacement axial-piston hydraulic pump/motor
connected through a set of gears to the vehicle between the transmission output and final
drive reduction gears. The pump/motor transfers fluid between a steel bladder-type
accumulator and a simple fluid storage reservoir. It is assumed that the necessary
175

hydraulic controls are present and do not impose restrictions on the operation. Table 37
and Table 38 list the resulting constraints and parameters which must be specified for the
configuration considered, respectively.

Table 37. Hydraulic ESS Design Constraints

Design Constraints
Maximum pump pressure [bar]
Maximum pump speed [rpm]
Minimum pump speed [rpm]
Maximum accumulator pressure [bar]
System pressure to accumulator pre-charge
pressure ratio

350
3000
350
4:1

Table 38. Hydraulic ESS Design Parameters

Design Parameter
Accumulator
- Volume
- Maximum pressure
- Pre-charge pressure
Reservoir
- Volume
- Pre-charge pressure
Pump/Motor
- Maximum displacement
- Maximum pressure
Gears
- Pump to driveshaft

With the design constraints in mind, the process of determining the design parameters can
begin. To illustrate this process, the steps to use the weighted mean with maximum power
distribution design targets to arrive at a hydraulic ESS design are shown.

176

The first step in the procedure is to calculate the pre-charge pressure and accumulator
volume necessary to store the desired amount of energy. The expression for accumulator
energy outlined in Chapter 4 is used.
(5.2)

The integral can be performed over a range of pressure and volumes until the design
target of 175kJ is met. Figure 78 shows the energy stored over a range of pre-charge
pressures for a 16.1 liter accumulator. Using a pre-charge pressure of 110bar meets the
design target.

Figure 78. Accumulator Energy

177

Once the accumulator volume and pre-charge pressure are set, the pump gearing can be
determined based on the maximum pump speed. Using the maximum velocity of 25mph
along with the vehicle parameters, the following relationship can be used to solve for the
highest pump gearing which allows for pump operation without exceeding the speed
limitation.
(5.3)

Performing the calculation shows a gear ratio of 2.6:1 will prevent pump over-speed at
25mph.
With the gear ratio and pre-charge pressure determined, the pump displacement necessary
to achieve the target power level can be found. Making the assumption that the highest
power occurs near the highest vehicle speed and consequently, highest pump speed, the
displacement can be solved for from the following equation using a power value of 28kW
and a maximum speed of 3000rpm.
(5.4)

Considering the lowest possible pressure (pre-charge pressure), solving for the
displacement gives 61 cc/rev as the required pump size to meet the power target.
The remaining parameter to determine is the necessary reservoir size. The reservoir must
be of sufficient volume to accommodate the maximum fluid volume that can be held in
the accumulator. Applying the ideal gas law and adiabatic assumptions, a good estimate
of the fluid volume can be calculated. The following expression is the result of those
assumptions:

178

(5.5)

Using the above equation gives a fluid volume of 12.9 liters. Therefore, the reservoir
must accommodate at least 12.9 liters of fluid.
Following the same procedure for each set of design targets from the four statistical
weightings gives the preliminary designs shown in Table 39.

Table 39. Hydraulic ESS Preliminary Designs

Accumulator
Volume [liters]
Pump
Displacement
[cc/rev]
Pump Gear
Ratio
Pre-Charge
Pressure [bar]
Reservoir Volume
[liters]

Maximum
Values

Mean
Values

Weighted
Mean

Mean Weighted
with Max Power
Dist.

46.0

5.1

11.1

16.1

176.6

23.2

61.3

61.3

1.0

3.6

2.3

3.0

110

110

110

110

36.8

4.1

8.9

12.9

As expected, the higher power target leads to higher pump displacement, while higher
energy targets causes the accumulator volume to increase. Higher maximum vehicle
speeds reduce the pump gear ratio, decreasing the torque multiplication from the pump.

179

5.4 Evaluation of Preliminary Designs

The following section covers the evaluation of preliminary designs for both the
mechanical and hydraulic energy storage systems. The cost function is used as the basis
for evaluating the preliminary designs. The results from simulation are compared in both
cases and conclusions are drawn.
5.4.1 Evaluation Procedure
Once the preliminary design parameters are set the evaluation process can begin. The
evaluation process is two-fold. First the design parameters are taken and used to generate
estimates of the design attributes of mass, volume and cost. Next, the design parameters
and the mass are used to evaluate the design in simulation. Once this is completed, the
results of the simulation are coupled with the design attributes through the cost function
to arrive at a single value which represents the overall quality of the design. The
following sections will step through the evaluation process for both the mechanical and
hydraulic ESS preliminary designs.
Before performing the evaluations individually for the mechanical and hydraulic designs,
it is pertinent to discuss the evaluation techniques that will be applied to each. The cost
function definition is similar for both AESS types. Both use the formula shown below,
only with potentially different weightings coefficients (a,b,c,d) and normalization (or
target) values.
(5.6)

180

For the purposes of showing the design procedure, the weighting coefficients will remain
the same and have been chosen as the following:

Table 40. Cost Function Weights

Cost Function Weights
0.5
0.1
0.1
0.3

The choice shown in Table 40 focuses on the efficiency of the system and cost over mass
and volume. 50% of the weight is place on the efficiency of the system and 30% is placed
on cost in order to emphasize the performance and cost aspects of the systems. The same
weight (10%) was given to mass and volume. Changing the weights will significantly
affect the design chosen as the best solution. Increasing the weights of mass and volume
will results in a smaller, lighter system which may sacrifice efficiency. In general, cost
will scale with mass and volume. If the components are larger and heavier, the cost will
increase as well. Despite the strong impact of the weighs on the final design parameters,
the process remains the same regardless of the weights used. Careful thought should be
given to the values of the weights. Various sets of weights can also be used to evaluate
several potential designs. Alternatively, the factors in the cost function can be pulled out
and treated as constraints with high or low limits. For example, the volume factor could
be removed from the cost function and instead be treated as a constraint with a maximum
value. In this case all designs with less than a certain volume would be considered
acceptable and no additional preference for smaller systems would be given.
181

