Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Senior Project
Underbalanced Drilling Of Horizontal
Gas Well
Obaiyed field case study
(Eng20072007@yahoo.com)
Team Work
Mina Naguib
Magdy Hamza
Acknowledgement
Although we didn't study UBD; But we
challenged the process
We would like to express our deepest gratitude to our advisor
Eng. Abd- El Fatah Sharaf
For supervising this work and for his valuable guidance and
genuine interest in completing this study.
We would like to thank our family for their ultimate help and
efforts without Allah's blessing and their prayers we would not
be able to finish this work.
II
ABSTRACT
effective
dissemination
of
technological
information.
Otherwise, early adopters can pay dearly for taking up the flag of
new technology.
Several papers have been published discussing the UBD processes
as well as the benefits achieved from this technology. However,
few papers have examined the criticality of planning for UBD
operations.
We provide a detailed study in how to plan for UBD operations to
achieve success in drilling the well. Our case study was brought
from BAPETCO Egyptian Company, obaiyed concession, western
desert. The study emphasizes formation stability, appropriate
technique, well control, minimum formation damage, hydraulic
analysis, and guaranteed economic incentives.
COILED TUBING
INTRODUCTION: .................................................................................................................................. 148
WHAT IS COILED TUBING? .................................................................................................................. 149
FEATURES OF CT TECHNOLOGY: ......................................................................................................... 149
USES OF COILED TUBING IN OIL INDUSTRY:........................................................................................ 150
ADVANTAGES OF COILED TUBING: ..................................................................................................... 151
DISADVANTAGES OF COILED TUBING ................................................................................................. 151
COILED TUBING EQUIPMENT .............................................................................................................. 152
COILED TUBING APPLICATIONS ........................................................................................................... 155
COILED TUBING DRILLING ................................................................................................................... 156
COMPARISON BETWEEN COILED TUBING & JOINTED PIPE ................................................................ 156
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................ 166
DIRECTIONAL DRILLING
DIRECTIONAL DRILLING (D.D).............................................................................................................. 168
DIRECTIONAL DRILLING APPLICATIONS .............................................................................................. 172
DEVIATION CONTROL METHODS ........................................................................................................ 180
DIRECTIONAL DRILLING TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES ............................................................................. 181
HORIZONTAL WELLS............................................................................................................................ 196
HORIZONTAL DRILLING APPLICATIONS .............................................................................................. 196
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................ 202
Problems
ANTICIPATED PROBLEMS ......................................................................................................... 204
DIRECTIONAL DRILLING PROBLEMS .......................................................................................... 215
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED DURING UNDERBALANCED DRILLING .............................................. 218
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED DURING DRILLING OBAYED FIELD .................................................... 224
CORROSION PLAN FOR UB OBAYED FILED ................................................................................. 228
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 233
History of Underbalanced
Drilling
What is Underbalanced Drilling?
Underbalanced Versus
Overbalanced
Benefits of underbalanced
drilling
The well is still controlled by controlling the wellbore pressure, but this pressure is
Maintained to be always below the reservoir pressure. Primary well control is no
Longer an overbalanced barrier of a column of fluid but is replaced by flow
control
Using a combination of hydrostatic pressure, friction pressure and surface choke
Pressure. The BOP stack remains as the secondary well control barrier. It must
be pointed out that a UBD well operates on a single barrier.
The bottom hole circulation pressure is a combination of hydrostatic pressure,
circulation friction losses and surface pressure applied at the choke.
The hydrostatic pressure is considered a passive pressure and is a result of the
fluid density and the density contribution of any drilled cuttings and a small
contribution of any gas in the well.
The friction Pressure is a dynamic pressure (It changes with pumps on or off) and
results from circulating friction of the fluid used.
The choke pressure arises from annular back pressure applied at surface.
These three pressures are controlled at all times and ensure that flow control is
maintained whilst drilling underbalanced.
The lower hydrostatic head avoids the build-up of filter cake on the reservoir
formation and avoids the invasion of whole mud and drilling solids into the
formation.
This helps to improve productivity of the wellbore and reduces any pressure related
drilling problems
Conventionally, wells are drilled overbalanced, which provides the primary well
control mechanism. Imposed wellbore pressure arises from three different
Mechanisms:
1. Hydrostatic pressure of materials in the wellbore due to the density of the fluid
used (mud) and the density contribution of any drilled cuttings (passive).
2. Dynamic pressure from fluid movement due to circulating friction of the fluid used
and the relative fluid motion caused by surge/swab of the drill pipe(dynamic).
3. Imposed pressure, with occurs due to the pipe being sealed at surface resulting
in an area with pressure differential (e.g., a rotating head or stripper element)
(confining or active).
Underbalanced drilling is defined as drilling with the hydrostatic head of the drilling
fluid intentionally designed to be lower than the pressure of the formations being
drilled. The hydrostatic head of the fluid may naturally be less than the formation
pressure or it can be induced. The induced state may be created by adding natural
gas, nitrogen or air to the liquid phase of the drilling fluid. Whether the
underbalanced status is induced or natural, the result may be an influx of formation
fluids which must be circulated from the well and controlled at surface.
Underbalanced drilling in practical terms will result in flow from one or more zones
into the wellbore (this is more likely, however, to be solely from one zone as crossflow is likely to result) or where the potential for flow exists.
The lower hydrostatic head avoids the build-up of filter cake on the formation as well
as the invasion of mud and drilling solids into the formation. This helps to improve
productivity of the reservoir and reduce related drilling problems.
Conventional Drilling
Underbalanced Drilling
FIGURE 4: CHIP HOLD DOWN EFFECT AS DRILLING FLUID ENTERS THE FRACTURE , THE PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL ACROSS
THE ROCK FRAGMENT DECREASES , RELEASING THE CHIP .
Increased vibration with air drilling may actually decrease bearing life.
Bit may drill fewer rotating hours but drill more footage.
The number of bits required to drill an interval will be inversely proportional
to the footage drilled by each bit.
Lost circulation occurs when drilling fluid enters an open formation down hole, rather
than returning to the surface. It is possible for drilling fluid to be lost by flow into a
very permeable zone. More frequently, lost circulation involves flow into natural
fractures that intersect that wellbore or into fractures induced by excessive drilling
fluid pressure. Lost circulation can be very costly during conventional drilling. The lost
fluid has to be replaced, and the losses have to be mitigated, usually by adding lost
circulation material to the mud (to plug off the path by which the fluid is entering the
formation), before drilling can safely be
resumed. Since there is no physical force driving drilling fluid into the formation if
the well is drilled underbalanced, underbalanced drilling effectively prevents a
lost circulation problems where If the pressure in the wellbore is less than the
formation pressure in the entire open hole section, lost circulation will not occur.
10
11
FIGURE 9: M ECHANISM OF SLOIDS ENTRAINMENT IN FRACTURES
7-Earlier production:
When a well is drilled underbalanced, formation fluids flow into the wellbore from
any permeable formation in the open hole section. Penetrating any hydrocarbon
bearing formation with adequate drive and permeability will result in an increased
hydrocarbon cut in the drilling fluid returning to the surface. With adequate mud
logging and drilling records, underbalanced drilling can indicate potentially
productive zones, as the well is drilled. Conversely, during conventional drilling,
the overbalance pressure prevents formation inflows; hydrocarbon-bearing zones
have to be identified from cuttings, core analysis, logging or DSTs.
8-Environmental benefits.
There can be environmental benefits associated with properly managed,
underbalanced drilling operations. These depend on the exact drilling technique
adopted. With dry, gaseous drilling fluids there is no potentially damaging liquid
drilling mud to dispose of after drilling is completed. The chemical used in mist
and foam drilling are often benign and biodegradable surfactants that do not pose
significant environmental concerns.
12
13
Advantages
Disadvantages
Reservoir Characterization
14
15
16
Snubbing unit offers better flow capacity, breaking load and rotation capacity and it
is also able to put weight on the downhole tool.
Tripping takes longer because the lengths of pipe have to be screwed together.
Operating this type of unit requires specialized personnel usually consisting of a
head of unit and three or four people per shift
Diameter of the snubbing pipe, usually at least 3 1/2" and sometimes up to
7 5/8" are possible.
Hoisting capacity in the strip phase 340,000 lb
In the snub phase capacity is usually half that of the strip phase due to jack
design.
Circulate at a higher flow rate.
Clean out hard fill and scale that require weight on the tool and rotation.
Spot cement plugs.
Perform some fishing jobs.
17
3-Conventional rig
Two of the advantages of using a conventional rig are its significant mechanical
strength (generally limited by pipe strength) and the capability to rotate the string.
This makes the rig capable of handling operational problems like stuck pipe
(mechanically stuck rather than differentially stuck) and drilling larger hole sizes:
6 8. In addition, only the reservoir section is usually drilled underbalanced.
Therefore, if a conventional rig is used to drill to the top of the reservoir, it is often
cost-effective to continue with jointed pipe operations in UBD mode in the
reservoir.
18
One of the main disadvantages of using conventional rig / jointed pipe in UBD mode
is the fact that fluid circulation has to be interrupted while making connections. This
may lead to undesirable down-hole pressure fluctuations.
On many of the wells using underbalanced techniques there will be a point where a
pipe light situation will exist. This occurs where the forces inside the well-bore
acting to push the string out, is greater than the forces tending to keep it in the well
bore (p primarily the weight of the string .In a UBD operation, designing a downhole lubricator into the casing or completion string can be used to the same effect;
by installing a full-opening valve down-hole at a depth where the force due to the
weight of the string is greater than the forces acting to push the string out. The drill
pipe is stripped out (or run in) to just above the valve. The well can then be shut in
at this depth to allow tripping out (or stripping in) to continue in a normal or
conventional manner. To prevent impairment of the reservoir, the well bore below
the down-hole valve must contain only reservoir-induced fluids (no drill fluid) prior to
shutting in.
19
References
Bieseman, T.,
RKER.95.071
20
21
Underbalanced drilling techniques
Contents:
Gaseous Drilling Fluids
Mist Drilling
Foam drilling
22
23
FIGURE 1: GASEOUS DRILLING TECHNIQUES
1. Air Drilling
Air is about 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen and contains carbon dioxide,
water vapor and trace of rare gases. Air is the least expensive of gases because
it is only need to be compressed by using compressors to be used in drilling.
1.1.
Drilling technique
Drilling with air, nitrogen enriched air, natural gas, liquid nitrogen or other gas
often called dusting since no fluid (Water / Soap) injection means the annular
returns are Dust. It provide a minimum hydrostatic pressure Bottomhole
circulating pressures may be less than 60 psia (400 kPa) at 8000 Ft. (2500
meters) and a maximum rate of penetration.
24
25
Corrosion problems is
obtained than any other
technique due to the
presence of 21% of oxygen
1.2.
1. Run the drill string, complete with desired drilling bottom hole assembly and
bit, to bottom.
2. Start mud pump and run as slow as possible. Pump fluid at a rate of 1
to 2 barrels per minute. This may necessitate crippling the pump to get
this rate. This is done to reduce fluid friction pressures to a minimum
and pump at a minimum standpipe pressure for circulation. Standard fluid
hydraulic calculations will indicate what the standpipe pressure should be at
1 to 2 BPM.
3. Bring one compressor and booster on line. This will aerate the fluid being
pumped down the ho1e. About 100 to 150 SCFM per barrel of fluid should
be sufficient for aeration. If too much air volume is being used, the
standpipe pressure will exceed the pressure rating of the compressor and/or
booster. Therefore, slow the compressor down until air is being injected and
mixed with the fluid going down hole. Also, the mist pump and soap injection
pump should be injecting water and soap at a rate of about 12 bbl/hr and
3gal/hr, respectively. The soap will tie the fluid and air together and provide
better aeration properties.
4. As the annular fluid column is lightened, the standpipe pressure will drop
and additional compressors or air volume can be added to further lighten
the fluid column and unload the hole. The aeration procedure is far
superior when compared to the slug method of unloading the hole. The
slug method is accomplished by pumping alternate slugs of water and air
down the hole until air can be used continuously. Air is first injected up to an
arbitrary maximum pressure, then water is injected to lower the pressure
back to some arbitrary minimum pressure. This procedure is repeated until
air can be injected continuously. The aeration procedure requires less time,
does not because undue surging of the hole due to heading, does not cut
out pit walls because surges are eliminated and can be done generally at
lower operating pressures.
5. When the hole is unloaded, the mist pump and soap injection pump should
remain in operation. This provides a mist (1.5 BW/hr. per inch of hole
diameter and 0.5 to 4 gal. soap/hr) which can clean the hole of sloughing
formations.
6. At this point drilling, using air mist can commence. Drill 20 to 100 feet to
allow any sloughing hole to be cleaned up.
The method, proven in actual field operations to unload the hole of fluid, dry the
hole and start air dust drilling is given below:
26
7. After the hole has stabilized (no sloughing), stop drilling and blow the hole
with air mist to clean the hole of drill cuttings. About 15 to 20 minutes is
sufficient or until the air mist is clean. Clean air mist is usually a fine spray
and white in color.
8. When the hole is clean, stop air misting, break off the Kelly and pour 10 to
20 gallons of soap followed by 20 to 4 barrels of water directly down the drill
pipe. Do not mix soap and water in mist pump and inject it that way. Pouring
the soap and water directly down the drill pipe has proven to be a better
procedure and gives a better soap slug and a greater drying effect.
9. Put the Kelly back on and set the bit on bottom. Since the hole is now full of
air, the soap and water will run to bottom. A proper soap sweep cannot be
achieved unless it is mixed with air and pumped up the annulus. This cannot
be done if the drill bit is above the soap and water.
10. With the bit directly on bottom, start air down the hole. Pump straight air at
normal drilling volumes until the soap sweep comes to the surface. The
soap will appear at the end of the blooie line and look like shaving cream.
11. Continue to blow the hole with air for about 0.5 to 1 hour.
12. Start drilling and the hole should dust after 5 to 10 feet have been drilled.
Sometimes as much as 60 to 90 feet are required for dust to appear at the
surface.
2.Natural Gas Drilling
If a source of high-pressure natural gas at the correct volumes is available,
drilling with natural gas is a very good option. The use of air hammers with gas
drilling is another option that can be used to increase ROP. This is an option
used in tight gas reservoirs.
27
FIGURE 3: UBD LOCATION WITH
N ATURAL G AS
The most efficient use of natural gas is normally through annular injection. The
use of natural gas through the drillstring is not recommended, as gas will have to
be vented every time a connection needs to be made although this can be done
safely. The use of natural gas injection through a coiled tubing system is also not
recommended, as a pinhole in the coil could not be isolated and gas maybe
released to form an explosive mixture inside the wraps of the coiled tubing reel.
3.Nitrogen drilling
a. Cryogenic Nitrogen
Nitrogen is by far the most common gas that is currently being used to lighten
the circulating fluid column in underbalanced drilling operations.
Using natural gas will prevent the formation of a flammable gas mixture
downhole when a hydrocarbon producing zone is penetrated. This inherently
higher potential for surface fires requires few changes in operating procedures
from those used in dry air drilling.
28
Oxygen starts to evaporate leaving Nitrogen rich liquid. By repeating the boiling
and condensing processes high purity of liquid nitrogen up to 99.98 % can be
obtained.
29
The membrane is a small, long, and hollow straw. Air is fed into one end of each
membrane straw. Oxygen and water vapor quickly penetrate the membrane and
escape, which leaves only nitrogen to exit from the end of the membrane.
30
NPUs have three major components: an air filtration system, an array of air
separation modules, and a control panel.
The air filtration system usually consists of a scrubber, coalescing filler,
and a particulate filter. Some NPUs also include an activated carbon bed
filter and possibly a refrigerated air dryer. The activated carbon bed filter
removes aerosol-sized and smaller oil droplets down to a concentration of
a few parts per billion. The refrigerated air dryer reduces the relative
humidity into the carbon bed to improve oil droplet filtration.
The arrays of hollow fiber modules are manifold together to accept the
clean compressed air feed and to collect and deliver the nitrogen product.
The oxygen and water vapor permeate stream is also collected from each
membrane module and piped at near atmospheric pressure to the outside
of the NPU skid, where it can quickly and harmlessly dissipate into the
atmosphere.
The control panel on the NPU allows monitoring and control of the
operation. Control panel design and function vary greatly depending on
the manufacturer. Some panels measure flow rates, temperatures, purity,
and pressure drops across the NPU precisely, yet others only provide
simple output of flow rate and nitrogen purity.
31
2. Exhaust Gas
A potentially very attractive source of gas is the waste gas stream from selfcontained propane units or diesel fired rig engines themselves. However, when
using diesel fired engines, the combustion process is relatively inefficient and the
flue gas can contain 10 - 15% oxygen plus corrosive gases such as CO2 and
NO2 which may react adversely with produced hydrocarbons, thus accelerating
the corrosion process.