The normalization values for each design type will be from the design using the weighted
mean design targets. The weighted mean design targets should provide a conservative
design which caters to the statistically most common events. Finally, to gain a better
understanding of the effect of the cost function weights, the sensitivity of the design to
the cost function weights should be studied. This is crucial to understanding the design
space and the influence of the weighting factors.
Also similar for each design type will be the calculation of

, the efficiency of the

system at returning the available braking energy to the vehicle. This efficiency is defined
at the energy provided to the vehicle by the AESS divided by the total amount of energy
available for recovery. This metric is a proxy for the fuel savings the AESS will be able
to provide since it is proportional to the reduction in energy that must be provided by the
engine. It is used instead of the actual fuel consumption since engine control and
transmission behavior may confound the results if fuel economy is used as the focus. The
following equation describes this efficiency calculation:
(5.7)

In practice, this calculation must be adjusted slightly for any difference in state of energy
of the AESS between the beginning and end of the simulation. For instance, if the AESS
starts with zero energy, but ends with some available energy it is possible that the energy
remaining will be used the next time the vehicle is driven and therefore should be
counted toward the returned energy. To rectify this situation, any difference between the
final and initial AESS energy state is added to the numerator of the above equation.

182

5.4.2 Mechanical ESS Design Evaluation

The following subsection will evaluate the preliminary designs for the mechanical ESS.
First, the design attributes will be computed for each of the preliminary designs. Next, the
design relevant outputs from simulation will be shown for one design case in order to
confirm the behavior of the simulation. Finally, the results for the remaining designs will
be shown and the cost function calculated for each.
As part of the evaluation process, the design parameters must be used to determine
approximate design attributes for the system. This process, as described in Chapter 4, will
be shown as applied to the weighted mean with maximum power design.
Mass Calculations
The mass of the mechanical ESS is a combination of masses of the flywheel and
containment structure, CVT and clutch, and gear sets. Using the correlations shown in
Chapter 4, the breakdown of the masses for the components with the weighted mean with
maximum power distribution design targets is shown in Table 41.

Table 41. Mass of Mechanical Components

Component
CVT
Flywheel
Containment
Gears
TOTAL

183

Mass [kg]
31.3
21.4
12.3
14.0
80.0

Volume Calculations
The volume of the mechanical ESS is a combination of the volumes of the flywheel
containment structure, CVT, and gears. Using the correlations shown in Chapter 4, the
breakdown of the volumes for the components with the maximum values design targets is
shown in Table 42.

Table 42. Volume of Mechanical Components

Component
CVT
Flywheel
Containment
Gears
TOTAL

Volume [L]
10.6
6.1
2.0
18.7

Cost Calculations
The cost of the mechanical ESS components primarily scales with the cost of the CVT
and the cost of the flywheel and containment structure. Since cost information for
flywheels and CVTs are not well established, for this design example an example cost
equation will be used to weight the relative costs of increasing the CVT torque and
flywheel inertia.
(5.8)

Where

is the maximum CVT input torque in Nm and

is the flywheel inertia in

kg*m2. The cost for the maximum values design is $2,910 based on the above equation.
The basic structure of the cost calculation uses a fixed cost to estimate the overhead costs
along with variable cost depending on the torque capacity of the CVT and the inertia of
184

the flywheel. The cost equation shown above was based on estimates of cost increase for
similar components.
Evaluation in Simulation
Once the mass of the system is known, the design parameters along with the systems
mass can be used to evaluate the performance of the design in a full-vehicle simulation
environment. The behavior of the simulator and control strategy for the mechanical ESS
are covered in Chapter 4. The results of using the simulation are shown below. Relevant
state variables are plotted against time to verify the proper behavior of the system. The
drive cycle used is the aforementioned synthetic cycle.
The first confirmation of proper simulation is to ensure that the vehicle follows the desire
speed trace. Figure 79 shows the first 500 seconds of the synthetic cycle.

Figure 79. Mechanical ESS Vehicle Speed Profile Synthetic Cycle

The vehicle matches the speed trace precisely. This confirms the behavior of the driver
and response to the drivers inputs. Next, the engine torque and speed are shown.

185

Figure 80. Engine Torque and Speed on Synthetic Cycle

The engine torque and speed are reasonable and behave as expected. An engine shut-off
strategy allows the engine speed to be reduced to zero while the vehicle is at rest. The
AESS state variables such as torques, speed, CVT ratio, and energy are shown next. The
state of energy of the flywheel is determined by normalizing the current energy in the
flywheel by the maximum possible energy storage, in this case 175kJ.

Figure 81. Flywheel Speed Synthetic Cycle

186

Figure 82. ESS State of Energy Synthetic Cycle

Figure 83. CVT Ratio Synthetic Cycle

Figure 84. Clutch Mode Synthetic Cycle

187

Figure 85. Power Split at Coupling Point Synthetic Cycle

From Figure 81 through Figure 85 the behavior of the mechanical ESS can be observed.
The flywheel stores vehicle energy during deceleration and releases it on the subsequent
acceleration. For this design case and cycle, the full capacity of the flywheel is not
utilized. The maximum SOE that is reached is 100%, suggesting that the flywheel is
being used to its full capacity.
Tabulating the results for all four of the designs produces Table 43.

Table 43. Mechanical ESS Preliminary Design Results

Mass[kg]
Volume [L]
Cost [$]

Maximum
Values

Mean
Values

Weighted
Mean

Mean Weighted
with Max Power
Dist.

0.34
175
37.3
6030

0.31
42
13.0
2420

0.50
70
17.8
2810

0.57
80
18.7
2910

Once the design results are known, the values can be normalized by the weighted mean
results and a cost function value can be calculated.
188

Table 44. Mechanical ESS Preliminary Design Cost Function Values

Cost Function Value

Maximum
Values

Mean Values

Weighted
Mean

1.84

1.20

1.00

Mean Weighted
with Max Power
Dist.
0.97

Looking at the cost function values, the mean values weighted with the maximum power
distribution provides the lowest value. This is due to the relatively large increase in
compared to the relatively small increase in mass, volume, and cost over the weighted
mean design.
To help analyze the designs, the one-way and two-way efficiencies were calculated based
on the efficiency of the ESS. The one way efficiency is defined as the percentage of the
energy absorbed from the vehicle by the EES that is actually stored in the flywheel. The
two way efficiency is defined as the percentage of the energy absorbed that is returned to
the vehicle. For the max values design, the one way efficiency is 82.8%, while the two
way efficiency is 37.8%. This suggests that the max values design is very inefficient at
returning the energy to the vehicle once it is stored in the flywheel.
The main cause of the low two way efficiency is operating the clutch in slip mode. The
efficiency of the system in slip mode is primarily determined by the efficiency of the
clutch. Clutch efficiency is equal to the ratio between input speed an output speed. The
longer the portion of time spent in slip mode, the worse the system efficiency will be.
Since the flywheel is being used as a launch assisting device, the clutch must be allowed
to slip during initial vehicle acceleration. The duration of this slip phase is dependent on a
189

number of factors including the design parameters and gearing in particular. Looking at
the flywheel speed and clutch mode during one such acceleration event gives insight into
the effect of gearing on the duration of clutch slip. Figure 86 shows the system behavior
with a low numerical gear ratio similar to what is used in the maximum values design.
Notice the clutch is in slip mode from t=510 until t=517, when the CVT can be used to
control the flywheel speed.

Figure 86. Clutch Slip Example Low Numerical Gear Ratio

190

In contrast, the same event is shown for a design with a higher numerical gear ratio
between the CVT and drivetrain in Figure 87. With a higher numerical gear ratio, the
duration of clutch slip mode is reduced significantly. The slip period now ends before t =
515s, which leads to a much higher two way efficiency.

Figure 87. Clutch Slip Example High Numerical Gear Ratio

The gearing difference and the larger inertia are the primary reasons for the effectiveness
of the weighed mean with maximum power distribution designs low cost function value.

191

5.4.3 Hydraulic ESS Design Evaluation

The following subsection will evaluate the preliminary designs for the hydraulic ESS.
First, the design attributes will be computed for each of the preliminary designs. Next, the
design relevant outputs from simulation will be shown for one design case in order to
confirm the behavior of the simulation. Finally, the results for the remaining designs will
be shown and the cost function calculated for each.
As part of the evaluation process, the design parameters must be used to determine
approximate design attributes for the system. This process, as described in Chapter 4, will
be shown as applied to the maximum values design.
Mass Calculations
The mass of the hydraulic ESS is a combination of masses of the pump, accumulator,
reservoir, fluid, and gears. Using the correlations shown in Chapter 4, the breakdown of
the masses for the components with the weighted mean with maximum power
distribution design targets is shown in Table 45.

Table 45. Mass of Hydraulic Components

Component
Pump/motor
Accumulator
Reservoir
Fluid
Gears
TOTAL

192

Mass [kg]
30.8
82.9
4.1
11.3
7.0
136

Volume Calculations
The volume of the hydraulic ESS is a combination of the volumes of the pump,
accumulator, reservoir, and gears. Using the correlations shown in Chapter 4, the
breakdown of the volumes for the components with the maximum values design targets is
shown in Table 46.

Table 46. Volume of Hydraulic Components

Component
Pump/motor
Accumulator
Reservoir
Gears
TOTAL

Volume [L]
10.3
28.9
12.9
1.0
53.0

Cost Calculations
The cost of the hydraulic ESS components primarily scales with the cost of the pump and
the cost of the accumulator.

Based on cost information for off-the-shelf hydraulic

components, the following equation for cost will be used.

(5.9)

Where

is the pump displacement in cc/rev and

is the accumulator volume in

liters. The cost for the maximum values design is $3,340 based on the above equation.
Using off-the-shelf component information it was found that accumulators start at 4 liters
in size and the incremental cost per additional liter of capacity is approximately $50.
Similarly for the hydraulic pump, the minimum displacement for the type of pump used
was 18cc/rev. The incremental cost per additional displacement is approximately $6.60.
193

The $2450 represents the cost of the 4 liter accumulator plus the 18cc/rev pump along
with estimations for the cost of a fluid reservoir and the necessary hydraulic controls.
Evaluation in Simulation
Once the mass of the system is known, the design parameters along with the systems
mass can be used to evaluate the performance of the design in a full-vehicle simulation
environment. The behavior of the simulator and control strategy for the hydraulic ESS are
covered in Chapter 4. The results of using the simulation are shown below. Relevant state
variables are plotted against time to verify the proper behavior of the system. The drive
cycle used is the FTP-75 cycle.
The first confirmation of proper simulation is to ensure that the vehicle follows the desire
speed trace.

Figure 88. Desired and Actual Speed Trace Synthetic Cycle

The vehicle matches the speed trace precisely. This confirms the behavior of the driver
and response to the drivers inputs. Next, the engine torque and speed are shown.
194

Figure 89. Engine Torque and Speed over Synthetic Cycle

The engine torque and speed are reasonable and behave as expected. An engine shut-off
strategy allows the engine speed to be reduced to zero while the vehicle is at rest. The
AESS state variables such as torques, speed, pressures, volumes, and energy are shown
next.