Exhaust gas is a unique method of taking the oxygen out of air and using the
process to run compressors, By using a diesel engine to run the compressors
and produce the exhaust gas, which is high in nitrogen, the cost of gas
compression is shared with the cost of producing nitrogen, which makes both
less expensive
32
VIP notes
33
Mist Drilling
This produces an air continuous system, with the water mist being carried in the
air. Foaming agent concentrations in the water typically range from 0.10% to
0.25% by volume in the water. The foaming agent reduces the interfacial tension
of the water and drill cuttings in the hole and allows small water/drill cutting
droplets to be dispersed as a fine mist in the returning air stream. This allows the
cuttings and water to be removed from the hole without the Formation of mud
rings and bit balling.
The air mist drilling system provides comparable penetration and footage per bit
rates to dry gas drilling, with the added benefit of being able to handle wet
formations. Costs of air mist drilling are slightly higher than those encountered
with dry gas drilling since foaming agent and corrosion inhibitor are needed.
Mist drilling is a modification of dry air drilling that is utilized when water
producing zones are encountered. Like dry air drilling, this system relies on the
annular velocity of the air for cuttings transport out of the hole. In mist drilling, a
small quantity of water containing foaming agent is injected into the gas stream at
the surface.
34
CHARACTERISTICS OF MIST-DRILLING
Air is the continuous phase and the liquid consists of discontinuous
droplets
Similar to air drilling but with addition of liquid
Relies on annular velocity to remove cuttings from the well
Reduces formation of mud rings
High volumes required (30%-40% more than dry air drilling)
Fluid or foam injection rates less than30 [bbl/min] or 100[l/min].
Liquid volume fraction LVF < 0.025
Pressures generally higher than dry air drilling
Incorrect air/gas-liquid ratio leads to slugging, with attendant pressure
Increase.
Can perform simplified calculations by including water mist as drill cuttings
and modify the ROP to account for the equivalent weight being lifted.
The mist particles travel at a slightly different velocity than the air because
of slip.
35
The rate of fluid intrusion will dictate the amount of air and fluid that
must be injected to efficiently clean the hole.
Formation fluid entries of up to 100 bbl/hr have been successfully
mist drilled
Corrosion Control
Chemical treatment is needed to minimize corrosion caused by the
additional fluid and air.
Basic corrosion control is provided by maintaining the pH of the mud
system above 10.5, and treating any hardness or carbonates with the
appropriate chemical.
Hydrogen sulfide and carbonate scale are treated in much the same
way as in a conventional mud system.
36
Foam Drilling
Foam is like shaving cream, not like soap suds. Very dry foam will persist for
many hours like the one in this reserve pit. Foam is dry because all the water is
bound up. In wet foam more water is flee like in soap suds.
37
.
If more liquid and a surfactant are added to the fluid, stable foam is generated.
Stable foam used for drilling has a texture not unlike shaving foam. It is a
particularly good drilling fluid with a high carrying capacity and a low density. One
of the problems encountered with the conventional foam systems is that stable
foam is as it sounds. The foam remains stable even when it returns to the surface
and this can cause problems on a rig if the foam cannot be broken down fast
enough. In the old foam systems, the amount of defoamer had to be tested
carefully so that the foam was broken down before any fluid left the separators. In
closed circulation drilling systems stable foam could cause particular problems
with carry over. The recently developed stable foam systems are simpler to break
and the liquid can also be re-foamed so that less foaming agent is required and a
closed circulation system can be used. These systems, in general, rely on either
a chemical method, of breaking and making the foam or the utilization of an
increase and decrease of pH, to make and break the foam.
Drilling with foam has some appeal due to the fact that foam has some attractive
qualities and properties with respect to the very low hydrostatic densities, which
can be generated with foam systems. Foam has good rheology and excellent
cutting transport properties.
The fact that foam has some natural inherent viscosity as well as fluid loss
control properties, which may inhibit fluid losses, makes foam a very attractive
drilling medium. During connections and trips, the foam remains stable and
provides a more stable bottom hole pressure.
Gas phase percent by volume Expressed as %, whole number or Decimal
equivalent (e.g. 75, 75%, or 0.75)
0-55%
Aerated Fluid
55%-94%
Foam
94%-99.9%
Mist
100%
Gas/Air
The amount of gas in the fluid at any point, measured by volume, can be
expressed as foam quality or as fluid ratio. Ratio R (% by volume of gas) is the
ratio of gas to liquid unit under existing conditions of pressure and temperature. A
good rule of thumb for a gasified fluid is to try to maintain the ratio through the
system at 5:1 to 40:1 (i.e., 80 %< foam quality < 97.5 %).
Depth.
Gas content.
Liquid content.
Measurement.
38
Adding surfactant to a fluid and mixing the fluid system with a gas generates
foam.
Foam used for drilling has a texture not unlike shaving foam. It is a particularly
good drilling fluid with a high carrying capacity and a low density. One of the
problems encountered with the conventional foam systems is that foam does
what it says on the tin. It remains stable.
Characteristics of foam-drilling
Name
99.99 96%
Mist
96% - 55%
Foam
0 55%
Gasified Liquid
39
16 80 gpm
FOAM
GASEATION
Emulsion.
Mixture.
Hard to Separate
Separates easily.
NO Pressure Surges.
40
41
Stiff
Polymer
Stiff foam
Foam
Polymer
Bentonite
pH sensitive foam (amphoteric)
Transform
PH
Sensitive
Stable
42
43
When drilling with aerated fluid systems it should be realized that these are the
most corrosive of all reduced pressure drilling methods. However, with proper
selection of supply water, proper pH control and the proper utilization of
technologically advanced corrosion inhibitors, aerated fluid systems are
successfully used worldwide.
Aerated fluids are well suited for highly unstable formations where loss of
circulation is a concern. Aerated fluids also provide the greatest tolerance to fluid
influx of any reduced pressure drilling system.
Gasification techniques
We can divide UBD techniques into four categories;
Drillpipe injection
Parasite string injection
Annular injection (through parasitic liner)
Jet-sub Application
Costs involved with aerated fluid drilling are primarily related to the composition
of the drilling fluid being utilized and corrosion inhibition.
44
FIGURE 13: DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES OF UBD
45
The disadvantages of this system include the need to stop pumping and the
bleeding of any remaining trapped pressure in the drill string every time a
connection is made. This results in an increase in bottom hole pressure. It may
then be difficult to obtain a stable system and avoid pressure spikes at the
reservoir when using drill pipe injection. One alternative is to connect the MWD
back to surface using an electric cable. This technique has previously been used
very successfully with coiled tubing as the drill string. If drill pipe is to be used,
wet connects can be utilized; however, the additional time consumed using this
technique can be limiting.
The use of a small parasite string strapped to the outside of the casing for gas
injection is really only used in vertical wells. For redundancy reasons, two 1 or
2 coiled tubing strings are normally strapped to the casing string above the
reservoir as the casing is run in. Gas is pumped down the parasite string and
injected onto the drilling annulus. The installation of a production casing string
and the running of the two parasite strings makes this a complicated operation.
Wellhead modification is normally required to provide surface connections to the
parasite strings. This system is not recommended for deviated wells as the
parasite string is easily ripped off with the casing on the low side of the hole.
However, the principles of operation and the advantages of the system remain
the same as with annular injection.
There are techniques, such as adding more gas before connections, which help
reduce the ensuing pressure surge.
46
Gas is injected in the casing liner annulus to facilitate the drawdown required
during the drilling operation. The tie back string is then pulled prior to installation
of the final completion. The alternative is for an older well to have a completion in
place incorporating gas lift mandrel pockets. These can be set up to provide the
correct bottom hole pressures during the drilling operation.
The drawback with this type of operation is that the hole size and tools required
are restricted by the minimum ID of the completion.
However, the main advantage of using an annulus to introduce gas into the
system is that gas injection can be continued during connections, thus, creating a
more stable bottom hole pressure.
As the gas is injected, via the annulus,
only a single-phase fluid is pumped
down the drillstring. This has the
advantage that conventional MWD
tools operate in their preferred
environment, which can have a
positive affect on the operational cost
of a project.
47
An important problem when pumping everything down the drill pipe is that there
is a huge volume of non-aerated fluid in the hole. Using air and fluid to unload the
hole can cause a major pressure surge. In the case of lost circulation, it might
take 1000 bbl of mud lost before returns could be regained. Jet subs ease this
problem by unloading from up hole.
48
Flow drilling
The term flow drilling refers to drilling operations in which the well is allowed to
flow to surface while drilling.
All UBD operations are really flow drilling operations, but the term is usually
applied to drilling with a single phase mud, and no gas is injected except by the
formation.
Flow drilling occurs when a permeable formation is intentionally drilled with a
drilling fluid that encourages the formation to flow during drilling operations. Most
commonly, the fluid influx will be from a hydrocarbon-bearing formation, and the
flow returning to surface will consist of oil, natural gas and the drilling fluid. When
flow drilling, well control problems are handled at the surface rather than down
hole. Specific down hole and surface equipment are required for safe and
efficient flow drilling operations.
49
Snub drilling is simply an underbalanced drilling operation that involves the use of
a snubbing unit or a coiled tubing (CT) unit. The additional expense of this
equipment can be justified if very high formation pressure and uncontrollable loss
of circulation are expected. Often, personnel safety considerations provide the
necessary reasons for snub drilling. Finally, if sour gas is expected, there is
additional motivation. Both snubbing and CT units have BOP stacks that allow a
drill string (coiled tubing in the latter case) to be run into or out of the hole, at
much higher pressures (routinely up to 10,000 psi) than can be tolerated by
either a rotating head or an RBOP. Both units also allow the drill string to be
pushed into a well under pressure, even when the weight of the string alone is
insufficient to overcome the pressure tending to push it out of the well. Snubbing
and CT units can be used for underbalanced drilling, at pressures that cannot be
managed by conventional drilling rigs.
Closed system
An underbalanced drilling technique that involves using a specific type of surface
system, rather than a specific drilling fluid. The distinguishing feature of this
technique is the use of a pressurized, four-phase separator and a fully closed
surface system, to handle the fluids returning from the well. These systems can
safely manage natural gas production containing hydrogen sulfide, prevent
hydrocarbon vaporization from open pits, (i.e. environmental benefits) and, with
appropriate instrumentation, allow continuous measurement of a well's
productivity. With planning, closed systems can be designed for high pressures,
when drilling deep and over-pressured reservoirs.
Limitations
Snub drilling
Planning is required before using closed systems when high surface pressures
are possible. Precautions are a1so required if the drilling fluid is oxygenated.
Other limitations include availability of suitable equipment and personnel and
increased operating costs. Using a closed system does not remove any of the
specific limitations associated with the drilling fluid (other than air) or the
technique adopted.
1234-
50
References
Medley, G.H., Stone, R.C., Colbert, W.J., and McGowen III, H.E.:
Underbalanced Operations Manual, Signa Engineering Corp., Houston
(1998).
51
52
53
UBD is not a technology that should be utilized for all situations. Utilizing the
technology in the wrong application may create an unsafe situation, increase
formation damage, increase the probability of well failure or increase well cost
with no probability of economic gain.
54
55
Phase Trapping. The loss of both water-and oil-based drilling mud filtrate
56
Regular situations which may result in phase trapping may include the
following:
Invasion of water-based fluids/filtrates into regions of low water
saturation and resulting trapping effects on consequent drawdown.
Invasion of oil-based fluids/filtrates into zones of low or zero oil
saturation and resulting trapping effects on subsequent drawdown.
Production of rich, retrograde-condensate-type gases below the
dewpoint pressure resulting in the accumulation and trapping of critical
retrograde-condensate saturation in the near-wellbore region.
Production of black oils below the bubble point resulting in the release
of gas from solution and the formation of trapped critical-gas
saturation.
Injection of free gas (aerated fluids and foams during poorly designed
UBD operations, nondeoxygenated brines, nitrogen-energized fluids,
etc.) into a fluid-saturated zone resulting in the creation of trapped
critical-gas saturation.
The main reason for UBD in such a situation is to prevent the significant loss
of potentially damaging and trapping of water- or oil-based filtrates into the
formation, thereby reducing and mitigating the potential severity of damage
associated with phase trapping effects.
57
58
Lost circulation is defined as the partial or total loss of drilling fluids to the
formation being penetrated. It occurs when natural, or induced formation
openings are large enough to allow mud to pass through, and when the pressure
applied by the mud column exceeds formation pore pressure. The severity of
these losses varies from minor seepage losses to a complete loss of the returns.
These losses can occur in unconsolidated or highly permeable formations, in
UBD eliminates both the filter cake and the differential pressure. As most
multiphase fluids do not have solids that produce the filter cake, one will not be
generated. In underbalanced operations differential pressure acts from the
reservoir to the annulus. If designed properly, it is impossible to have positive
differential pressure in underbalanced operations.
59
2. Well geometry:
Directional characteristics.
Hole size.
Proposed casing program.
3. Environmental:
Disposal (Cuttings, production fluids, and drilling fluids).
4. Offset history:
Mud logs, production history, well test data, seismic, and drilling
reports.
60
61
should be selected that will not be effected by the fluid or a fluid system should be
designed that mitigate the effect on downhole tools.
Fluid selection will also affect the ability to transmit data from downhole. Gas is a
compressible fluid; if gas is used in the fluid system, it may dampen or eliminate
any signal transmitted downhole.
Health, safety and environmental must be considered in selecting an
underbalanced fluid system. The system must be designed so that fluids can be
handled safely at surface.
Both produced fluids, solids, and injected fluids must be handled in a minor that
meets local regulations. It must be remembered that the returned fluid will be
contaminated with produced fluid. This will affect the disposal of the solids and all
returned fluids.
2.1.1
Achieving the desired bottom hole pressure is a combination of the fluid density,
applied surface pressure, and annular friction. The selection of the fluid system
will affect both of these components. The density of the base fluid, both liquid and
gas, will impact the density of the fluid system. The properties of the fluid system
will also affect the friction that will be generated. This will be compounded by the
interaction of the fluid system with produced fluid. Mixing of the produced and
injected fluids will change the viscosity of the fluids, which may have a severe
impact on the friction loss.
2.1.2
2.1.3
62
Pore Pressure
The pore pressure in formations that will be open to the borehole is the upper limit
for the range of borehole pressures which will give underbalanced conditions. The
drilling technique adopted must result in a borehole pressure which is less than
the pore pressure in all open zones.
This restriction can only be relaxed for open zones that will not be influenced by
overbalance. In practice, the borehole pressure at any depth will fluctuate during
drilling, principally when circulation is shut down to make a connection or to trip
the string.
If there is no formation fluid inflow, borehole pressures with dry gas, mist, foam or
pure liquid drilling fluids will normally decrease when circulation is stopped.
Therefore, if it is established that underbalanced conditions will result during
circulation, they will likely be maintained if circulation is stopped, unless there is
an overwhelming fluid influx
The borehole pressure can change significantly when gasified liquid is used. It
may either increase or decrease, depending on the connection and tripping
procedures. As a generalization, the borehc le pressure will probably increase
during a connection when drilling with a liquid gasified by drillstring gas injection.
In practice, if it is generally not possible to maintain a circulating pressure that is
300 to 500 psi less than the pore pressure, underbalanced conditions may not be
maintained during connections, when drilling with a gasified liquid.
2.1.4
Wellbore Stability
63
2.1.5
Temperature Effect
2.1.6
Water Production
The flow of formation water into the borehole can influence the selection of
suitable drilling technique
Production of even small volumes of water can make dry gas drilling difficult. A
mud ring can form as damp cuttings collect, usually at the top of the BHA where
the annular velocity is lowest. It is common to switch to mist, or even foam, if a
water inflow is encountered. When onset wells indicate that formation water
inflows are probable, the operator should not expect to drill below the water
producing zone with dry gas.
When misting, higher air injection rates are required to lift the water from the hole.
The air rate must be sufficiently high to prevent slug flow. Slug flow can damage
the borehole and surface equipment. The high air rate, in combination with tie
weight of water in the annulus, significantly increases the standpipe pressure.
Boosters are often needed to increase the gas delivery pressure when substantial
water inflows are encountered. More compressor power is required.
If nitrogen or natural gas are used as the gas phase, the gas Supply cost will be
greatly increased.
Hole size also influences the impact of water inflow on required gas injection rate
and pressure. Increased cross-sectional area reduces annular velocity and hole
cleaning efficiency, although large holes can usually produce more water before
the gas injection pressure becomes impractically high.
When large water inflows are anticipated, dry gas or mist drilling may not be
appropriate, even if wellbore stability and hydrocarbon production rates indicate
that these drilling fluids would be nominally acceptable.
64
(1)
Dry air.
(2)
(3)
Foam, if there is heavy water inflow, if the borehole
wall is prone to erosion, or if there is a large hole
diameter.
(4)
Nitrogen or natural gas, if the well is producing
wet gas and it is a high angle or horizontal hole.
Lost circulation through the overburden.
(1)
Aerated mud, if the ROP is high (rock strength low
or moderate) or if water-sensitive shales are present.
(2)
Foam is possible if wellbore instability is not a
problem.
(1)
Nitrified mud, if gas production is likely, especially
if a closed system is to be used.
(2)
Aerated mud, if gas production is unlikely and an
open surface system is to be used.
(3)
Foam is possible if the pore pressure is very low
and if the formations are very hard.