195

Figure 90. Hydraulic Pump/Motor Torque and Speed

Figure 91. Hydraulic Pump/Motor Flowrate

196

Figure 92. Hydraulic Pump/Motor Displacement

Figure 93. Hydraulic Accumulator Pressure

197

Figure 94. Hydraulic Accumulator and Reservoir Volumes

Figure 95. Hydraulic Accumulator State of Energy

Much can be garnered from the behavior of the maximum values designed hydraulic
system over the synthetic cycle. Most notably the state of energy of the accumulator does
reach the maximum value, showing full utilization of the energy storage system. Figure
92 it is seen that the maximum pump displacement is reached in many occasions. The
majority of these instances are due to traction torque assist, however, a portion are during
vehicle braking. This is an indication that if the displacement was higher or the pump
gear ratio numerically higher, more energy could potentially be recovered. Additionally,

198

some engine braking is reducing the amount of energy which can be recovered by the
hydraulic system.
Using the results of the simulation, a value of the cost function can be calculated. For the
maximum values design, the braking energy recovery efficiency is 0.52. 52% of all of the
energy that would have otherwise been dissipated by the friction brakes was returned to
the drivetrain by the hydraulic ESS.
Tabulating the results for all four of the designs produces Table 47.

Table 47. Hydraulic ESS Preliminary Design Results

Maximum Values

Mean Values

Weighted
Mean

Mean Weighted with

Max Power Dist.

0.45
334
63
5690

0.35
65
21.5
2540

0.50
112
41
3090

0.52
136
53
3340

Mass[kg]
Volume [L]
Cost [$]

Once the design results are known, the values can be normalized by the weighted mean
results and a cost function value can be calculated.

Table 48. Hydraulic ESS Preliminary Design Cost Function Values

Cost Function Value

Maximum
Values

Mean Values

Weighted
Mean

1.56

1.07

Mean Weighted
with Max Power
Dist.
1.06

Looking at the cost function values, the weighed mean design provides the lowest value.
This is due to the relatively small decrease in
199

compared to the relatively large

decrease in mass, volume, and cost over the weighted mean with maximum power
distribution design. It is interesting to note that for the same drive cycle, the best
mechanical ESS design uses the mean weighted with maximum power distribution while
the best hydraulic ESS design uses the weighted mean design targets. This difference is
due to the difference in operation and energy density of the systems. The hydraulic
system is less sensitive to gearing changes than the mechanical system and also gains
more weight when the desired energy storage capacity is increased.

5.5 Design Optimization

After the preliminary designs are evaluated, the process of optimizing the designs can
begin. The goal of the optimization is to begin with the best of the preliminary designs
and refine the design until it can no longer be improved. The preliminary design serves
the purpose of eliminating a significant portion of the design space and providing a
starting point in the search for the minimum cost function value.
This section will focus on the refinement of the design to find the minimum cost function
value for both the mechanical ESS and hydraulic ESS. The process that will be used is a
full-factorial design with each of the design parameters serving as factors with three
levels. The three levels will be the factor at its best preliminary design level, 90% of the
preliminary design level, and 110% of the preliminary design level. For example, the
accumulator volume for the best preliminary hydraulic ESS design is 11.1L. The levels
for the accumulator volume in the full-factorial design will be 10L, 11.1L, and 12.2L.
200

With the full-factorial design, each possible combination of levels is evaluated. The
benefit of this experimental design is that interaction effects between the design
parameters can be studied. For example, changing pump displacement alone might not
produce a significant benefit, however, if the gearing is also changed along with pump
displacement, then a reduction in the cost function value might be realized.

5.5.1 Mechanical ESS Design Optimization

Starting with the design parameters from the mean values weighted with the maximum
power distribution, a full factorial experiment was conducted with the design parameters
maximum CVT input torque, flywheel inertia, and CVT to drivetrain gear ratio all at
three levels (at, 10% above, and 10% below the nominal design value). Each possible
design combination was evaluated in simulation and the results were compared in terms
of cost function value.

201

Figure 96. Mechanical ESS Design Parameter Interaction Plot

Looking at the interaction plots from the results of the simulations, there is little
interaction between the parameters with these factor levels. The general trends can be
seen in both Figure 96 and Figure 97. The inertia with the lowest cost function value is
0.106, while the cost function value decreases with increasing CVT to drivetrain gear
ratio and decreases with decreasing maximum CVT torque. At this point, the results point
to further increasing the gear ratio and further decreasing the maximum CVT torque in
order to explore the design space further.

202

Figure 97. Mechanical ESS Design Parameters Main Effects Plot

Eventually, further increasing the gear ratio and decreasing the CVT torque capacity are
no longer beneficial. This is due to the reduction of vehicle speed range where
regenerative braking can occur and the reduction in power of the ESS. With these results,
the question becomes why the reduction in gear ratio is beneficial. The answer is twofold. Increasing the gear ratio allows for energy recovery at lower vehicle speeds when
the speed differential between flywheel speed and vehicle speed is the greatest. The
second benefit is an improvement in the efficiency of returning energy from the flywheel
to the vehicle, particularly during launch assist. Since the clutch must be slipped when the
flywheel is used to help accelerate the vehicle from rest, a portion of the flywheels
203

energy is expended in a less efficient manner. Increasing the gear ratio decreases the
amount of time the clutch operates in slip mode, therefore increasing the efficiency of
releasing the flywheels energy.
Based on the design refinement, the combination of maximum CVT torque and gear ratio
is 95 and 8.54:1, respectively. This combination provides a low cost function value while
providing good power capability and adequate speed range.

Table 49. Optimized Mechanical ESS Design Parameters

Flywheel Inertia
[kg*m2]
Maximum CVT Input
Torque [Nm]
Flywheel to CVT Gear
Ratio
CVT To Drivetrain
Gear Ratio
System Mass [kg]
System Volume [L]
System Cost [$]
Cost Function Value

Mean Weighted
with Max Power
Dist.

Optimized Design
Values

0.106

0.106

134

95

5:1

5:1

6.0:1
0.57
80
18.7
2910
0.97

8.54:1
0.56
75
18.2
2850
0.96

Comparing the optimized design with the mean values weighted with the maximum
power distribution, the only differences are a slight reduction in the maximum CVT
torque and an increase in the CVT to drivetrain gear ratio. This improves efficiency and
reduces the cost while maintaining the same mass and volume.

204

5.5.2 Hydraulic ESS Design Optimization

Starting with the design parameters from the mean values weighted with the maximum
power distribution, a full factorial experiment was conducted with the design parameters
pump displacement, accumulator volume, and pump gear ratio all at three levels (at, 10%
above, and 10% below the nominal design value). Each possible design combination was
evaluated in simulation and the results were compared in terms of cost function value.
From evaluating all of the combinations, trends can be identified and used to help
determine the optimum solution. Figure 98 shows the main effects of the design
parameters on the cost function value. From the plots, it can be seen that in all cases, the
accumulator volume of 10 liters and a gear ratio of 2.56 provide the lowest cost function
value. However, the trend for the pump displacement shows lower displacement
improving the design.

205

Figure 98. Main Effects Plots for Cost Function Value

In addition to the main effect plots, the interactions between the design parameters should
be considered. Figure 99 shows the interaction plots for all of the design parameters. The
lack of parallel behavior of the lines indicates significant interaction between the design
parameters. This means the main effects are not dominant and cannot be solely used to
guide in optimization.

206

Figure 99. Interaction Effects for Hydraulic Design Parameters

Based on in the interaction plots, significant interaction is seen between the pump
displacement and the gear ratio. At the higher pump displacements, increasing the gear
ratio does not improve the performance, however, at the -10% displacement, increasing
the gear ratio has a positive effect on the cost function value. Less significant interaction
is seen between the other factors. Following the trend of decreasing the pump
displacement along with increasing the gear ratio results in the optimized design
parameters and attributes are shown in Table 50.

207

Table 50. Comparison of Optimized Design to Weighted Mean

Weighted Mean

Optimized Design
Values

11.1

10.0

61.3

52.3

2.3

3.04

110
8.9
0.50
112
41
3090
1.00

110
7.5
0.49
103
37
2990
0.99

Accumulator Volume
[L]
Pump Displacement
[cc/rev]
Pump Gear
Ratio
Pre-Charge Pressure
[bar]
Reservoir Volume [L]
System Mass [kg]
System Volume [L]
System Cost [$]
Cost Function Value

Comparing the optimized design to the design based on the design targets generated by
the weighted mean method, the only differences are a slightly smaller pump displacement
and a higher gear ratio. The smaller pump reduces the system mass slightly while still
maintaining the same level of effectiveness in terms of recovering and returning the
available braking energy. At this point, the final step of the design process is to evaluate
the design on an alternate drive cycles to confirm the behavior.

5.6 Validation on Alternate Drive Cycle

In order to confirm the performance of the optimized designs, the final mechanical and
hydraulic ESS designs were evaluated on a drive cycle other than the synthetic cycle. The
cycle chosen for the validation is another synthetically generated cycle with 75% urban
conditions and 25% highway conditions. The random generation of the cycle was
208

performed using an iterative Markov chain approach based on real-world driving

statistics [1].
The validation process involved simulating the vehicle model over the drive cycle with
the optimized AESS designs and analyzing the results, particularly the behavior of the
energy storage systems over the cycle.

5.6.1 Mechanical ESS Design Validation

Figure 100 shows the desired and actual velocities of the vehicle with mechanical ESS
over the custom drive cycle. The vehicle precisely matches the desired speed trace.

Figure 100. Mechanical ESS Vehicle Speed over 75% Urban 25% Highway Cycle

With the vehicle properly following the desired speed trace, the function of the ESS can
be analyzed. Of interest is the power split at the coupling points where the ESS is
209

connected to the conventional drivetrain. Figure 101 shows the power split between the
two energy sources. Periods of regenerative braking are indicated by negative ESS
power. Positive mechanical ESS power indicates traction effort from the ESS. From
Figure 101 it can be seen that the ESS is frequently recovering and releasing energy, a
good sign of proper behavior.

Figure 101. Mechanical ESS Power Split at Coupling Point over 75% Urban 25%
Highway Cycle

Also of importance is the variation in hydraulic ESS state of energy over the cycle. A
value of 100 in Figure 103 indicated the ESS is saturated and can no longer continue to
absorb energy. If the ESS is frequently reaching 100% SOE, it is a good indication that a
larger amount of energy storage would be beneficial. On the custom cycle, the maximum
SOE is only reached two times, a good indication of proper accumulator sizing for the
cycle. After nearly every charging event, the SOE is returned to zero, confirming the
proper behavior of the control strategy.
210

Figure 102. Flywheel Speed over 75% Urban 25% Highway Cycle

Figure 103. Mechanical ESS State of Energy over 75% Urban 25% Highway Cycle

Figure 104 and Figure 105 show how the mechanical ESS is being controlled. The CVT
ratio shows the control of the flywheel speed. Seeing the CVT ratio frequently move
from one extreme to the other in terms of ratio, indicates the system is being fully

211

utilized. Looking at the clutch mode, the clutch is spending a significant amount of time
in the lock-up condition, which also indicates a suitably configured system.

Figure 104. CVT Ratio over 75% Urban 25% Highway Cycle

Figure 105. Clutch Mode over 75% Urban 25% Highway Cycle

The regenerative braking efficiency of the mechanical ESS on the 75% urban 25%
highway drive cycle was calculated to be 48%, slightly less than the much longer
synthesized cycle. This suggests that relatively more friction braking was used during the
212

75% urban 25% highway cycle due to power, speed, or energy constraints. In this type of
situation where performance on a secondary drive cycle is slightly less, the design can be
revised by comparing evaluating designs on the secondary cycle which were similar in
performance to the optimized design on the original synthesized cycle.

5.6.2 Hydraulic ESS Design Validation

Figure 106 shows the desired and actual velocities of the vehicle with hydraulic ESS over
the custom drive cycle. The vehicle precisely matches the desired speed trace.

Figure 106. Hydraulic ESS Vehicle Velocity over 75% Urban 25% Highway Cycle

With the vehicle properly following the desired speed trace, the function of the ESS can
be analyzed. Of interest is the torque split at the coupling points where the ESS is
connected to the conventional drivetrain. Figure 107 shows the torque split between the
213

two energy sources. Periods of regenerative braking are indicated by negative hydraulic
output torques. Positive hydraulic output torques indicate traction effort from the ESS.
From Figure 107 it can be seen that the ESS is frequently recovering and releasing
energy, a good sign of proper behavior.