Lost circulation/formation damage through Flowdrill (use an atmospheric system If no sour gas is
a normally pressured, fractured reservoir. possible).
Formation damage through an
overpressured reservoir.
65
66
67
68
Fluid Selection
Fluid selection for underbalanced drilling operations can be extremely complex.
Key issues such as reservoir characteristics, geophysical characteristics, well
fluid characteristics, well geometry, compatibility, hole cleaning, temperature
stability, corrosion, drilling BHA, data transmission, surface fluid handling and
separation, formation lithology, health and safety, environmental impact, fluid
source availability, as well as the primary objective for drilling underbalanced all
have to be taken into consideration before the final fluid selection can be made.
The objective of the fluid selection system is to select the optimum drilling fluid for
underbalanced drilling operations that meets all the health, safety, and
environmental requirements as well as the required technical requirements.
To calculate this initial fluid density required, simply convert the reservoir
pressure and the drawdown into an equivalent fluid density.
Fluid gradients are calculated based on the following formula:
69
Where:
Surface Pressure is assumed to be approximately 150 psi
And the reservoir Drawdown is assumed to be 250 psi
Underbalanced fluid systems have been categorized by the IADC by the following
system (Table 1):
FIGURE 6: IADC FLUID CLASSIFICATION
70
Fluid System.
Specific Gravity.
Gas Drilling
0-0.02
0-0.02
Mist Drilling
0.02-0.07
0.2-0.6
Foam Drilling
0.07-0.6
0.6-5
0.55-1.0
4.5-8.5
Liquid drilling
Reservoir Data:
TABLE 2: OBAYED RESERVOIR DATA
Formation
Top (m TVD)
3800
3800
Bottom (m TVD)
3900
3900
Pore Pressure
5400 psi
5900 psi
Frac Pressure /
Gradient
0.55-0.6psi/ft
0.75 psi/ft
300
300
Permeability
1.0 10
0.1 1.0
Potential Fractures
Possible
Possible
Fracture Orientation
Not Known
Not Known
Sonic Velocity
0.005m/ms
0.005m/ms
BHT deg F
Youngs Modulus
Poissons Ratio
Cohesion
Friction Angle
Density
Borehole Stability
Issues
35Gpa
0.25
13Mpa / 1885psi
55 deg
2.65 s.g.
None in the reservoir
section
71
0.8000
0.7000
0.6000
0.5000
0.4000
0.3000
0.2000
0.1000
0.0000
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7+
H2S
N2
CO2
Level
72
Description
Well incapable of natural flow to surface, inherently stable, and a low-level risk from a
well control point of view.
Well capable of natural flow to surface but enabling conventional well control methods
and has limited consequences in the case of catastrophic equipment failure.
Hydrocarbon production. Maximum shut-in pressures are less than UBD equipment
operating pressure rating. Catastrophic failure has immediate serious consequences.
Maximum projected surface pressures exceed UBO operating pressure rating but are
below BOP stack rating. Catastrophic failure has immediate serious consequences.
Term
Description
Gas drilling.
Mist chilling.
Foam drilling.
Gasified liquid
drilling.
In obayed D2, A horizontal section is drilled using a drilling fluid lightened with
nitrogen gas to achieve an underbalanced condition through the reservoir section.
The maximum predicted bottomhole pressure is 5,900 psi with a potential surface
shut-in pressure of 1200 psi.
73
Cost of UBD
74
cement volume). The benefit of planning for UBD and the detection of
hydrocarbon flow in a controlled manner occurs real-time.
Item
Areated Drilling
Mud Drilling
Interval
633
633
10.23
5.115
62
124
31
31
Bits Required
$ 4,800/bit
$ 4,800/bit
9600
19200
Trip Schedule
Trip in to 13727 ft
Trip in to 13727 ft
Trip in to 14044 ft
Trip in to 13885 ft
56175 ft
112349 ft
0.75
0.75
16
32
$ 570/hr
$ 570/hr
Cost / ft
[9600+Cr(16+62)] /
[633]
[19200+570(124+32)] /
[633]
[B+Cr(T+t)]/[F]
= $ 85.4/ft
=$ 170.8 /ft
(hr/500 ft)
(Cr)
75
Personnel Costs
Day
Rate
Travel
Project Management
2,500
3,500
UBD Consultant
2,500
3,500
HSE Consultant
2,000
3,500
UBD Supervisor 1
1,400
3,500
UBD Supervisor 2
1,400
3,500
UBD Engineer 1
1,500
3,500
UBD Engineer 2
1,500
3,500
1,300
3,500
1,300
3,500
UBD Operator 1
800
3,500
UBD Operator 2
800
3,500
UBD Operator 3
800
3,500
UBD Operator 4
800
3,500
1,100
3,500
700
3,500
500
3,500
Nitrogen superviosr
1,100
3,500
Nitrogen Operator 1
800
3,500
Nitrogen Operator 2
800
3,500
Nitrogen Operator 3
800
3,500
Nitrogen Operator 4
800
3,500
25,200
73,500
UBD
DAS
Operator
76
Lead
Mob
Day
Rate
Stand
Rate
Surface
Equipment
$ 50,000
$ 7,600
$ 3,800
N2
Equipment
$ 50,000
$ 6,200
$ 3,100
Rig rate
$ 32,000
$ 5,800
$ 2,900
MWD
Tools
$ 10,000
$ 2,500
$ 1,250
RCH
$ 15,000
$ 1,800
$ 900
by
Compressors (8) @
$135/unit/day=135*8*12
$ 12,960
$ 86,400
$ 4,800
$ 7,200
$ 36,000
$ 1,000
Trucking/Transportation
$ 9,200
$ 1,800
Fuel
(delivered)=12*20*(8+2)*10.7
gallons * $0.80/gallon
$ 20,540
Trucking/Transportation
$ 1,800
Mist Pump
$ 1,500
Fuel
(delivered)=2*10.7*20*12
gallons * $0.80/gallon
$ 4,110
$ 1,800
Mist Pump
$ 1,500
Equipment Standby (4
days)
$ 700
$ 104,510
$ 88,600
77
78
Although operationally simple, the cost of the supply of the liquid nitrogen
to the well site can represent a significant expense to the total UBD
program.
Under optimum circumstances, the use of natural gas can be the most cost
effective method for UBD programs with the only cost being the
compression equipment. This can be minimal if a high pressure feed
supply is available at the wellsite.
The systems largest operating expense is the cost of fuel for the air
compression units ... The advantage of the nitrogen membranes versus
liquid nitrogen system is the ample supply of free nitrogen available in the
air versus the cost of liquid nitrogen and the required transportation to site.
The process of gas recycling can be cost effective with the previous
systems in very specific applications but is both technically and
operationally challenging for most UBD programs.
Liquid N2
Drilling Program
90 days
90 days
N2
1,500 scfm
1,500 scfm
Duration of N2 requirement
N2 Purity
N2 Pressure
5,000 psi
5,000 psi
Logistics
Trucked in liquid N2
On-site membrane
(equipment rental)
(equipment purchase)
Cost of Utilities
$ 1,284,000
Maintenance
= $ 16,800
(Power unit rental included in capital
cost)
None
Capital Cost
None
Approximately
TOTAL
$ 1,300,000
Approximately $ 375,000
79
Economic Analysis
B Cr (t T )
F
Where:
80
CTtotal cost/foot.
B.bit cost.
t..rotating time.
Completion
RATES
Preparation
Description
Rig Move
A/C no.
COST
ESTIMATES
Move
Preparation
Drilling
Completion
Total
7 days
11 days
18 days
9 days
44 days
( 1 day train)
4670 m
143,000
229,667
110,500
483,167
1,650
2,650
1,275
6,550
762,091
1,223,964
TIME
DEPENDENT
($/day)
6121
Rig Rate
6461
Catering
6122
6134
50
50
50
550
883
425
1,858
6145
1,200
1,200
1,200
1,200
7,800
13,200
21,200
10,200
52,400
6151
360
360
360
360
2,340
3,960
6,360
3,060
15,720
6185
Wireline Services
17,000
39,000
7751
Fuel
1,500
1,500
1,500
1,500
9,750
16,500
26,500
12,750
65,500
TOTAL
3,210
87,541
85,541
18,260
20,865
962,951
1,511,224
155,210
2,650,250
25,750
25,750
283,250
454,917
150
13,000
13,000
13,000
150
150
150
69,281
69,281
2,000
975
2,000
22,000
1,986,055
DEPTH
DEPENDENT
($/m)
6131
738,167
6141
100,000
100,000
6142
Nitrogen operation
20,000
20,000
6145
Cement chemicals
7111
180,000
180,000
7121
102,476
102,476
7141
47,500
47,500
904,893
1,188,143
TOTAL
283,250
FIXED
COSTS ($)
6111
6123
Site preparation
40,000
40,000
Road Preparation
10,000
10,000
94,000
94,000
347,500
441,500
Environmental Precautions
( EIA )
7122
347,500
3,000
3,000
78,290
34,000
7142
Tubing accessories
112,000
22,000
8671
7123
TOTAL
78,290
34,000
112,000
22,000
94,000
147,000
347,500
246,290
740,790
81
SUPPORT
COSTS ($/day)
OD overhead inc.consultants
2,650
2,650
2,650
2,650
17,225
29,150
46,817
22,525
115,717
500
500
500
500
3,250
5,500
8,833
4,250
21,833
6149
6609
Bus service
100
100
100
100
650
1,100
1,767
850
4,367
9401
Air transport
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
6,500
11,000
17,667
8,500
43,667
9402
Land transport
270
270
270
270
1,755
2,970
4,770
2,295
11,790
29,380
49,720
79,853
38,420
197,373
197,245
1,643,421
2,742,260
193,630
4,776,556
TOTAL
4,520
4,520
GENERAL TOTAL
TOTAL ESTIMATE
Plan
Actual
28.7
28
26
24
21.3
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
5.8
4.5
4
2
0
Rig Move
OH Sidetrack
Run Completion
(UBD)
82
Suspend well
4,780,000
4160
UBD Preparation
4210
4260
4310
4360
Drill 3 7/8" Leg B
4410
4460
4510
Completion
30
40
4560
4610
OH Sidetrack
4660
10
15
20
25
35
45
Plan
11.0d
8.3d
1.0d
8.3d
8.5d
0.0d
50
Actual
28.7d
21.3d
0.0d
0.0d
0.0d
4.5d
55
60
Days
Plan
Actual
Plan
Actual
2,500,000
2,000,000
1,500,000
1,000,000
500,000
83
0
Rig Move
OH Sidetrack
Run Completion
(UBD)
Run 5"
Completion
Suspension
Cost in $
$0
$500,000
4160
4210
4260
4310
Depth in m
4360
4410
4460
4510
4560
4610
4660
Plan
Actual
84
Quantifying Productivity
One of the main advantages of UBD is reduction in formation damage. Therefore
the evaluation of the productivity is indispensable for the cost estimation. To
evaluate the potential gains in productivity of a well, we must be able to estimate
the potential decrease in the mechanical skin. In order to evaluate the productivity
index and production volume for each vertical and horizontal case, the following
equations are used in our system:
0.00708Kh
PI
re
0.75 s
rw
Bo ln
PI
0.00708KL
2
2r
L
h
e
s
Bo ln
ln
L
h
2rw
2re
Where
85
kh( Pi Pwf )
kt
q
log
3.23 0.87 s (oil)
2
162.6 Bo Ct rw
kh( Pi Pwf2 )
kt
q
log
3.23 0.87 s (gas)
2
1637 ZT
Ct rw
where:
86
0.00708KhPi Pwf
r
Bo ln e 0.75 s
rw
0.00708KhPi Pwf
r
Bo ln e 0.75 s
rw
Kh Pi Pwf2
(oil)
(oil)
1424ZT ln e 0.75 s
rw
(gas)
Similarly, the pesudosteady state for gases in horizontal wells would be.
q
kh P Pwf2
1424ZT ln(0.472re / rw s Dq
Where:
D is the turbulence coefficient and is equal to
D
6 10 5 K 0.1 h
2
rw h pef
The Well Inflow Quality Indicator (WIQI) is the ratio of the PI for an impaired to
that for an undamaged well. PTA (pressure transient analysis) is preferable for
determining skin. It can be difficult and costly.
Simple analyses such as these can qualitatively show how production rate can be
increased if underbalanced drilling reduces skin. They may show that fewer wells
are required and that the producible oil or gas in place can be increased.
Abandonment pressure might be also reduced if the skin is reduced by drilling
underbalanced. This is because of the pressure drop through the skin. Consider
the additional pressure drop due to skin in oil well, for radial steady-state flow.
Ps
141.2QBo
s
Kh
The following operating data of obayed horizontal gas well show such calculation
in evaluating the effect of UBD in skin effect and in turn in the PI
P=5900 psi
Pwf=3300 psi
K=0.1 md
0.427re/rw=7
D=1.5E-3 (MSCF/d)-1
T=300 oF
87
h=14360 ft
Z=0.98
Visco.=0.027053 cp
Q
(MMSCF)
PI
(SCFD/psi)
170.98556 7.148225706 1
132.9951
5.55999581
99.75048
10
100
180
160
WIQI
WIQI %
100%
0.7778148 78%
Production rate
Well inflow quality indicator
productivity index
120
100
4
80
PI
WIQI
40
20
0
0
Skin factor
10
100
180
160
140
productivity index
Well inflow quality indicator
120
100
4
80
3
60
40
20
0
0
88
Production rate
PI
WIQI
60
Production rate
Production rate
140
10
100
Skin factor
FIGURE 12:VARIATION OF PI, PRODUCTION RATE AND WIQI WITH DRILLING INDUCED SKIN .
References
1. Medley, G.H., Stone, R.C., Colbert, W.J., and McGowen III, H.E.:
Underbalanced Operations Manual, Signa Engineering Corp., Houston
(1998).
2. Rehm, B.: Practical Underbalanced Drilling and Workover, Petroleum
Extension Services, Austin (2002).
3. J. R. Duda, G. H. Medley, W. G. Deskins: Strong Growth Projected for
Underbalanced Drilling, Oil & Gas Journal, (September 1996), 60-77.
4. J. Saponja, P. Eng.: Challenge with Jointed Pipe Underbalanced
Operations, paper SPE37066 presented at the 1996 SPE International
Conference on Horizontal Well Technology, Calgary, 18-20 November.
5. D.B. Bennion: Underbalanced Drilling Technology Candidate Selection
For Optimal Application, JCPT, (November1994), 34-42.
6. D.B. Bennion, F.B. Thomas: Underbalanced Drilling of Horizontal Wells:
Does It Really Eliminate Formation Damage?, paper SPE27352
presented at the 1994
7. SPE Intl. Symposium on Formation Damage Control, Lafayette, Louisiana,
7-10 February.
8. D.B. Bennion, F.B. Thomas: Formation Damage and Horizontal Wells A
Productivity Killer?, paper SPE37138 presented at the 1996 International
Conference on Horizontal Well Technology, Calgary, Canada, 18-20
November.
9. D.B. Bennion, F.B. Thomas: Low Permeability Gas Reservoirs and
Formation Damage Tricks and Traps, paper SPE59753 presented at the
2000 SPE/CERI Gas Technology Symposium, Calgary, Canada, April 3-5.
10. R.A. Joseph: Planning Lessens Problems, Gets Benefits of
Underbalanced Drilling, Oil & Gas Journal, (May 1995), 86-89.
11. Bennion, D.B.: An Overview of Formation Damage Mechanisms Causing
a Reduction in the Productivity and Injectivity of Oil and Gas Producing
Formations, JCPT, (November 2002), 41, 29-36.
12. Sharif, Q.: A Case Study of Stuck Pipe Problems and Development of
Statistical Models to Predict the Probability of Getting Stuck and IF Stuck,
The Probability of Getting Free, PhD dissertation Texas A&M University
(1997).
13. Guo B., Galambor A.: Gas Volume Requirements for Underbalanced
Drilling Deviated Holes, Petroleum Extension Services, Austin (2002).
89
90
Content
1-introduction
2- gas supply
3- gas compressors
4- in line facilities
5-Separation System
6 pits and tanks
91
1. Introduction
Most underbalanced drilling equipment is available on a rental basis from
various air and gas drilling equipment contractors. These contractors supply
the necessary surface equipment to carry out an UBD operation. The following
sections discuss a typical gaseous drilling fluid equipment layout; detailed
description of surface equipment designs for the other UBD fluids are beyond
the scope of this manual.
2. Gas Supply
While air is available by nature at each drilling location, supply of other gas
sources such as nitrogen or natural gas requires specialized surface equipment.
92
93
required. Some means of controlling the injection rate should be provided. This
can normally be the choke in the supply line.
3.1 Compressors
As their name indicates, these are the primary means of compressing air
to the Pressure required to circulate it round the well. Several different
types of compressor units are available - rotary vane, straight lobe,
reciprocating, and rotary screw. Of these, the reciprocating and rotary
screw types are the most widely used for drilling applications.
94
Compressor output is usually expressed in terms of the free volume that the
output air would occupy under the prevailing input conditions. Delivery capacities
of 750 to 1,000 cubic feet per minute (cfm) are common in oilfield applications.