Figure 107. Hydraulic ESS Torques at Coupling Points over 75% Urban 25% Highway
Cycle

Also of importance is the variation in hydraulic ESS state of energy over the cycle. A
value of 100 in Figure 108 indicated the ESS is saturated and can no longer continue to
absorb energy. If the ESS is frequently reaching 100% SOE, it is a good indication that a
larger amount of energy storage would be beneficial. On the custom cycle, the maximum
SOE is only reached a few times, a good indication of proper accumulator sizing for the
cycle. After nearly every charging event, the SOE is returned to zero, confirming the
proper behavior of the control strategy.

214

Figure 108. Hydraulic ESS State of Energy over 75% Urban 25% Highway Cycle

Since the pressure is strongly correlated with the SOE, the pressure trace mimics the
SOE.

Figure 109. Accumulator Pressure over 75% Urban 25% Highway Cycle

215

Figure 110 shows the hydraulic accumulator and reservoir volumes over the cycle. Fluid
is passed from the reservoir to the accumulator during regenerative braking and returned
during the subsequent acceleration event. The minimum reservoir volume reached is
approximately 0.25L, showing the system has sufficient fluid volume to allow for
maximum energy storage for the accumulator used.

Figure 110. Hydraulic Accumulator and Reservoir Volumes over 75% Urban 25%
Highway Cycle

Figure 111 shows the pump/motor displacement over the course of the cycle. This
variable is controlled by a low level controller and is adjusted based on the desired
torque, accumulator pressure. While the pump/motor is often operated at the maximum
displacement of 52.3cc/rev, this predominantly occurs during acceleration, which does
not restrict the system from recovering braking energy. Also, since the pump operates

216

most efficiently near maximum displacement it is desirable to use maximum pump

displacement during torque assist.

Figure 111. Hydraulic Pump/Motor Displacement over 75% Urban 25% Highway Cycle

Calculating the resulting effectiveness of the design on the custom cycle, a value of
is produced. Returning 54% of the available braking energy shows excellent
behavior of the system on a cycle around which the design was not based. This statistic
along with the behavior of the system over the cycle validates the performance on an
alternative drive cycle and confirms the ability of the proposed design method to produce
a design which maximizes the benefits while minimizing the costs.

217

5.7 Conclusions
Over the course of this chapter, two examples of applying the AESS design method were
shown. The designs were based on statistical analysis of a synthesized cycle based on
actual driving data and weightings that favored maximum capture and return of braking
energy with minimal system cost were used. Initially, four designs were evaluated for
both the mechanical and hydraulic energy storage systems. The best, in terms of cost
function value, was chosen for each type of system and further refined until further
refinement produce no additional reduction in the cost function. The best solution for
both the mechanical and hydraulic systems was then validated on a different cycle
consisting of 75% urban driving and 25% highway driving. In both cases, the designs
showed excellent performance, proving the effectiveness of the proposed design method.

218

5.8 References
[1]

Gong, Q. et al. An Iterative Markov Chain Approach for Generating Vehicle

Driving Cycles. SAE International Technical Paper 2011-01-0880.

219

Chapter 6: Conclusions and Future Work

6.1 Conclusions
A method for modeling mechanical and hydraulic energy storage systems based on
fundamental system dynamics is presented. The models allow for the behavior of the
individual components to be observed when operating as a complete system. The energy
losses can be analyzed and accounted for based on the inputs and outputs of each
component model.
With models developed, a design process is proposed for short-term energy storage
systems. Event by event analysis of the driving cycle is used to create design targets from
the desired drive cycle. The conventional technique of using the maximum values is
compared to applying other statistical weightings to generate design targets. It is found
that the maximum values method leads to an oversized design with much higher total
mass and volume compared to the designs generated by the other methods presented. In
the case of hydraulic energy storage, the maximum values design only marginally
outperforms the mean values design, and underperforms compared to the weighted mean,
and mean weighted with maximum power distribution designs. In the case of mechanical
energy storage, the maximum values design shows much worse performance in
simulation due to the compromises which must be made in order to accommodate
operation at the highest vehicle speed. Once the best method for the preliminary design
220

targets is chosen, further optimization is needed to determine the best solution. A cost
function which weights all of the relevant system attributes should be used to compare
the effectiveness of the designs. Exploration of the nearby design space by slightly
varying the design parameters should be used to further improve the design. Both main
effects of the parameters and interaction effects between the parameters should be studied
in order to better understand the effects of changing the parameters. Knowledge of these
effects can then be used to systematically optimize the design until a local minimum
value for the cost function is found. In both the mechanical and hydraulic energy storage
systems, the lowest cost function value was found to be very close to one of the
preliminary design methods, proving the importance of statistical analysis of the drive
cycle and proper weighting to determine design targets.
Examining the behavior of the optimized design on different driving cycles is essential to
validating the design. If large discrepancies are found between the performance on the
validation cycle(s) and the cycle on which the design was based, the optimized solution
should be revised. To remedy this discrepancy, designs with similar cost function values
but slightly different design parameters should be compared to the optimized design on
the validation cycle(s). A compromise can then be struck between the performance on the
design cycle and validation cycle(s) in order to arrive at a set of parameters which
provide adequate performance on both cycles.