Compressor output is sometimes expressed in standard cubic feet per minute
(scfm). This is the volume that the air delivered by the compressor in one minute
would occupy under standard conditions of temperature and pressure (STP, 60F
and 14.7 psia). When expressed in scfm, the output decreases with increasing
altitude and temperature because of the accompanying reduction in density of the
free air drawn into the compressor. Assuming that air behaves as an ideal gas,
the volume, VI, occupied by a given quantity of air at pressure, P 1 (psia), and
temperature, T1 is related to the volume, VO, at standard pressure (14.7 psia) and
temperature (60F or 520R) by:
Vt Vo
14.7(T1 460)
520 P1
(E QUATION 1)
The air delivery rate, Q o expressed in scfm, can be found from the free air
delivery rate, Q,(cfm), the ambient pressure, P (psia), and the temperature T( 0F),
using:
Qo Q
520 P1
14.7(T1 460)
(EQUATION 2)
The influence of reduced ambient pressure on air delivery rate, due to operating at
high elevations, can be significant in some parts of the United States.
T ABLE 1: PREDICTED BOTTOM HOLE ANNULAR AND STANDPIPE PRESSURES AT VERSUS PENETRATION
RATES IN A 6,000 FOOT DRY, AIR DRILLED HOLE.
Penetration rate
Ft / hr
0
30
60
120
180
240
300
As a rule-of thumb, atmospheric pressure decreases by 0.5 psi for each 1,000 feet
of elevation increase. In the Rocky Mountains, it is not unusual to have wells
located at 6,000 feet above sea level, where the ambient pressure is around 11.8
95
psia. At this elevation, a compressor rated at 1,000 scfm free air delivery will
deliver only 803 scfm, if the ambient temperature is 60F.
The influence of temperature on delivery rate is smaller, but not necessarily
negligible. Considering the same well location, if the ambient air temperature is
100"F, the delivery rate will drop further to 745 scfm. The well site elevation and
ambient temperature should therefore be considered when determining
compressor requirements.
Well site elevation can have a further impact on compressor output because of its
effect on the power generated by the compressors diesel engine. Lyons, 1984,
indicate that the power output of internal combustion engines decreases linearly
with increasing altitude. A normally aspirated diesel engine will lose 22 percent of
its sea-level power rating when operated at an altitude of 6,000 feet a turbo
charged engine will lose approximately 15 percent of its power rating. This will be
significant if the compressors are to be operated close to both their volumetric
delivery and pressure ratings.
Measurements of compressor delivery rates, made with an orifice meter during field
operations, have indicated that the delivery rate actually achieved by different
compressors can vary between 50 and 95 percent of rated capacity. A common
average is 70 to 75 percent of the rated inlet capacity. The efficiency of the
compressor is primarily a function of how well it has been maintained. As a result, it
is not possible to determine the discharge volume simply by measuring the
compressor rpm. An orifice meter is the only practical way to determine actual
volumes delivered to the standpipe. Very often, two or more compressors are used
to provide the required flow rate. Depending on the daily rent 11 rate for
compressors, in comparison to the total daily drilling cost, there can be stages in
having an extra compressor In site, in addition to those necessary to give the
desired flow rate. In this way, one compressor can be pulled out of service for
maintenance without impeding drilling Operations.
Single stage compressors typically have a maximum discharge pressure of about
135 psi. Most compressors that are used for air drilling are multi-stage (usually twostage in the case of rotary screw compressors). These have maximum discharge
pressures that range from 250 to 350 psi. In many instances, this pressure capacity
is sufficient for dry air drilling.
Air compressors are available which provide adequate air volumes along with
portability.
The most commonly used oil field air compressor is a positive displacement,
double acting, reciprocating, two or three-stage type compressor. The number of
compressors in a package will depend on the air volume required to drill hole
efficiently. Generally, one air compressor available on today's market, for oil filed
drilling will put out from 400 to 1200 cubic feet of air per minute at 300 to 320 psig
maximum pressure.
96
3.2 Boosters
Boosters are positive displacement compressors that take the exit volume of the
compressors and compress it to a higher pressure. A booster is required if drilling
pressures exceed the pressure capabilities of the compressors.
The oilfield booster will increase pressure from about 300 psig to about 1500 psig.
The booster is necessary insurance on an air drilling operation should hole trouble
develop.
Boosters are positive displacement compressors that provide high pressure air.
They are designed to receive the volumetric air/gas flow from the compressor(s)
and increase it to a higher pressure.
If one booster cannot handle the pressure boost from several compressors, an
additional booster can be added parallel.
Low pressure Boosters
The low-pressure boosters are normally composed of a two cylinder, single or
two-stage, double acting, reciprocating, inter-cooled and after-cooled, 7 1/2 x
5 pressure booster. The low-pressure booster is capable of boosting with an
inlet pressure of 165 PSI.
The high-pressure booster
It is normally a single cylinder, double-acting, reciprocating, after-cooled,
2.75 x 7 pressure booster. The high pressure booster needs an inlet
pressure of 1400 psi and can boost up to a pressure of 4000 psia. The highpressure booster may be volume restricted and this will need to be confirmed
with the equipment supplier.
97
FIGURE 4: LOW PRESSURE BOOSTER (1800 PSIA)
4. In-Lines facilities
4.1 Air/gas Line
The line from the compressor to the standpipe should be large enough I diameter
(usually 4) to minimize frictional losses. It should have a pressure relief valve to guard
against high pressures for the compressors and other equipment. It should also have a
check valve to prevent air or fluids back flow to the compressor. The standpipe should
have a pressure gauge, while the air line should have a connection to the Braden head
for reverse circulation if necessary. The air header should also connect through a
release, or blow down line, to the blooie line. This way the compressors do not have to
be shut down or taken off line during connection. A three way valve or two standard
valves may be used, and should be positioned so the rig crew can control air flow from
the rig floor all times.
4.3 Scrubber
The scrubber removes excess water in the compressed air flowing the flow line. If the
humidity of the atmospheric air is high, then as the air is compressed in the
compressors much of the water will return to the liquid state. Dry air drilling operations
require the removal of this water before the compressed air is injected into the well.
4.5 Valves
98
Both manually and remotely operated valves are located along the flow line to the rig.
These valves are usually the gate or ball type. These valves cannot be operated in a
partially open position. The abrasive nature of the compressed air flow in the flow line
would erode the gate or ball of the valve and render the valve ineffective in the closed
position. At strategic locations along the flow line are check valves. These special
mechanical valves allow compressed air flow in only one direction (toward the
standpipe).
4.6 Gauges
Each of the compressors is equipped with independent gauges to assess its
operating performance. In addition to the compressor gauges are those placed
along the flow line. A low pressure gauge is placed downstream of the primary
compressors but upstream of the booster compressor. This gauge allows
assessment of the performance of the primaries. A high pressure gauge is placed
downstream of the booster compressor to assess the performance of the
primaries and booster when high pressure compressed air is required. Pressure
gauges are also placed upstream and downstream of the water injection pump
and the solids injector.
The Blooie line carries exhaust air/gas and cuttings to the flare pit. Recommended
length and diameter are 300[ft] (100[m]) or more, with a cross sectional area
equivalent to that of the annulus. The outlet end of the line should be crosswind to
the prevailing wind and should extend past the flare pit wall by 6[ft]. The Blooie line
should be securely anchored and grounded along its entire length.
5.2. Deducter
In order to minimize the dust exiting the Blooie line, a
Deducter is employed to wet the cuttings slightly prior
to their exit from the Blooie line. This accomplished
using a small centrifugal pump, flexible water lines
and some form of jet or spray nozzles inside the
Blooie line.
FIGURE 5: DEDUCTER
A small pilot light or flame should be maintained at the end of the Blooie line.
This will ignite any gas encountered while drilling. When drilling with natural
gas, the flame should be extinguished until full flow is available in the Blooie
line.
99
100
FIGURE 7: BURN BIT LOCATION
5. Separation System
In all underbalanced operations, the separation system that is to be used has to
be tailored to the expected reservoir fluids. The separation system must be
designed to handle the expected influx fluids and gasses, and it must be able to
separate the drilling fluid from the return well flow in order for it to be pumped
down the well once again.
The surface separation system in underbalanced drilling can be readily compared
with a process plant, and there are many similarities with the process industry.
Fluid streams while drilling underbalanced are often described as four phase flow,
as the return flow is comprised of:
Oil
Water
Gas
Solids
101
102
5.3 Degasser
Gas carryover from the separator to an open mud pump suction tank is potentially
dangerous, particularly if there is any possibility of H2S production. Gas in the
reinjected liquid can cause lower than anticipated pressures downhole, with
consequent higher production and safety concerns. It will also interfere with the
efficiency of the mud pumps. All gas has to be eliminated from any liquid to be
reinjected into the well. In most circumstances, it will be necessary to use an
additional degasser, downstream of the primary separator.
103
6.2 Skimmers
Drilling fluid and oil flows from the gas separator into a series of two or more
tanks The tanks have weirs or partitions at the top that allows the oil that rises to
the top of the water to flow over into a second tank partition and then into the
second tank. Then the third tank, etc. The water is pumped from the bottom of the
tank. Thirty minutes to an hour of separation time is usually enough for free oil to
separate from the water and rise to the surface With persistent oil/water
emulsions, breakers may have to be sprayed or mixed into the first pit or pumped
into the line between the separator and first skimming. Actually, the skimmer can
be divided into two pits;
The drilling fluid pit serves as a reservoir for cleaned drilling fluid, which is
automatically returned to the rig pit for mud pump suction. The drilling fluid pit
contains two or more centrifugal pumps, with level controllers.
These maintain levels adequate to ensure proper gravity flow from the primary
and secondary oil separation pits. Each centrifugal pump has its own level
controller and acts independently, to maintain pit level regardless of the return
flow from the well. Complete redundancy in these pumps is necessary, to ensure
that the return flow of drilling fluid will not be interrupted during critical flow drilling
periods.
7. Flare system
As hydrocarbons are produced whilst drilling underbalanced, these must be
handled on the drilling location. Gas is normally flared whilst crude oil and
condensate are stored and then pumped to a processing facility. Where
environmental regulations preclude flaring, gas re-compression and export
injection can now be considered as a viable alternative to flaring.
Flaring is either done in a flare pit or through a flare stack. The flare stack or flare
pit should be equipped with an automatic ignition system and flam propagation
blocks.
For safety reasons a great deal of consideration should be given to the surface
equipment layout to avoid unnecessary rig crew exposure to noxious fumes,
radiated heat, noise and flammable liquids.
Even with the use of water curtains as a means of preventing the spread of fire
and thermal radiation, it is necessary to know the amount of thermal radiation that
will be transmitted through the water curtains. For onshore systems a heat
radiation survey can dictate the required height of the stack.
105
8. Surface Measurements
It is convenient to divide UBD surface instrumentation into separate categories
based on the equipment that it serves. The general problems of instrumentation
are not unique to UBD but are common to all drilling.
With UB drilling, there are several different service companies, the drilling
contractor, and the operator on location. Each of them is collecting their own
information, often in specific formats. To be really useable, the material has to be
gathered into a standard format. On most drilling operations, the mud logger
collects the drilling data, but with few exceptions, they do not maintain detailed
operational data.
106
In all operations where air, gas, or nitrogen is used, it is critical to measure the
gas content and record the pressure and temperature. The metered gas should
be reported as at local conditions, and as reduced to standard cubic feet or
meters. Metering of air and gas is traditionally done with differential pressure
Meters in a run with straightening vanes. Other systems using turbine or positive
Displacement meters are available. Any system is satisfactory that is calibrated
and Provable. Pressure is a critical part of gas drilling operations. Pressure,
weight, and ROP are the driller's measurement tools. Rig mud pressure gauges
are not adequate to measure gas pressures in the range and accuracy needed.
The gauge must precise enough to register 10 to 20 psi change at 300 psi.
107
9.2.1
Hand Pump
9.2.2
108
9.2.3
Piston Pumps
9.2.4
Unstable foam (mist) drilling operations require the injection of water into the
compressed air flow before the air is injected into the well. The water injection
pump injects water, chemical corrosion inhibitors, and liquid foamers into the
compressed air flow line these skid mounted water injection pumps are used
for the deep drilling operations. These pumps are capable of injecting up to 20
bbl/hr (at 42 gal/bbl) into the air or gas flow to the well. The smaller drilling rigs
have on-board water injection pumps. These smaller rig water injection pumps
have capabilities from 10 to 25 gal/min. The small water injection pump carries
out the same objective on these smaller rigs as the skid mounted water pump
for the larger double and triple drilling rigs. The injection of water and
appropriate chemicals and foamer is a vital option for air and gas drilling
operations. Very few air and gas drilling operations are carried out without
some water, chemical additives, and foam producing additives being injected.
109
110
111
112
FIGURE 18: CLOSED LOOP CIRCULATION SYSTEM
113
114
Fluid Group
Fluid
Equipment Requirements
Gas Drilling
Air
Nitrogen
Natural
Gas
Mist Drilling
Mist
Foam
Drilling
Gasified
Liquid
Drilling
Gasified
Liquid
Liquid
Drilling
Oil Based
Emulsion
Water
Based
NOTES:
Snubbing unit, coiled tubing unit, casing drilling, parasitic strings, and
closed loop systems may be required.
115
116
117
FIGURE 22: GENERAL RIG ARRANGEMENT
118
FIGURE 23: LAY OUT OF SURFACE EQUIPMENT
References
Bieseman, T.,
RKER.95.071
119
DOWNHOLE EQUIPEMENT
IN UNDERBALANCED DRILLING
120
D O W EN H O L E EQ UI P E MEN T IN UN D ER B A L AN C ED
IN Underbalanced Drilling
Contents
Down-hole
Equipment
121
D O W EN H O L E EQ UI P E MEN T IN UN D ER B A L AN C ED
122
Above the bit sub are the drill collars. Each of the drill collars and most of the
remainder of the components in the drill string are designed with a threaded pin
down and a threaded box up.
Generally the drill collars in a drill string have the same thread design. Above the
drill collars are the drill pipe joints. The threads of the drill collar connections are
usually not the same as the threads of the drill pipe joint connections (tool joints).
Therefore, a special crossover sub must be used to mate the drill collars to the
drill pipe. The crossover sub is a short thick walled pipe with a threaded pin down
(with the drill collar threads) and a threaded box up (with the drill pipe threads).
The bit sub is used to protect the bottom threads of the bottom drill collar from the
wear caused by the frequent drill bit changes that are typical for all deep drilling
operations.
A drill collar is a thick wall pipe that provides the weight or vertical axial force on
the drill bit allowing the drill bit to be advanced as it is rotated. Usually there are a
number of drill collars in a drill string. The number of drill collars in a drill string
depends on how much weight-on-bit (WOB) is required to allow the drill bit to be
advanced efficiently.
123
FIGURE 3 DRILL COLLERS AND HEAVY WEIGHT DRILL PIPES
D O W EN H O L E EQ UI P E MEN T IN UN D ER B A L AN C ED
At the top of the drill pipe section is the Kelly cock (or saver) sub. The Kelly cock
sub is another crossover sub. But this sub is used to protect the bottom threads
of the Kelly.
124
FIGURE 5:DUAL W ALL P IPE DRILL S TRING
Drilling Bits
There are three basic types of rotary drill bits. These are drag bits, roller cutter
bits, and air hammer bits
.
FIGURE 6:
bits
Fixed Cutter Bits
Natural
Diamond
Insert
PDC
Insert
TSP
Rotary dual wall pipe reverse circulation operations must be used on drilling rigs
equipped with hydraulic rotary top drive systems (for single drilling rigs) or with
hydraulic power swivel systems (for double and triple drilling rigs) to rotate the
drill string. Dual wall pipe is quite rigid and has a much higher weight per unit
length than standard single wall drill pipe. Thus, dual wall pipe can be used like
drill collars (the lower portion of the drill string can be placed in compression).
Steel
Mill
Tungsten
Carbide
Inserts
125
D O W EN H O L E EQ UI P E MEN T IN UN D ER B A L AN C ED
Drag bits have fixed cutter blades or elements that are integral with the body
of the bit. The earliest drag bits were simply steel cutter blades rigidly
attached to a steel body that is made up to the bottom of the drill string. Later
natural diamonds were used as the cutter elements. A diamond drill bit has
natural diamonds that are embedded in a tungsten carbide matrix body that
is made up to the bottom of the drill string. The most recent development in
drag bit technology is the polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) bit.
126
Steel Body
Matrix Body
Dual Diameter
Special features
Applications
127
D O W EN H O L E EQ UI P E MEN T IN UN D ER B A L AN C ED
Impregnated
SHORT PDC
BIT
MEDIUM PDC
BIT
NATURAL
DIAMOND BIT
TSP BIT
128
Roller cutter bits use a crushing action to remove rock from the cutting face and
advance the drill bit. The weight or axial force that is applied to the drill bit is
transferred to the tooth or teeth on the bit. These teeth are pointed (mill tooth bit)
or rounded (insert tooth bit) and the force applied is sufficient to fail the rock in
shear and tension and cause particles of the rock to separate from the cutting
face. The drill bits are designed to remove a layer of rock with each successive
rotation of the bit.
Roller cone bits (or rock bits) are still the most common type of bit used world
wide. The cutting action is provided by cones which have either steel teeth
or tungsten carbide inserts. These cones rotate on the bottom of the hole
and drill hole predominantly with a grinding and chipping action. Rock bits
are classified as milled tooth bits or insert bits depending on the cutting surface
on the cones
The major advances in rock bit design since the introduction of the Hughes rock
bit include:
Improved cleaning action by using jet nozzles
Using tungsten carbide for hardfacing and gauge protection
Introduction of sealed bearings to prevent the mud causing premature
failure
due to abrasion and corrosion of the bearings.
129
D O W EN H O L E EQ UI P E MEN T IN UN D ER B A L AN C ED
PDC
ROLLER CONE
130
FIGURE 12: ANATOMY OF CONE BIT
The Super-Scoop is
used in very soft rock.
With the patented offset
tip, digging and gouging
help penetrate in sticky
materials. The Super-
131
FIGURE 14: AIR HUMMER BITS
D O W EN H O L E EQ UI P E MEN T IN UN D ER B A L AN C ED
To prevent the air hammer from coming unscrewed while going in the hole, make
each connection up drill collar tight. Also, the air hammer should be tested on the
rig floor, using the air volume normally used for drilling. Note the pressure at
which the air hammer operates at the normal drilling air volume. This will allow
any malfunction in the operation of the air hammer to be detected while drilling.
The operation of the air hammer should be checked periodically. Stop drilling,
leave weight on the bit and air in the hole, place a steel object against the Kelly
and near the ear and listen; a faint buzzing sound will be heard if the air hammer
is working properly. Air hammer manufactures recommend pouring a small
amount of oil down the drill pipe periodically to lubricate the moving parts of the
air hammer. With proper care and handling, an air hammer can run 150 to 300
hours.
Hammer Designs
CPF
132
B R(T t )
F
Where
bit cost, B, is in dollars
rig rate, R, is in dollars per hour
rotating time, T, and trip time, t, are in hours
footage drilled, F, is measured in feet
Drilling jars
The use of drilling jars in underbalanced drilling with jointed pipe is not a
straightforward decision. In underbalanced drilling, drilling jars can be used and
they are just as effective as in overbalanced drilling. Differential sticking does not
occur during underbalanced drilling. The one issue with jars that needs to be
considered is tripping jars using a snubbing unit.
Drilling Jars
The purpose of these tools is to deliver a sharp blow to free the pipe if it becomes
stuck in the hole. Hydraulic jars are activated by a straight pull and give an
upward blow. Mechanical jars are preset at surface to operate when a given
compression load is applied and give a downward blow. Jars are usually
positioned at the top of the drill collars.
A mechanical device used down hole to deliver an impact load to another down
hole component, especially when that component is stuck. There are two primary
types, hydraulic and mechanical jars.
133
Stabilizers
D O W EN H O L E EQ UI P E MEN T IN UN D ER B A L AN C ED
Stabilizers and rolling cutter reamers are special thick-walled drill collar subs that
are placed in the BHA to force the drill collars to rotate at or near the center of the
borehole. By keeping the drill collars at or near the center of the borehole the drill
bit will drill on a nearly straight course projected by the center axis of the rigid
BHA.
Stabilizers and rolling cutter reamers have blades or rolling cutters that protrude
from the sub wall into the annulus to near the borehole diameter. The space
between blades or rolling cutters allows the air or natural gas flow with entrained
rock cuttings to return to the surface nearly unobstructed.
Reamers
The rolling cutter reamer is a special type of stabilizer tool that provides blades,
which are cylindrical roller cutter elements that can crush and remove rock from
the borehole wall as the drill bit is advanced. Often the reamer is placed just
above the drill bit.
Reamers are available in a three-point rolling cutter reamer as shown in figure
(A) These reamers have the roller cutters 120 0 apart on the circumference and
are also available in a four-point rolling cutter reamer where These reamers have
the rolling cutters 90_ apart on the circumference such rolling cutter reamers are
used when drilling in abrasive, hard rock formations
134
FIGURE 17: REAMERS
Shock Sub
A shock sub is normally located above the bit to reduce the stress due to
bouncing when the bit is drilling through hard rock. The shock sub absorbs the
vertical vibration either by using a strong steel spring, or a resilient rubber
element There are two types of shock subs:
135
D O W EN H O L E EQ UI P E MEN T IN UN D ER B A L AN C ED
136
The most common technique for transmitting MWD data uses the drilling fluid
pumped down through the drill string as a transmission medium. Mud-pulse
telemetry transmits data to the surface by modifying the flow of mud in the drillpipe in such a way that there will be changes in fluid pressure at surface. It
involves the sequential operation of a down hole mechanism to selectively vary
or modulate the dynamic flowing pressure in the drillstring and thereby sends the
real-time data gathered by the down hole sensors. This variation in the dynamic
pressure is detected at the surface where it is demodulated back into the real
measurements and parameters from the down-hole sensors.
As directional drilling has become commonplace, so has the industrys need for
cost-effective, measurement-while-drilling (MWD) systems that can deliver
accurate directional survey and toolface data in all types of drilling environments.
137
Figure 21: MWD components
Electromagnetic MWD
D O W EN H O L E EQ UI P E MEN T IN UN D ER B A L AN C ED
Imag transmission is typically used for short-hop systems, e.g. across a motor. It
has an advantage in that its transmission is essentially independent of mud
properties and layering within the rock formation. Signals are generated by
wrapping solenoid coils around the drillpipe to create a magnetic dipole. The
contrast in magnetic properties of metal versus rock is only about 100 to 1, but
the dipole efficiency can be increased somewhat by adding ferrite cores to the
coils.
Emag transmission is typically used to send data over longer distances. Signals
are generated from a voltage difference on the drill-collar, which is either induced
from toroidal coils wrapped around the collar or created directly by adding an
insulating gap to the drillpipe. This creates an electric dipole with one long end
(to the surface) and one short end (to the bit). The metal drillpipe acts as a long
focusing antenna because of the large conductivity contrast between it and the
rock (10,000,000 to 1).
138
FIGURE 23: ELECTROMAGNETIC MEASUREMENT WHILE DRILLING
Heavyweight drill pipe is used in directional drilling operations where drill collars
can be replaced by the heavyweight pipe. Using heavyweight drill pipe in place of
drill collars reduces the rotary torque and drag and increases directional control.
139
D O W EN H O L E EQ UI P E MEN T IN UN D ER B A L AN C ED
140
Float valves
These are also known as non return valves. Non return valves are necessary for
underbalanced drilling to prevent influx of reservoir fluids up inside the drillstring
either when tripping or making connections. It must be recognized that there is
pressure below non-return valves.
The positions of the float valve in the drillstring depend on the tools in the BHA
and the policy of the operating philosophy underpinning the safety management
of the operation. The number of float valves in the BHA and the drillstring is also
a matter of company policy consistent with perceived risks and management
thereof.
Using a float valve is another primary difference between drilling with air and with
fluid. It is not common to run a float valve when drilling with fluid. A float valve is a
requirement when drilling with air. In an air hole, the drillstring should not be run
without a float valve near the bit. Air in the annulus contains cuttings, making it
much more dense than the air inside the drillstring. When air is vented from the
drillstring to make a connection, air and cuttings will U-tube into the drillstring
from the annulus. As the differential pressures equalize, air will stop moving and
the cuttings will fall to the bottom. Inside the drillstring, the cuttings will settle on
top of the bit and plug the drillstring.
The pipe will most likely have to be tripped out of the hole in order to unplug the
drill string. Installing a float valve above the bit eliminates the possibility of
plugging the drill string with cuttings while bleeding pressure off the drill string.
While the best place for the float valve is immediately above the bit, sometimes it
may have to be run immediately above a down hole tool (such as a motor, MWD
tool or stabilizer). In general, a double float valve is installed just above the BHA
and a further double float valve is installed above the bit so that there is
redundant service.
dart type
Float
valves
Flapper type
There are two types of float valves; these two types are the dart type and
the flapper Type.
The dart type valve is spring activated, which opens to allow the direct circulation
flow to pass around the dart. This type of valve provides a more secure shutoff
against high and low pressure back flows.
The flapper type valve opens fully during circulation to provide an unrestricted
bore through the valve and closes when back flow pressure is applied. These
valves are used in nearly all deep rotary air and gas drilling operations. The dart
valve is used in the bit sub just above the drill bit. In practice, at least one flapper
valve is placed just above the drill collars or above a down hole motor. A second
is often placed about 1000 ft. below the surface. It is not unusual for a long drill
string to have three or four float valves.
If the drilling float valve(s) should all fail, the well may have to be circulated to kill
weight fluid and a string trip undertaken to replace or repair the float valves.
141
FIGURE 26: THE DART TYPE AND THE FLAPPER T YPE
D O W EN H O L E EQ UI P E MEN T IN UN D ER B A L AN C ED
The valve can be retrieved if wire line operations through the drill string are
required or if the valve has to be moved to a higher position in the string. The
valves are positioned in a locking profile sub that is part of the drill string.
142
143
FIGURE 28: D OWN H OLE ISOLATION VALVES
Drill pipe
D O W EN H O L E EQ UI P E MEN T IN UN D ER B A L AN C ED
144
It is also important that drill pipe being used for underbalanced drilling not be
plastic coated. In a gasified fluid, the plastic coating is likely to be stripped off and
plug the string. The new abrasion-resistant, liquid-applied, modified epoxyphenolic or the ceramic particle loaded epoxy resin coated systems for drill pipe
can be used for underbalanced drilling operations.
Hard banding:
Any hard banding on the drill pipe must be reviewed carefully. Hard banding on
the Pipe will wear out the rotating diverter rubbers much more quickly than pipe
without hard banding. If hard banding is required, then it must be as smooth as it
can be.
Drill pipe Rubbers
Drill pipe protection rubbers cannot be run when drilling underbalanced. There
are two reasons for this.
1- They suffer from gas impregnation when run deeper into the well and will
explosively de-compress when pulling out of the hole.
2- Is running the drill pipe rubbers through the rotating diverter will cause
blow-by when tripping and drilling.
References
o API Recommended Practices for Drill String Design and Operating Limits, API
RP7G, Sixteenth Edition, August1998.
145
146
Contents
1- Origin of coiled
tubing
2- Coiled tubing
equipment
3- Surface equipment
4- Downhole
equipment
5- Coiled tubing
drilling
6- Coiled tubing
perforation
147
Introduction:
Coiled Tubing is a service used for Well Intervention in the Oil, Gas, and Geothermal
industries. It is widely accepted as one of the Safest, fastest, and most economical
means of performing well stimulation, work over, and drilling operations.
Well Intervention technique using continuous length of thin-walled tube into
pressurized well by means of a mechanically driven belt. Its Common sizes range
from 1 - 1 due to current economic changes & CT advance technology larger size
range from 2 - 3.
Coiled tubing is manufactured from low carbon steel that has both strength and
ductility where:
Strength: is to bear its own weight and that of down hole tools in the well.
Ductility: it can wrap around the reel and gooseneck.
The alloy used has very low sulfur content to make it resist attack of H2S, Chromium,
Copper, Nickel to give it ductility.
It can be easily transported, rigged up & unrigged in a shortest period of time.
(Offshore - 3 hrs & Onshore - 1 hrs). Currently max working depth 25K ft at 250
ft/min. CT is cheaper & quicker alternative to perform down hole works compare to
conventional methods.
CT, as a well service tool, was originally developed in the early 1960s and has
become a key Component of many well service and work over operations. Well
service or work over applications still account for over three-quarters of CT work.
However, the recent and more advanced Use of CT technology for completion and
drilling applications is rapidly gaining popularity.
148
Features of CT technology:
Speed and economy are key advantages of applying CT technology. Also, the
relatively small Unit size and short rig-up time compare favorably with other well
drilling and work over Options. Beneficial features of CT technology include the
following:
149
C. Logging:
Stiffness of Coiled can used as benefit to convey logging tools over long Distances
Continuous logging in each direction.
D. Fracturing:
Fracturing operations can be performed through Coiled Tubing or down the
annulus of the production casing and the Coiled Tubing. It can be used to set
plugs and Jet Cut perforations for multiple stage fracturing operations.
E. Fluid placement:
Accurately place acid, cement and other chemicals at any point in the well bore.
F. Well Cleanout
Clean out sand, scale and wellbore debris in and around from perforation in
producing zones
150
FIGURE 3: COILED TUBING APPLICATION ( FRAC JOB )
151
1. Surface equipment
It consists of:
152
1.
2.
3.
4.
153
2.
2.1.
The Motor Head Assembly (MHA) is basically the combination of a coiled tubing
connector, check valve and a disconnect which is incorporated into a single tool
to minimize the tool length the tools are arranged in the following order to provide
maximum safety and functionality:
CT Connection (Top).
Check Value.
Disconnect (Bottom).
Circulation Sub.
Burst Disc (optional).
2.2.
bit
drilling motor with bent housing
FLOAT SUB ( CHECK VALVES )
154
2.3.
Window milling refers to cutting casing to begin directional drilling. This can be done
conventionally or through tubing. In most cases it is done with a
whip stock.
Cement plug.
Whip stock/cement plug combination.
2.4.
Coiled Tubing
Sand
control
Cementing
Applications
Application
of CT
WORK
OVER
stimulation
155
Completion
Logging
156
Generally, coiled tubing has several advantages and disadvantages over jointed pipe
systems. For jointed pipe systems, drill string properties and tripping under pressure
will need to be considered. The installation of a rotating head or snubbing system on
a platform or rig with a fixed distance between rotary table and wellhead may cause
severe challenges in rig up. Several previous operations on land rigs had to be
redesigned to accommodate rotating control devices and rig assist snubbing
systems.
Coiled tubing
No connections made during drilling
Jointed pipe
Connections require gas injection shut
down causing pressure peaks
gasified fluids
systems
wells
gas fields
Lower costs
157
Rig/D.P.
Action
158
M/U BHA
Trip in
Displace to Mud
Drill Shoe
Drill 200m
Short trip (200m)
Circulate
POOH
Snub out
Change out BHA
Snub in
Trip in
Circulate
Trip in OH (200m)
Drill 200m
Short trip (400m)
Circulate
POOH
Snub out
Change out BHA
Snub in
Trip in
Circulate
Trip in OH (400m)
Drill 200m
Short trip (600m)
Circulate
POOH
Snub out
Change out BHA
Snub in
Trip in
Circulate
Trip in OH (600m)
Drill 200m
Short trip (800m)
Circulate
POOH
Snub out
CTD
Time
(hours)
0
6
7
3
1
22
2
4
8
12
4
12
8
1
2
22
4
4
8
12
4
12
8
1
4
22
6
4
8
12
4
12
8
1
6
22
8
4
8
12
Action
R/U & test CTD Equipment
M/U BHA
Trip in
Displace to Mud
Drill Shoe
Drill 100m
Perform wiper trip ea 25m
Short trip
Circulate
POOH
Deploy tool out of hole
Change out BHA & cut CT
Deploy toolstring in hole
Trip in to shoe
Trip in through OH (100m)
Drill 100m
Perform wiper trip ea 25m
Short trip (200m)
Circulate
POOH
Deploy tool out of hole
Change out BHA & cut CT
Deploy toolstring in hole
Trip in to shoe
Trip in through OH (200m)
Drill 100m
Perform wiper trip ea 25m
Short trip (300m)
Circulate
POOH
Deploy tool out of hole
Change out BHA & cut CT
Deploy toolstring in hole
Trip in to shoe
Trip in through OH (300m)
Drill 100m
Perform wiper trip ea 25m
Short trip (400m)
Circulate
POOH
Time
(hours)
60
6
5
3
3
15
4
0.8
3
5
2
6
2
5
0.8
15
4
1.5
3
5
2
6
2
5
1.5
15
4
2.3
3
5
2
6
2
5
2.3
15
4
3
3
5
4
12
8
1
8
22
10
4
8
12
4
401
16.7
2
6
2
5
3
15
4
3.8
3
5
2
3
48
344.0
14.3
236.0
9.8
159
TABLE 3:C OST COMPARISON BETWENN UB-CTD OPERATIONS AND UBD JOINTED PIPE OPERATIONS
Item
Mobilisation
Days/U
nit
1
Sum
Rig
Days/Unit
Sum
1,000,0
00
200,000
20,000
17
340,000
Rig Up
1,000,0
00
40,000
Daily Rate
40,000
10
400,000
Standby Rate
20,000
Top Drive
1,500
17
25,500
BHA
12,500
17
212,500
Mud Equipment
4,000
15
60,000
17
Mud
40,000
40,000
100,000
100,000
15,000
17
255,000
140,000
140,000
1,000,000
1,000,000
2,000
17
34,000
10,000
15
150,000
10,000
17
170,000
BOP
1,500
17
25,500
RCH/RBOP
17
Snubbing/PPM
0 (inc. in
cost)
2,500
17
42,500
40,000
80,000
Separation
Equipment
Drill Pipe/Coiled
Tubing
DAQ
Nitrogen Generation
Rig Down
160
CTU
2,070,0
00
2,205,000
3,140,0
00
3,410,000
Unit
Cost
Availability
Well Control
Equipment
Size
Pressure
Stripper
Drill String
Size
Comments
Reel
Conventional Rig
15-20k USD/day
20k USD/day
Available
Possible standby charges
Not in Country
Possible standby charges
incurred
EDC41
No standby between wells
4-1/16" Stack
5kpsi
Integral
5kpsi
Integral. For high
pressure gas wells
tandem strippers are
used. Upper one as
primary, lower stripper as
back-up in case top
leaks.