221

6.2 Future Work

While the system dynamics models presented in this work are based on first principles
and are generally accepted to be valid representations, in some cases the models could be
improved in accuracy by taking additional effects into account. For example, in the
mechanical energy storage system, bearing friction is considered for the flywheel since it
is the primary source of speed dependent losses; however, other rotating components
such as the CVT, also experience rotational friction losses and could be taken into
consideration if spin loss information is known.
The basic control strategy used in simulation was a simple rule based controller.
Currently, work is being done to apply Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy
(ECMS) control to the alternative energy storage systems to determine the magnitude of
benefit in using more advanced techniques for controlling the system.
Additional work is also being performed to study the sensitivity of the design to the cost
function weights. Understanding the influence of the weighting factors is important to
creating a design which can perform well without any significant drawback such as
excessive volume or cost.
Control actuation of the energy storage systems is also an important factor that was not
considered. The basic equations for controlling the CVT ratio and pump displacement
were presented; however, the non-linear behavior often found in physical systems must
be accounted for in practice. Experimental work is currently being done to explore the
control of CVT ratio in order to achieve the desired torque command as well as validate
the models used in simulation.
222

References

Chapter 1
[1]

U.S. Energy Information Administration.

http://www.eia.doe.gov/totalenergy/data/annual/pdf/sec5_3.pdf

[2]

CAFE Standards. National Highway and Traffic Safety Administration

http://www.nhtsa.gov/fuel-economy

[3]

HEV Sales by Model. U.S. Department of Energy Alternative Fuels and

Advanced Vehicle Data Center.
http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/data/vehicles.html

[4]

Tortosa, N. Karbon, K. Aerodynamic Development of the 2011 Chevrolet Volt.

SAE International Technical Paper 2011-01-0168.

[5]

Guzzella, L., Sciarretta, A. Vehicle Propulsion Systems Introduction to Modeling

and Optimization (2nd ed.). Springer: New York.

[6]

Simopoulos, G., et al. Fuel Economy Improvements in an SUV Equipped with an

Integrated Starter Generator. SAE Paper 2001-01-2825.

[7]

2011 Ford Fusion Sales Brochure. http://www.ford.com/cars/fusion/brochures/

[8]

Car Price Comparison. http://www.truedelta.com

[9]

Greene, D., et al. Future Potential of Hybrid and Diesel Powertrains in the U.S.
Light-Duty Vehicle Market. (2004). U.S. Department of Energy.

[10]

Adams, J., et al. Approach to Validation Plan Development for Advanced Battery
Systems in Vehicle Applications. SAE International Technical Paper 2011-011366.

[11]

Cross, D., Brockbank, C. Mechanical Hybrid System Comprising of a Flywheel

and CVT for Motorsport and Mainstream Automotive Applications. SAE
International Technical Paper 2009-01-1312.
223

[12]

Boretti, A. Improvements of Vehicle Fuel Economy Using Mechanical

Regenerative Braking. SAE International Technical Paper 2010-01-1683.

Chapter 2
[1]

Frank, A. Beachley, N. Evaluation of the Flywheel Drive Concept for Passenger

Vehicles. SAE Technical Paper 790049.

[2]

Cross, D., Brockbank, C. Mechanical Hybrid System Comprising of a Flywheel

and CVT for Motorsport and Mainstream Automotive Applications. SAE
International Technical Paper 2009-01-1312.

[3]

Flybrid Systems. FHSPV Press Release. September 2010.

http://www.flybridsystems.com/FHSPVrelease.html

[4]

Buchwald, P., et al. Improvement of City Bus Fuel Economy Using Hydraulic
Hybrid Propulsion System A Theoretical and Experimental Study. SAE Paper
790305.

[5]

Brockbank, C. Burtt, D. Developments in Full Toroidal Traction Drive Infinitely

and Continuously Variable Transmissions. SAE International Technical Paper
2007-01-3740.

[6]

Newall J, Nicolson D, Lee A, Evans S; Development and Assessment of

Traction Fluids for Use in Toroidal IVT Transmissions; SAE 2002 World
Congress; March 2002; Detroit; Michigan; USA

[7]

Squatriglia, C. KERS Comes to Cars as Jaguar Tests Flywheel Hybrid.

http://www.wired.com/

[8]

Moro, D. et al. Guidelines for Integration of Kinetic Energy Recovery System

(KERS) based on Mechanical Flywheel in an Automotive Vehicle. SAE
International Technical Paper 2010-01-1448.

[9]

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. World's First Full Hydraulic Hybrid in a

Delivery Truck. http://www.epa.gov/oms/technology/420f06054.htm.

[10]

Kim, Y., Filipi, Z. Simulation Study of a Series Hydraulic Hybrid Propulsion

System for a Light Truck. SAE International Technical Paper 2007-01-4151.
224

[11]

Kepner, R., "Hydraulic Power Assist A Demonstration of Hydraulic Hybrid

Vehicle Regenerative Braking in a Road Vehicle Application," SAE Technical
Paper 2002-01-3128, 2002.

[12]

Toulson, E. Evaluation of a Hybrid Hydraulic Launch Assist System for use in

Small Road Vehicles. IEEE International Symposium on Industrial Electronics,
2008. ISIE 2008.

[13]

Center for Compact and Efficient Power. Hydraulic Hybrid Passenger Vehicle,
Test Bed 3: Highway Vehicles.
http://www.ccefp.org/sites/all/files/documents/Info_TB3_HHPV.pdf

[14]

Kwon, J. et al. Impact of Drive Cycles on PHEV Component Requirements.

Argonne National Laboratory. SAE Technical Paper 2008-01-1337.

[15]

Gao, Y. et al. Design and Control Principles of Hybrid Braking System for EV,
HEV and FCV. IEEE Vehicle and Propulsion Conference, 2007.

[16]

Cross, D. Hilton, J. High Speed Flywheel Based Hybrid Systems for Low
Carbon Vehicles. IEEE Hybrid and Eco-Friendly Vehicle conference, 2008.

[17]

Gong, Q. et al. An Iterative Markov Chain Approach for Generating Vehicle

Driving Cycles. SAE International Technical Paper 2011-01-0880.

Chapter 3
[1]

Bayar, K., Bezaire, B., Cooley, B., Kruckenberg, J., Schacht, E., Midlam-Mohler,
S., and Rizzoni, G. Design of an Extended-Range Electric Vehicle for the
EcoCAR Challenge, Proc. of the ASME 2010 IDETC/CIE Conference, 2010

[2]

Koprubasi, K. Modeling and Control of Hybrid-Electric Vehicle for Drivability

and Fuel Economy Improvements, Ph.D. dissertation, The Ohio State University,
2008.

[3]

Serrao, L. A Comparative Analysis of Energy Management Strategies for Hybrid

Electric Vehicles, Ph.D. dissertation, The Ohio State University, 2009.

[4]

The Ohio State University 2006 Challenge X Team, Final design and vehicle
technical specifications, challenge x 2006 fall technical report, The Ohio State
University, Tech. Rep., 2006.
225

[5]

Arnett, M., Bayar, K., Coburn, C., Guezennec, Y., Koprubasi, K., MidlamMohler, S., Sevel, K., Shakiba-Herfeh, M., and Rizzoni, G. Cleaner diesel using
model-based design and advanced aftertreatment in a student competition
vehicle, in SAE World Congress. Detroit, MI, USA: SAE, 2008.

[6]

Rizzoni, G., and Srinivasan, K. Powertrain Dynamics, Lecture notes, The Ohio
State University.

[7]

Kotwicki, A. Dynamic models for torque converter equipped vehicles, SAE

Technical Papers, no. 820393, 1982.

[8]

Body, W., and Brockbank, C. Simulation of the fuel consumption benefits of

various transmission arrangements and control strategies within a flywheel based
mechanical hybrid system. Torotrak (Development) Ltd.
http://www.torotrak.com/

[9]

Samie, F., and Gecim, B. Comparison of Efficiency Measurements and

Simulation Results for Automotive Traction Drives. SAE Paper 2005-01-1463.

[10]

Hearn, C. and Flynn, M.. Low Cost Flywheel Energy Storage for a Fuel Cell
Powered Transit Bus.Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference, Sept 9-12,
2007. VPPC 2007. IEEE

[11]

SKF Product Website. http://www.skf.com ->Products ->Calculations ->

Frictional moment - power loss.

[12]

Yang, Y., Lam, R., and Fujii, T. Prediction of Torque Response During the
Engagement of Wet Friction Clutch. SAE Paper 981097.

[13]

Bolund, B., Bernhoff, H., and Leijon, M. Flywheel Energy and Power Storage
Systems. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 11 (2007) 235-258.

[14]

Toulson, E. Evaluation of a Hybrid Hydraulic Launch Assist System for use in

Small Road Vehicles, Proc. of IEEE Symposium on Industrial Electronics, 2008.

[15]

Wu, B., Lin, C., Filipi, Z., Peng, H., and Assanis, D. Optimal Power
Management for a Hydraulic Hybrid Delivery Truck, Vehicle System Dynamics
2004, Vol. 42, Nos. 1-2, pp. 23-40.

[16]

Parker Hannifin, Service Information Bulletin P1/PD Series 18cc, 28cc, 45cc
Medium Duty Axial Piston Pumps - Variable Displacement.

[17]

Sun, Z., and Miao, H. Hydraulic Assist Power System, Proc. of ASME IMECE,
2006.
226

[18]

HYDAC US, Bladder Accumulators Catalog, 2010;

[19]

Bosch Rexroth Group US, Bladder-type Accumulators, 2010

[20]

Otis, D. Predicting Performance of Gas Charged Accumulators, Fluid Power

Controls and System Conference, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1973.

[21]

Green, W. Accumulator Time Constants and The Index Method: Some

Comparisons Based On Experimental Power, 35th National Conference on Fluid
Power, 1979.

[22]

Pourmovahed, A., Beachley, N., and Fronczak, J. Modeling of a Hydraulic

Energy Regeneration System Part I: Analytical Treatment, Journal of Dynamic
Systems, Measurement and Control, Vol. 114, 1992.

[23]

Sonntag, R., Borgnakke, C., and Van, G. Wylen,Fundamentals of

Thermodynamics, 5th Edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, 1998.

[24]

Bosch Rexroth Group US, Hydraulic Tank Data Sheet, 2010

Chapter 4
[1]

Guzzella, L., Sciarretta, A. Vehicle Propulsion Systems Introduction to Modeling

and Optimization (2nd ed.). Springer: New York.

[2]

Bolletta. Alberto. Design of alternative energy Storage Systems for Hybrid

Vehicles Based on Statistical Processing of Driving Cycles Information. Thesis.

[3]

B. Bolund, H. Bernhoff, M. Leijon. Flywheel Energy and Power Storage

Systems. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 11 (2007) 235-258.

[4]

Hearn, C., Flynn, M. et al. Low Cost Flywheel Energy Storage for a Fuel Cell
Powered Transit Bus. Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference, Sept 9-12,
2007. VPPC 2007. IEEE

[5]

Brockbank, C. and Burtt, D. Infinitely and Continuously Variable Full Toroidal

Traction Drive Transmissions for Transverse Applications in Sub A, A & B
Sector Vehicles. Torotrak, Ltd.
http://www.torotrak.com/pdfs/tech_papers/2007/SIA_2007.pdf
227

[6]

Torotrak plc. Example Automotive Applications. http://www.torotrak.com

[7]

JATCO Ltd. http://www.jatco.co.jp/ENGLISH/CVT/index.html

[8]

Quality Transmission Components online catalog. http://www.qtcgears.com

[9]

Parker Hannifin. P1/PD Series Medium Duty Axial Piston Pumps. Catalog HY282665-01/P1/EN. Effective February 01, 2010.

[10]

Rexroth (Bosch Group). HAB Series 5X Bladder Accumulator Data Sheet.

http://www.boschrexroth.com/

[11]

LightningHybrids. Lightweight High Pressure Bladder Accumulators.

Accumulator Catalog Sheet. http://lightninghybrids.com/

[12]

Mobil Hydraulic Oil M 46 Specifications. http://www.mobil.com

[13]

Gong, Q. et al. An Iterative Markov Chain Approach for Generating Vehicle

Driving Cycles. SAE International Technical Paper 2011-01-0880.

Chapter 5
[1]

Gong, Q. et al. An Iterative Markov Chain Approach for Generating Vehicle

Driving Cycles. SAE International Technical Paper 2011-01-0880.

228