5kpsi
Need RCH/RBOP which
are available up to 5kpsi
WP
Up to 4" DP dependant on
connection type/size
Connections should be
gas tight. Gas wells have
been drilled with IF
connections without
incident. Identification
grooves need to be filled
in.
NA
161
Pipe Life
Tripping pipe
162
Needs to be monitored.
Corrosion to be monitored
and controlled.
Conventional
Max Pipe
Size
Snubbing Unit
Training
Training possibly
required, though crew
should be experienced in
UBD operations.
Associated crew
members and 3rd Party
members to be trained.
As part of package
Insurance
Top Drive
NA
NA
Deployment
Valve
Not required
Needs to be installed.
One year contrqact at
$1500/day. Training
requried by crew prior to
use on UBD well
Simplifies tripping
procedures. Reliability to
be determined prior to
use. Well design needs to
incorporate this.
Tie-back
string
Interfaces
HSE Case
Various interfaces
depending on the UBD
contractor used.
Mobilisation
Completion
Running
Fishing
Operations
Hole Size
Length of
Section
WOB
Risk of HC
Release
Up to 4-3/4"
Maximum 300m
2-5klbs
Low but severe
consequenses for well.
Possible depending on
the unit and the weight
cpabilities. Generally 5"
completion string too
heavy for hybrid unit to
handle.
Possible to fish both OB
and UB. Less pull
available and no
rotational ability)
Up to 6-1/8"
Maximum 600m (3-3/4"
OH)
3-8klbs
Low but severe
consequenses for well.
Corrosion
Inhibitor
Fluids System
Required if generated
nitrogen is used.
Smaller system required
due to smaller overall
system volume when using
5" tie-back. Ideally kill mud
weight should be available
on location during the
operation in case of
problems with the coiled
tubing. May not be
available in country.
Required if generated
nitrogen is used.
Smaller system required
due to smaller overall
system volume when
using 5" tie-back. Ideally
kill mud weight should be
available on location
during the operation in
case of problems with the
coiled tubing. Part of
hybrid CTD unit.
Operations
Round Trip
Speed
On Bottom
Time
Conventional fishing
possible
163
Separation
Pumps
Availability
Rate
Pressure
Nitrogen
Equipment
Data
Acquisition
Environmental
Sidetrack
Options
164
System to be determined.
Weatherford/Northlands
package available for the
operation if required.
Standalone testing package
can be used. Cost estimate
at between $1025kUSD/day depending on
package specifications and
nitrogen requirements.
System to be determined.
Weatherford/Northlands
package available for the
operation if required. Units
rated for 60-80mmscf/day.
Cost estimated at
$25kUSD/day. This
includes nitrogen
generation/pumping
capability.
Stimulation pumps
generally used. Reliability
less than conventional mud
pumps for extended drilling
operations.
Generally low rate. Can be
specified for rates expected
during operation
Pump type to be
confirmed. Either rig
pump or stimulation type.
Liner size to be
determiend by DP size
and rates/pressures
required.
Generally less than
4000psi
Cryogenic or generated
can be used. Generated
nitrogen requires
corrosion additives
Conventional separation
data acquisition systems
available to integrate rig,
mud, separation and
nitrogen injection.
Can be up to 10kpsi if
required
Cryogenic or generated can
be used. Generated
nitrogen requires corrosion
additives
System needs to be
adapted for use with all
components: CT, mud,
separation and nitrogen.
Interface between CT and
separation/mud can be
complex.
Complex hydraulic circuits
involved. Pad size required
generally less than half that
of conventional drilling unit
Openhole or cased hole.
Slow, complex tools. Not as
reliable as conventional
sidetrack.
Cryogenic or generated
can be used. Generated
nitrogen requires
corrosion additives
System part of package
unless separation
package is not part of
unit.
Complex hydraulic
circuits involved. Pad size
required generally half
that of conventional
drilling unit
Openhole or cased hole.
Slow, complex tools. Not
as reliable as
conventional sidetrack.
Conventional drilling
operation. Needs to be
controlled.
Conventional.
Stuck Pipe
Conventional. Rotation
capability reduces
chances. Better hole
cleaning.
Freeing Stuck
Pipe
Gas Injection
No connections. Pumping
can be maintained
throughout tripping pipe.
MWD/Drilling
Assembly
Connections to be made.
Drillstring needs to be
bled off to floats each
time. Time consuming.
BHP varies each time.
Surface pressure varies
and slugs occur if using
two-phase fluid.
Conventional tools can be
used if single phase fluid
is utilised. EM-MWD tools
required for two-phase
fluids. These can be time
consuming to trip.
Motor
Selection
Finally:
Coiled tubing drilling represents what many feel is the future in UBD due to our ability
to maintain a relatively continuously underbalanced condition and MWD using a less
problematic internal wire line approach. Current CT technology is limited with respect
to depth and horizontal outreach capability for extended reach well applications.
Pressure pulses during connections with a conventional jointed pipe can be
minimized by using double pipe stands, rapid connections and appropriate circulation
practices prior to breaking for connections to minimize the degree of degradation of
under balance pressure that occurs during or after the connection is made. Top drive
rigs offer the advantage of drilling with triple pipe stands which further reduces the
number of connections required.
Coiled tubing drilling allows the well to be maintained in an underbalanced state
throughout the drilling and completion operations, virtually eliminating any wellbore
damage and possibly reducing the need for well stimulation afterwards.
In obayed D-2 the descision was to use jointed pipe conventional drilling but the
precaution was taken to consider CTD operation in obayed D-4 at the same field
165
References
Adams, N.J., Mack, S.K., Fannin, V.R., and Rocchi, Thierry, 1996: Coiled-Tubing
Applications for Blowout-Control Operations, Journal of Petroleum Technology, May.
Allbee, James D., 1999: Coiled Tubing Hang-offs: A Simple, Yet Effective Tool for the
Future, SPE 52121, presented at the 1999 SPE Mid-Continent Operations Symposium
held in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, March 28-31.
Atherton, G.M. and Davis, M., 1996: Coiled Tubing Drilling of Horizontal Re-Entry Wells,
UK Land, SPE 35546, presented at SPE (location unknown).
Beckman, Jeremy, 1997: Coiled Tubing, Reamer Shoes Push Through Barriers in North
Sea Wells, Offshore, February.
166
166
Directional Drilling
Directional Drilling
IN UNDERBALANCED DRILLING
Contents
3-DIRECTIONAL DRILLING
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUE
4- Geo-Pilot
5- Turbodrill
6- SURVEY TOOLS
7- HORIZONTAL WELLS
167
Directional Drilling
Directional Wells:
Slant
S-Curve
Extended Reach
Horizontal
168
FIGURE 1SIDETRACKING
2-Inaccessible Locations:
3-Fault Drilling
If a well is drilled across a fault the casing can be damaged by fault slippage. The
Potential for damaging the casing can be minimized by drilling parallel to a fault
and Then changing the direction of the well to cross the fault into the target.
Directional Drilling
169
Directional Drilling
Multi-well Platform drilling is widely employed in the North Sea. The development
of these fields is only economically feasible if it is possible to drill a large number
of wells (up to 40 or 60) from one location (platform). The deviated wells are
designed to intercept a reservoir over a wide a real extent. Many oilfields (both
onshore and offshore) would not be economically feasible if not for this technique.
Salt domes have been found to be natural traps of oil accumulating in strata beneath the
overhanging hard cap. There are severe drilling problems associated with drilling a well
through salt formations. These can be somewhat alleviated by using a salt-saturated mud.
Another solution is to drill a directional well to reach the reservoir
.
170
FIGURE 5SALT D OME DRILLING
6-Relief Well:
7-Horizontal Wells:
Reduced production in a field may be due to many factors, including gas and water
coning or formations with good but vertical permeability. Engineers can then plan
and drill a horizontal drain hole. It is a special type of directional well Horizontal
wells are divided into long, medium and short-radius designs, based on the buildup
rates used. Other applications of directional drilling are in developing geothermal
fields and in mining.
Directional Drilling
The objective of a directional relief well is to intercept the bore hole of a well which
is blowing and allow it to be killed". The bore hole causing the problem is the size
of the target. To locate and intercept the blowing well at a certain depth, a carefully
planned directional well must be drilled with great precision
171
APPLICATIONS
Directional Drilling
172
Directional drilling is also a valuable well control tool. When a blowout occurs and
surface control methods are impractical, an alternative is to drill a relief well and
pump kill fluids directly or indirectly into the blowout well's annulus.
Directional Drilling
Formation
Type, lithology
anisotropy
dip
Bottomhole assembly size, configuration
stabilizer types, size, positioning
drill collars
reamers and other tools
Drilling parameters
Weight on bit
Hydraulics
Hole angle
Annular clearance
Bit type, design features
173
FIGURE 9:FORMATION ANTICLINE
Wellbore deviation results from forces acting at the bit. We can separate a study of
these forces into two parts:
Bit/rock interaction -- the study of bit behavior in various rocks under the action
of applied bit loads
Drill string mechanics -- the analysis of drill string behavior under the action of
imposed forces
Directional Drilling
Percussive action
Drag-rotary action
Combined percussive/drag-rotary action
Rolling cutter bits fall into the combined percussive/drag-rotary classification, while,
fixed cutter PDC and diamond matrix bits fall into the drag-rotary action category.
174
Directional Drilling
The shape of this buckling depends on how much weight is applied at the bit
(a) and drill sting bucking effect on hole deviation
(b). Once buckling occurs, the bit is no longer vertical, and hole deviation results.
The extent to which buckling occurs depends on the drill string's rigidity and length.
Techniques that have been used to minimize buckling include
Reducing weight-on-bit to a value less than that of the critical weight which
induces first order buckling
Adding stabilizers to the drill string at points of maximum deflection in the
predicted buckling mode
Using large-diameter drill collars
175
From the standpoint of reducing buckling, the ideal bottom hole assembly (BHA)
would have a diameter equal to the hole diameter. Of course, this is a practical
impossibility, so we instead use stabilizers, which have larger diameters than drill
collars, to limit the BHA's lateral movement.
Directional Drilling
176
2- Build, Hold and Drop -- after a relatively shallow deflection, this pattern holds
angle until the well has reached most of its required horizontal displacement. This
pattern is most applicable to wells exposing multiple pay zones, or wells subject to
target or lease boundary restrictions.
Directional Drilling
1-Build and Hold -- this pattern employs a shallow initial deflection and a straightangle approach to the target. It's used to reach single targets at moderate depths,
and sometimes for drilling deeper wells with large horizontal departures.
177
Directional Drilling
3- Continuous Build -- unlike the Type 1 and 2 patterns, this trajectory has a
relatively deep initial deflection, after which angle is maintained to the target. The
continuous build pattern is well-suited to salt-dome drilling, fault drilling, and
sidetrack sand redrills.
178
4- Build, Hold and Build -- this is the general pattern describing horizontal wells.
The decision to drill horizontally is primarily based on reservoir engineering and
reservoir management considerations.
179
Directional Drilling
Directional Drilling
We may use a pendulum assembly, consisting of the bit, drill collars and
strategically positioned stabilizers, to decrease hole angle (i.e., straighten
the hole).
We may use packed hole assemblies, consisting of reamers, short collars
and Stabilizers, or square drill collars, to "lock in" the bit and maintain a
constant hole angle.
We may use directional drilling tools (e.g., downhole motors with bent
housings).
The use of directional drilling tools more properly falls under the category of
controlled directional drilling. We mention it here, however, to emphasize its use
as a "straight hole" drilling method, and to point out that it is the most effective of
these three techniques for controlling hole angle and direction. In fact, in many
drilling applications, it has superseded the other techniques. Still, there are
situations that call for the exclusive use of pendulum or packed hole assemblies to
control deviation (e.g., at some land locations where drilling characteristics are
well known, it may not be economical to use directional drilling tools for deviation
control).
180
2.
The distinguishing feature of downhole motors is that they are designed to turn the
bit without rotating the drill string. Thus, it's possible to orient the bit in a desired
direction, and maintain it in this direction throughout the bit run. Moreover, drilling
in this "oriented" mode reduces the rig's power requirements and reduces wear on
both surface equipment and tubular.
Downhole motors come in two basic types:
The positive displacement motor is easily the most versatile tool for building or
maintaining hole angle, or for minimizing crooked hole tendencies. It can be
run with a bent sub or eccentric stabilizer to initiate deflection. Or, in "crooked
hole "formations, it can be run without these accessories to serve as a
deviation control tool.
For maximum directional control with a minimum of trip time, we may use a
motor with a bent housing.
The heart of the positive displacement motor is the rotor-stator, consisting of a
helicoidally rotor that moves within a molded, elastomer-lined stator.
Directional Drilling
181
Directional Drilling
When circulating fluid is forced through this assembly, it imparts torque to the
rotor, causing it to turn eccentrically. A universal connection transfers this
rotation through a bearing and drive-shaft assembly to a rotating bit sub, which
turns the bit.
Positive displacement motors provide excellent steerability for deflecting or
straightening the well course. In addition, they allow us to increase the bit RPM
without increasing the drill string rotation, and to drill with less weight-on-bit.
This can result in higher penetration rates compared to drilling with a rotating
Kelly, and reduced drill pipe and casing wear--an important consideration,
especially when drilling high-angle holes.
Positive displacement motors are available in a wide variety of sizes, rotating
speeds, rotor/stator configurations and output characteristics, for a broad range of
downhole conditions.
Turbine motors operate at relatively high rotary speeds, and so are run
exclusively with fixed cutter (PDC or natural diamond) bits. Some operators see
this as an advantage in certain situations, in that these characteristics may help
eliminate "bit walk" to the right, allow for higher bit weight (and thus improved
drilling rates) and a smoother hole for logging and casing operations than a PDM
would provide
Turbine motors have narrower operating ranges than positive displacement
motors. The relatively small diameter of the turbines and resulting higher
rotational speeds translate into greater fluid flow requirements. They also tend to
be longer than PDMs, which limits their ability to make high angle directional
changes. Because of these limitations, which are inherent in the turbine motor
design, positive displacement motors are used much more commonly.
182
The operator and directional service company representative should consider the
following basic information when selecting a downhole motor :
Directional Drilling
directional wedges
jet bits with oriented nozzles
specialized Bottomhole assemblies
3.4.1 Whipestocks:
The wedge is attached to the Bottomhole assembly by means of a shear pin.
The assembly is lowered to bottom and oriented in the proper direction. The
driller applies weight to set the wedge and shear the pin, drills ten to fifteen feet
of under gauge hole, and then trips the tools so that a full-gauge hole opener
can be run. After drilling the section, a survey is made to assure proper
direction, and the process is repeated until the build section of the well is
completed.
183
Directional Drilling
184
TECHNOLOGY OVERVIEW
Weatherfords Revolution rotary steerable system (RSS) uses point-thebit drilling technology and includes in the design both a non-rotating
sleeve stabilizer and a rotating near-bit pivot stabilizer to orient the drill
bit axis with the axis of the intended hole trajectory. A rotating drive
shaft runs through the center of the non-rotating sleeve to transmit
torque and weight through the tool to the drill bit. The bit is steered
through the formation by deflecting the drive shaft within the nonrotating sleeve stabilizer,. The drive shaft is deflected in a direction
opposite to the required trajectory, and the pivot stabilizer acts as a
fulcrum to point the bit in the required direction. The hydraulic force for
deflection is provided by a pump driven by relative rotation between the
center shaft and the non-rotating outer sleeve. Both the non-rotating
sleeve of the steering unit and the rotating pivot stabilizer are close to
the gauge of the hole to maximize the directional performance of the
RSS. The offset of the drive shaft the degree of steering is
controlled by the onboard navigation and control electronics of the RSS.
Tool face and deviation rates are programmed from the surface using
drillstring rotation, while mud pulse LWD provides uplink telemetry. The
entire system offers a very compact design to facilitate logistics and
deployment.
Directional Drilling
185
Directional Drilling
System-Specific Requirements
Once the decision is made on which particular rotary steerable system is capable
of economically meeting the objectives of a given drilling program, the focus
immediately shifts to the drill bit that will make reaching the goal possible. Security
DBS offers a full range of flexibility in push-the-bit, as well as point the- bit
options, each specifically designed for your drilling program. Push-the-bit
systems typically require a shorter gauge area than PDC bits used on motor
applications. This reduction in lateral area affords greater directional
responsiveness when a side force is applied by the steering unit. Bit designs can
be tailored specifically for applications requiring:
Laterally aggressive bits with little or no passive gauge area in high steerability
applications to yield the highest degree of dogleg severity
A combination of these features to reach a given set of designer well objectives
By contrast, point-the-bit systems make the bit more axially aggressive. This
feature allows the bit to penetrate at the same rate but with a lower weight on bit
and it can be used to increase ROP. Typically, point-the-bit systems increase
the gauge length for stability and use the internal shaft deflection for directional
changes.
186
Directional Drilling
187
Directional Drilling
188
FIGURE 17G EO-PILOT B ASIC OPERATING PRINCIPLE
Directional Drilling
189
Directional Drilling
3.4.5. Turbodrill
This is another type of mud motor which turns the bit without rotating the drillstring.
Unlike a PDM a turbodrill can only be powered by a liquid drilling fluid.
The Turbodrill motor consists of bladed rotors and stators mounted at right angles
to fluid flow. The rotors are attached to the drive shaft, while the stators are
attached to the outer case. Each rotor-stator pair is called a stage; a typical
turbodrill may have 75-250 stages. The stators direct the flow of drilling fluid onto
the rotor blades, forcing the drive shaft to rotate clockwise . Turbodrills can be
used for directional drilling in much the same way as PDMs. Turbodrills are also
used in straight-hole drilling as an alternative to rotary drilling. Such a technique
has the following advantages:
190
Directional Drilling
FIGURE 19TURBODRILL
191
Directional Drilling
The oldest and simplest type of directional survey tool is the mechanical drift indicator
192
Magnetic survey tools record the inclination, azimuth and tool-face orientation at
various points, or stations, along the well course. Two basic types of tools are
available: single-shot devices, which record one measurement (usually near the
bottom of the well), and multi-shot devices, which can record a number of survey
measurements in one running. Tools can be dropped or pumped to bottom,
lowered on slick line or wireline, or run as part of a measurement-while drilling
(MWD) package. When tools are dropped to bottom--typically before tripping
Directional Drilling
Systems are modular in design, and can be run with various sensor combinations to
fit the requirements of the well plan.
MWD tools operate by creating pressure pulses in the mud column, in response to
inputs from the various sensors. Depending on the type of tool, the pulses may be
positive, negative or continuous. These pulses are converted into electronic signals,
which are processed and displayed at the surface.
193
Directional Drilling
Although LWD tools work in generally the same manner as conventional logging
tools, tool responses will most likely be different in highly deviated wells from what
they would be in vertical wells. These responses require special methods of
interpretation.
FIGURE 20MWD
194
At the same time, improved directional drilling technology has presented the industry
with new challenges. As companies have begun drilling longer horizontal and
extended-reach wells, it has become clear that even the most precise geometric
steering capabilities may not be adequate once a well approaches the pay zone.
Horizontal and high-angle directional wells often have as their objectives thin,
heterogeneous, and sometimes steeply dipping reservoirs. In such formations, a preassigned trajectory may lead right out of a productive interval. Even if the difference
is only a matter of a few feet, the result may be an unsuccessful well .
Fortunately, integrated MWD and LWD capabilities have provided the option of
geologically steering wells as they approach their respective pay zones----of using
real-time formation measurements to stay within target intervals. In a growing number
of instances, operators have been able to geologically steer wells away from zone
boundaries or fluid contacts and execute successful well completions.
Directional Drilling
Geometric steering has served the industry well, and it remains an important aspect
of directional drilling. With a bent-housing positive displacement motor, a welldesigned bottomhole assembly, and MWD capabilities, it's possible to minimize
wellbore deviation and follow a planned course simply by changing the tool face
orientation as needed.
195
4 HORIZONTAL WELLS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Horizontal drilling is the process of directing part of a well course through a reservoir
such that its inclination angle is approximately 90 from vertical. This horizontal
section may be anywhere from a few feet to thousands of feet in length.
Directional Drilling
Horizontal wells can trace their roots back to at least the 1930s (Ranney, 1939). But it
is only since the 1980s that advances in directional drilling and formation evaluation
have brought theminto the mainstream of oil and gas operations. Since then, in a
number of fields, they have significantly outperformed conventional wells in terms of
increased productivity, improved ultimate recovery and lower overall development
costs.
There have also been disappointments along the way, which have shown that the
benefits of horizontal drilling are largely contingent on reservoir characteristics.
196
FIGURE 21 HORIZONTAL WELLS
Directional Drilling
Horizontal drilling begins with a more-or-less vertical surface section (except in the
case of slant drilling rigs, where this section is pre-inclined), followed by a bend
section, which progresses from approximately 0 to 90 inclination with depth, and
finally by a horizontal or lateral section. The transfer of weight to the drill bit during
the horizontal drilling phase involves different concepts, which translate into different
well configurations. We may generally distinguish these configurations based on
radius of curvature as follows:
The considerations that enter into selecting one of these well configurations
include
cost
well spacing and lease restrictions
conditions of re-entry wells
reservoir rock characteristics
production methods
well objectives
problem-causing lithologies above the pay zone
amount of total horizontal departure
completion methods
197
Directional Drilling
Long Radius
Medium Radius
Short Radius
Build rate
Build radius (ft)
Hole size
Up to 6 per 100 ft
1000 - 3000
No limits
6 - 20 per 100 ft
300 - 700
4 3/4, 6 1/8, 8 1/2, 4 3/4,
6 1/2, 9 7/8
Drilling Method
Rotary or steerable
motor systems for
curve and horizontal
sections
Specially designed
motors for angle build
section; rotary or
steerable motor
systems for horizontal
sections
.
Tubulars used
Conventional
tubulars.
Specially designed
deflection
tools or articulated
motors for
angle build section;
rotary tools and
special drill pipe for
horizontal sections.
Special articulated
tubulars;
special drill pipe
with short
articulated motors.
Rotary: No limits
Motor: Diamond or
PDC
No limits
Special
Drill bit
No limits
Drilling fluids
Surveying
No limits
No limits
Coring
Selective completion
capabilities
Multiple pay zones
Artificial lift capabilities
Workover capabilities
Typical productivity index
increases in non-fractured
zones
Typical productivity index
increases in fractured zones
Production enhancement
ratio
(horizontal/vertical well)
Conventional
coring, no limits
No limits
MWD capabilities
limited for hole sizes
smaller
than 6 1/8 inches
Conventional coring, no
limits
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
All types
All types
Yes
3.5
Yes
2.5
Rod pumps in
vertical
portion
Yes
2.5
>10
>10
Depends on
fracture
distribution
Varies widely; can
be
from 1 to 100
TABLE 1 COMPARE THE BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF LONG, MEDIUM AND SHORT RADIUS WELLS .
198
The advantages of long radius drilling over other horizontal drilling methods
include minimal dogleg severity, attainment of horizontal departure while drilling
the build section, and the ability to employ either conventional rotary bottomhole
assemblies or steerable drilling systems. In addition, long radius methods impose
no restrictions on hole diameter, bit type, coring or MWD capabilities, and they
permit various options with respect to completion, stimulation and artificial lift.
Directional Drilling
The primary advantage of medium radius over long radius drilling is that the well
profile is shorter. A medium-radius well can reach the lateral section with greater
precision at a shallower depth, with less departure from vertical, and in less time
than it takes to drill the curved section of a long radius well. Torque and drag
tendencies are also less than in long-radius wells. The vertical portion of the well
can be drilled deeper and casing set deeper before beginning the directional
drilling phase, and upon completion, production equipment can be set in the
vertical section, closer to the pay interval.
199
Directional Drilling
The build rate angle on a short radius well may range from 1 to 3 degrees per
foot. The radius of curvature may be 50 feet or less, with a hole size of between
4 3/4 inches and 6 1/2 inches.
200
A special class of short-radius wells is the ultra-short radius well, which effectively
has no bend section. Ultra-short drilling methods employ jetting techniques and
coiled tubing to eliminate angle build sections, and are used in soft,
unconsolidated formations to drill multiple drainholes from existing vertical wells.
Directional Drilling
FIGURE 24R ADIUS DRILLING
201
References
Geotechnical Engineers Handbook, Robert W. Day, McGraw-Hill, 2000
Directional Drilling
202
202
Drilling
Problems
In Underbalanced Drilling
This
Content
1.
2.
3.
4.
Lost Circulation
Well Kicks
Other Hole Problems
Problems Encountered
during Underbalanced
Drilling
5. Problems Encountered
during Drilling Obayed
Field
203
Anticipated Problems
An event which causes the drilling operation to stop is described as a NonProductive Time (NPT) event. Pipe sticking and lost circulation are the two main
events which cause NPT in the drilling industry. Well kicks, of course, require
operations to stop and when they occur can result in a large NPT. The average
NPT in the drilling industry is 20%.
Events such as:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Pipe Sticking
lost circulation
Well Kicks
Other Problems
Pipe Sticking
The sticking of drill pipe inside the borehole is one of the main Hole problems
associated with drilling Operations.
Mechanisms:
1. Differential Pipe Sticking
2. Mechanical Pipe Sticking
204
Warning:
Prognosed low pressure sands
Long / unsterilized BHA.
Increasing overpull, slack off weight or torque to start string movement.
First action:
Apply torque and jar down with maximum trip load.
Spot a pipe releasing pill if the string does not jar free.
Preventing Action
Maintain minimum required mud weight.
Keeps string moving when BHA is
opposite suspected zones.
Minimize seepage loss in low pressure
zones.
Minimize unsterilized BHA & use spiral
DC.
Control drill suspected zones
205
2-Mechanical Sticking
Pipe is completely stuck with little or no circulation unlike differential
sticking where circulation takes place.
Causes
Shale Instability
Unconsolidated formations
Settled cuttings due to inadequate
hole cleaning
Junk in well
Cement blocks
Fractured or faulted formations
206
Key Seating
Under gauge hole
Ledges & Micro doglegs
Mobile formations
FIGURE 2: MECHANICAL STUCK
207
Brittle Shale
Caused by tangential stresses around
the wellbore.
Tends to break free and sloughing into
hole.
Swelling Shale
Caused by hydration processes or
osmotic potential between pore fluid of
shale and drilling fluid salinity.
Degree of clay hydration depends upon
clay type and cat ion exchange capacity
of clay.
208
Prevention
Use inhibited mud or displace to OBM.
Addition of various salts will reduce
chemical attraction between shale and water.
Reduce exposure time.
Good hole cleaning.
FIGURE 7: SWELLING
SHALE
FIGURE 8: UNCONSOLIDATE
FORMATIONS
FIGURE 9: FRACTURED
FORMATION
209
Warning:
High angle doge leg in upper hole section.
Long drilling hours with no wiper trips through the dogleged section
Cyclic over pull at tool joint intervals on trips.
Indications:
Occurs only while POOH.
Sudden over pull as BHA reaches dogleg depth.
Unrestricted circulation.
Free string movement below key seat depth.
First action:
Apply torque and jar down.
Attempt to rotate with low over pull to work through dogleg.
Preventive Action:
Minimize dog leg severity to 3deg/100 or less.
Limit over pull through suspected intervals.
Run string reamer or key seat wiper if suspected.
2. Lost Circulation
Uncontrolled flow of whole mud into a formation. Can occur in naturally
cavernous, fissured, or coarsely permeable beds, or can be artificially
induced by hydraulically or mechanically fracturing the rock, thereby giving
the fluid a channel to travel.
210
211
3. Well Kicks
It is the entering of the formation fluid to the wellbore. This occurs when the
formation pressure exceeds the hydrostatic pressure. A blowout is uncontrolled
kick
Causes:
212
When gas enters the mud from the formations being drilled, the mud is
said to be Gascut. It is almost impossible to prevent any gas entering the
mud Colom but when it does occur it should be considered as an early
warning sign of a possible influx. The mud should be continuously
monitored and any significant rise above low background levels of gas
should be reported. Gas cutting may occur due to:
Drilling in a gas bearing formation with the correct mud weight
Swabbing when making a connection or during trips
Influx due to a negative pressure differential (formation pressure
greater than borehole pressure).
4.
213
(Well Control Procedures Will be discussed in Well Control Chapter)
Bit balling
Tight Hole
Hole Wash out and erosion
Hole collapse and Hole Fracture
Bit Balling
Tight Hole
The upward pulling force (drag) is greater than the buoyant weight of drill
string.
Increase in drag is a clear indication of a tight hole.
Tight holes are usually be observed in reactive clays or salt.
Remedies
Symptoms
Increased torque
High pump pressures.
214
FIGURE 13: BIT BALLING
1. Delivering weight to the bit:Applying sufficient bit weight for optimum drilling rate that is often a
problem, especially at higher angles and while drilling a horizontal section.
Conventional bit weight for efficient drilling is a bout 2000-5000 lbf. Per inch of
bit diameter. Motor assemblies drill efficiency with less bit weight then rotary
assemblies, they compensate for bit weight with higher rotational speed of
turbines and motors.
Remedy:Bit weight may be increased by reducing drag and torque by using the
split assembly, including the bit, motor, directional control tools, and the nonmagnetic collars, which left at the bottom of the drill string.
215
2. Reducing torque and drag forces:Drag is a force restricting the movement of the drill tools in directions
parallel to the well path. Torque is the force resisting rotational movement. Drag
and torque are measurements of this frictional resistance to the movement of the
drill tools.
Excess drag and torque cause directional drilling problems, especially in the
turning and horizontal sections of horizontal well often very severe in this well.
The drill string can be failed from tension due to excess drag or twist off duo to
excess torque.
REMEDY:Eliminating all drag and torque is not practical , but preventive actions
reduce them to an acceptable levels , it is best to design the well pattern for a
minimum number of changes of angle and a low angle of build or drop . Excess
drag and torque is reduced pipe placing casing in the hole. Reaming reduces
drag and torque caused by key seats and rough wellbore, reducing drill string
weight reduces drag and torque at high quality of mud with good chemical and
physical properties.
Oil base mud should be considered for more demanding situations because of
its good lubricating qualities.
3. Hole cleaning or cutting removal:A particular problem that arises in the drilling horizontal wells is the difficulty of
removing rock cuttings from the horizontal section of the well.
The source of the problem is that cuttings tend to settle in the bottom of the
hole and increase the friction in the hole, produce poor cement bonds.
216
REMEDY
A great improvement in removing cuttings has been an achieved by using top
drive drilling rigs. In these rigs, the drill string is rotated by a large, geared
electric or hydraulic drive motor rather than by the conventional rotary table
and Kelly.
With this arrangement, it is possible to rotate the drill string and to circulate
mud as removed from the hole. This tends to keep the drill cutting in
suspension and to provide a cleaner hole, the removal of cuttings reduces
friction between the drill pipe and the hole and reduces the tendency for
sticking.
4. Protection of water sensitive shale:Shale layer frequently tend to collapse in contact with fresh water, this can
be prevented by using oil based drilling fluid, which usually consist of an
invert emulsion of water in diesel oil together with other additives
REMEDY:Water -base mud can be inhibited to reduce the attack on water- sensitive
shale by addition of NaCl or CaCl2 . These additives reduce the chemical
activity of water and its tendency to penetrate into the water-sensitive
shale .
217
Here are some of the general problems of UB drilling. All of them are not
always found in every hole:
218
Mechanical instability includes situations where the fluid density is not sufficient
to keep the formation in question from falling or caving into the hole. The
formation is driven into the borehole by pressure trapped in the formation.
The pressure may be the result of tectonically induced stress or abnormal
pressure. It also may simply be due to poor cementation of the rock particles
(e.g., unconsolidated sandstone).
Chemical instability is the result of a chemical reaction between the formation
and the fluid in the wellbore. A good example is the reaction between waterbased drilling fluids and a water sensitive shale or clay in the formation.
The surface indications of wellbore instability are very much the same, regardless
of the type of instability. They include:
High torque
Increased drag
Fill on connections
Difficulty in pulling off bottom, or in pulling the first few stands
Pressure increases when circulation begins, then decreases once
circulation is well underway
If the problem is mechanical in nature, for example, large cuttings in the wellbore,
the problem may seem to move around or be encountered in a different place
each time.
There may be no difficulty in circulating.
Movement downward may be possible, while upward movement of the
pipe is not, and the tight spot may appear in a different place each time it
is encountered.
Prevention of mechanical instability may mean that underbalanced drilling
cannot continue.
Drilling fluid density may have to be increased to the point where formation
pressure is lower than wellbore pressure, as in conventional drilling.
The first solution to implement when a mechanically unstable formation is
encountered is to increase the circulation rate. Large cuttings require high air
rates for removal. If the cuttings are very large, air or gas will not lift them from
the wellbore. They will have to be ground until they are small enough to be lifted
out. Working the pipe will help grind these cuttings. The problem of instability
may be mitigated by adjusting the liquid injection rate to ensure the fluid is in the
stable foam regime. Foam will lift cuttings much better than either pure gas or
pure liquid.
Prevention of chemical instability will require a good knowledge of the mineralogy
of the formations being drilled. Inhibitive or nonreactive fluids can be used for
drilling. Fortunately, probably the most non-reactive fluid available is air.
219
2. Corrosion Problem
Corrosion is the destruction of metal by chemical or electrochemical action
between the metal and its environment.
i.e.: Corrosion occurs as a result of interaction between iron steel of drill string
and water base mud.
Four conditions must be met ,however , before wet corrosion:
1. Anode and cathode must exist.
2. The anode and cathode must be immersed in electrolytic medium.
3. A potential difference between anode and cathode exists.
4. There must be a coupling to complete the electrical circuit.
o The anode and cathode exist on the drill pipe itself.
o The drilling mud may serve as electrolytic medium.
o The coupling is creating by the drill pipe steel.
o The potential difference is due to the crystalline structure
and different metal used in the drilling pipe alloy.
Factors affecting corrosion rate
1. Oxygen:
Oxygen reacts with metal of drill string forming (Fe2O3 & Fe3O4), which
accelerates corrosion on metal.
Oxygen acts to remove protective films on drill string which accelerate
corrosion action and increase pitting deposits (reddish brown rust of
Fe(OH)3 .
Oxygen scavengers, passivating inhibitors and filming inhibitor treatments
are used to mitigate oxygen corrosion attack.
2. H2S:
Fe + H2S
FeS + 2H+
The increase of H+ atoms in mud will result in retaining acidic medium which will
increase corrosion effect. H2S, cause severe pitting embattlement and stress
cracking also a black sulfide coating.
220
CO2 is an acidic gas that results in pH reduction and thus increases corrosion
effect and pitting attack.
CO2 + + H2O
H2CO3 + Fe
FeCO3 +H2.
4. Bacteria:
5. Dissolved Salt:
As salt concentration increases, conductivity between charge poles raises also
electrical resistance of drilling fluid decreases.
7. Temperature:
Rule of thumb : Corrosive rate doubles with every 55 ft increase. As the increase
of temperature increases the solubility of corrosive gases (O2, H2S & CO2).
8. Pressure:
The increase of pressure causes an increase in trapping effect of gases in mud
such as O2 and thus causes increase in corrosion effect.
9. pH:
Corrosive is much slower in alkaline medium than in acidic medium. So corrosive
rate decreases as pH increases.
NB: The best medium of pH to minimize corrosion rate is a pH between 8.5-10.
10. Solids:
Increase of abrasive solids in mud accelerates removal of protective film around
drill string due to increase of friction action causing pipe washout.
221
Also removal of protective film helps corrosive elements attack to drill string steel
and thus accelerate corrosion rate.
Corrosion Control
Keep pH above 9
Steel becomes passive above pH = 11
Dont use air.
Oxygen corrosion is the most common type of corrosion.
There are other types of corrosion and scaling.
Corrosion Inhibitors
Water.
Washouts, especially in coal.
Corrosion.
Downhole fires with air.
Crooked hole.
Vibration
Water
The big problem with air drilling is water in the formations. Some of the worst
shales will drill dry very well, but once water is added will slough. Water
generally also means increased gas or air volume.
Washouts
Washouts, which make it difficult to lift the cuttings out of the hole, are very
common in fractured or broken coal beds
Corrosion
With the addition of water comes the problem of corrosion
222
Drilling Method
or Fluid System
Air
Gas (Nitrogen or
Natural Gas )
Mist
Shale stability.
Gasified Liquids
223
3. Drilling 8 hole
Potential Problems and Drilling Issues
224
3 7/8 hole was drilled from 4185 to 4190 m. Damage was noted to the 2
7/8 NRVs (rubber seal) and to the MWD tools. The probe centraliser
had de-bonded and worn and the impeller bearing rubber was 90%
eroded. It was assumed that the rubber goods were reacting with the
amine in the fluid system (This has not been proved at the time of writing).
The amine was subsequently removed for future runs.
the well was re-logged from 4200 to 4208 m. Drilling continued from 4208
to 4210 m, Drilling recommenced (45 minutes NPT) from 4210 to 4221 m at
2 -3 m / hr: The LWD / MWD failed at 4221 m (dynamic bottom hole
temperature measured at 147 degrees Celsius).
The BHA was run into the well and washed down from 4079 to 4224 m. A
survey attempt failed and the pulsar would only transmit temperature data.
Drilling commenced (blind) from 4224 to 4243 m. A gradual drop in
standpipe pressure (1500 psi) was observed; surface checks
confirmed the pressure loss was down hole. Torque increases, poor
225
ROP and high torque and drag were noted. It was decided to end the
bit run. On surface it was noted that the Bit had experienced
significant wear.
On surface it was observed that the MWD pulser sub had washed out in
two places.
The BHA was picked up and tested on surface (new MWD / LWD, rerun
Turbine). The BHA was run into the well to 670 m and an attempt was
made to circulate. The SPP had to be brought up to 1800 psi to achieve
circulation. The trip in hole continued (filling the string every twenty stands).
The BHA was picked up and tested on surface (new MWD / LWD, rerun
Turbine). The BHA was run into the well to 670 m and an attempt was
made to circulate. The SPP had to be brought up to 1800 psi to achieve
circulation. The trip in hole continued (filling the string every twenty stands),
to 4000 m where 20 klbs drag was seen and an attempt to circulate was
made. Due to the inability to circulate, the line up of the choke was
rechecked and was found to be closed in downstream. The geolograph
showed that the weight of the string had been decreasing for the previous
four stands prior to breaking circulation. Therefore it is presumed that it
is at this stage the choke was closed (or downstream valve) and the
well was then over pressured to 2000 psi. The cause of this was due
to human error, due to a lack of detailed job specific procedures (in
our own opinion that is what lead to the failure of the project)
The trip continued after breaking circulation to 4209 m, the well was
unloaded (200 scf / m N2 and 80 gpm inhibited water). During the
unloading of the well the data acquisition system failed again (7.5
hours NPT).
226
After repairing the system the trip continued from 3355 to 4142 m, the BHA
was then washed down to 4180 m where the well was unloaded (200 scf /
m N2 (increased to 300 scf / m) and 80 gpm inhibited water). After
unloading, the trip continued to 4243 m (washing down) and drilling
continued (300 scf / m and 90 gpm inhibited water). Drilling continued from
4243 to 4266 m at which point the MWD / LWD tool failed (highest
temperature recording 152 degrees Celsius).
As it was clear from the previous drilling that no hydrocarbons were being
produced from the reservoir, the risk of drilling without the PWD to monitor
BHP was deemed acceptable. The run was primarily to prove the viability of
the whole system, without considering the shortcomings caused by the
MWD / LWD failures.
The BHA was picked up and tested on surface (no MWD / LWD), two BHA
NRVs were replaced and the assembly was run in the well. Circulation was
broken every 20 stands. The BHA was run to 4185 m, no pressure was
seen below the DDV (NB. The DDV open control line would not hold
pressure). The well was unloaded (400 scfm / 80 gpm inhibited water).
The trip continued to 4347 m where resistance (15 klbs) was noted, the
BHA was washed down from this point to 4277 m. Rotary drilling
commenced from 4277 to 4375 m ( 650 scfm / 85 gm). A slide drilling test
was done from 4375 to 4378 m. At this point the turbine stalled and the
SPP increased to 3600 psi. Attempts to bleed off pressure and regain
circulation were unsuccessful; therefore it was decided to trip out of
the well.
Returns from the string were seen throughout the trip out of the well. Upon
inspection at the surface it was found that the two NRVs above the
turbine had failed. TD of the well was called at this point due to MWD /
LWD unavailability.
227
228
NOTES:
Batch mix the C-100 based on fluid volume
Batch mix CorrFoam 1 initially at recommended concentration and keep
continuous injection while drilling using chemical pumps at rates
recommended by corrosion Engineer on site.
Maintain a minimum of 50 ppm as PO4 by standard Taylor phosphonate
kit.
Monitor chlorides carefully.
Monitor corrosion rate with rings to < 2 lbs/ft 2/year.
As CO2 is encountered add lime as needed to control pH, near or about
1% of weight or about 3.5 ppb.
As produced water is encountered or any heavy CO2 returns, watch the
chlorides level.
Conclusions:
229
Chemicals
Added
Gas rate
Fluid Rate
Corrosion Rate
Phosphate
Sulphide
Iron
SG
Alkalinity
CL
BS&W
ph
Date
Fluid Summary
7/26/05
1 x CorrFoam
1-9323
1 x C100-9386
2 x Ai6009368
7/27/05
1 x CorrFoam
1-9323
1 x C100-9386
2 x Ai6009368
7/28/05
1 x CorrFoam
1-9323
1 x C100-9386
2 x Ai6009368
2 x CorrFoam
1-9323
7/29/05
1 x C100-9386
9.8
N/D
7500
350
N/D
3000
110
2 x Ai6009368
2 x Alpha 19812
1 x CorrFoam
1-9323
7/30/05
1 x C100-9386
9.8
N/D
7000
400
N/D
1500
N/D
110
2 x Ai6009368
230
7/31/05
1 x Alpha 19812
1 x Caustic
Soda
1 x Lime
9.2
N/D
8000
>500
8.4
40
200
2.6 /
1.52
3000
0.38
/
0.44
600
0.23
/
0.07
5 x CorrFoam
1-9323
110
500
3 x C100-9386
8/5/05
8/4/05
8/3/0
5
8/2/05
8/1/0
5
1 x Alpha 19812
9.6
11
N/D
N/A
15000
1000
>500
>501
8.5
8.4
10
1 x CorrFoam
1-9323
5 x CorrFoam
1-9323
2 x CorrFoam 19323
8/8/05
8/9/05
8/10/05
10 x CorrFoam
1-9323
Chemicals
Added
400
Gas rate
85
Fluid Rate
4000
4.38
/
4.22
Corrosion Rate
Alkalinity
Phosphate
CL
8.4
Sulphide
>500
Iron
3700
SG
N/A
BS&W
ph
9.4
800 /
25
8/7/05
Date
8/6/05
Built 1000 bbls of new fluid at request of Bapetco. Bapetco had concerns about potential incompatibilities b/w the Elastomer
components of the MWD / NRV and the amine component. New fluid only contains WFT 9323 with lime to PH 10.5 (10 sx lime).
No activity
9.6
N/A
4000
>500
8.4
80
6000
4.68
/
0.05
90
300
4 x CorrFoam 19323
No activity
231
8/11/05
4 x CorrFoam 19323
2 x Alpha 1-9812
8.4
25
6000
90
300
4 x Alpha 2325
(defoamer)
2 x CorrFoam 19323
1.91
/
2.54
90
1.91
/
2.54
90
300
1 x CorrFoam 19323
90
300
2 x CorrFoam 19323
8/13/05
>500
9.1
8/14/05
5000
10.1
N/A
4800
>500
8.4
100
4000
8/15/05
N/A
1 x CorrFoam 19323
9.25
N/A
3240
>500
8.4
75
5000
8/16/05
9.85
4.68
/
0.05
9.7
N/A
4050
>500
8.4
75
4000
1.38
/
0.61
80
650
5 x CorrFoam 19323
8/17/05
8/12/05
WFT 9323 corrosion inhibitor added while circulating. Emec lubricant was added, no incompatibilities were noted in bottle
tests. The EMEC lube is derived from sulphur chemistry. And therefore R&D recommended the use of WFT-9812 H2S
Scavenger to prevent potential H2S generation.
9.8
N/A
3800
>500
8.4
10
6000
0.27
/
2.35
80
650
2 x CorrFoam 19323
4800
>500
8.4
100
4000
300
4 x WFT Alpha
1-9812
8/18/05
N/A
232
8/19/05
9.8
N/A
4000
>500
8.4
3800
2.26
50
1000
2 x CorrFoam 19323
8/20/05
No sample
taken
9.8
N/A
4000
>500
8.4
3800
2.26
50
1000
No sample
taken
References
Weatherford Catalogue (2000) "Drilling & Intervention Services".
Brouse, M. (1982, 1983). How to handle stuck pipe and fishing problems. World
Oil,
Nov. Dec. 1982, Jan. 1983.
233
234
WELL
CONTROL
T
his
chapter
will
introduce
the
procedures
and
CONTENT
In Underbalanced Drilling
1- WELL Control
PRINCIPLES
2- Causes of Primary
control loss
3- WARNING INDICATORS
OF A KICK
4- SECONDARY CONTROl
5- Blowout Prevention
(BOP) EQUIPMENT
6- Coiled tubing BOP
stack arrangements
235
236
FIGURE 1: PRESSURE DISCRIPTION
Primary Control
Secondary Control
Secondary control is required when primary control has failed (e.g. an
unexpectedly high pressure formation has been entered) and formation
fluids are flowing into the wellbore. The aim of secondary control is to stop
the flow of fluids into the wellbore and eventually allow the influx to be
circulated to surface and safely discharged, while preventing further influx
downhole.
The first step in this process is to close the annulus space off at
surface, with the BOP valves, to prevent further influx of formation
fluids.
The next step is to circulate heavy mud down the drillstring and up the
annulus, to displace the influx and replace the original mud (which
allowed the influx in the first place).
Primary control over the well is maintained by ensuring that the pressure due to
the column of mud in the borehole is greater than the pressure in the formations
being drilled i.e. maintaining a positive differential pressure or overbalance on
the formation pressures.
The mud weight is generally designed such that the borehole pressure
opposite permeable (and in particular hydrocarbon bearing sands) is
around 200-300 psi greater than the formation pore pressure. This
pressure differential is known as the overbalance. If the mud weight is
reduced the overbalance becomes less and the risk of taking a kick
becomes greater.
237
The mud weight will fall during normal operations because of the following:
Tripping: The top of the column of mud will fall as the drillpipe is pulled from
the borehole when tripping.
Swabbing: is the process by which fluids are sucked into the borehole, from
the formation, when the drillstring is being pulled out of hole. This happens
when the bit has become covered in drilled material and the drillstring acts
like a giant piston when moving upwards (The opposite effect is known as
Surging)
Lost circulation: occurs when a fractured, or very high permeability, formation
is being drilled. Whole mud is lost to the formation and this reduces the
height of the mud colom in the borehole.
238
FIGURE 2: TRIP TRANK CONNECTED TO BOP STACK TO CLOSELY MONITOR THE VOLUME OF THE MUD
REQUIRED FOR FILL UP
Gas Kicks
Shut in Procedure
When a kick is detected while tripping:
1.
2.
3.
4.
239
240
FIGURE 4: SHUT IN THE WELL OPERATION
The method involved circulating the kick out of the hole, then second and third
circulation of kill weight mud.
241
Bullheading
Bullheading is the term used to describe pumping the wellbore fluids back into
the formation. Pumps are tied in at the surface, and kill fluid is pumped into the
well until the well if full of the proper kill weight fluid. Often times during
Bullheading, the formation is fractured, and it becomes difficult to keep the well
full of fluid. Bullheading is most often used during workover operations, mainly
because it is simple and requires little or no planning.
242
With a high fluid loss fluid (brine waters, or formation fluids) it is possible to pump
into open formations without fracturing the formation, if there is a relatively
permeable formation and care is taken while pumping. Low fluid loss fluids such
as drilling mud or frac fluids will tend to develop a filter cake and seal off the pore
spaces (as they are designed to do), which means that the formation will have to
be fractured in order to pump fluid into it.
pressure=(frac
gradient,
ppg-kill
weight
mud,
Volumetric method
The volumetric method is utilized in the event of gas migration in a shut in well,
usually when we cannot circulate for some reason, whether it is due to power
failure, plugged drillstring, or the pipe is out of the hole. With the volumetric
method, we allow the gas bubble to expand as it migrates up the wellbore, to
avoid excessive surface pressures associated with gas migration. We calculate
the annular capacity in bbl/ft at the depth of the gas bubble, and determine the
HSP imposed per barrel of mud. As the bubble migrates toward the surface the
shut in pressures will increase, since the BHP is also increasing we can bleed off
the excess surface pressure. If we bleed off too much mud, we will allow an
additional influx into the well. As we bleed mud from the wellbore, the HSP is
decreasing resulting in an increase in required surface pressure. By calculating
the HSP per barrel of mud, we know how much the surface pressure will increase
for each barrel of mud bled from the well. The surface pressure increase will be
equal to the HSP of the mud that was bled off.
Theoretically, the pressure will decline from the initial pump in pressure to the
final pump in pressure in the time it takes to pump kill weight fluid from the
surface to the zone of interest.
243
There are 2 basic types of blowout preventer used for closing in a well:
Annular (bag type) or
Ram type.
It is very rare for only one blowout preventer to be used on a well. Two, three or
more preventers are generally stacked up, one on top of the other to make up a
BOP stack.
Annular Preventers
It is a high tensile strength, circular rubber packing unit. The rubber is moulded
around a series of metal ribs. The packing unit can be compressed inwards
against drillpipe by a piston, operated by hydraulic power.
The advantage of such a well control device is that the packing element will close
off around any size or shape of pipe. An annular preventer will also allow pipe to
be stripped in (run into the well whilst containing annulus pressure) and out and
rotated, although its service life is much reduced by this operation
244
Blind rams - which completely close off the wellbore when there is no pipe in
the hole.
Pipe rams - which seal off around a specific size of pipe thus sealing of the
annulus. In 1980 variable rams were made available by manufacturers.
These rams will close and seal on a range of drillpipe sizes.
Shear rams which are the same as blind rams except that they can cut
through drillpipe for emergency shut-in but should only be used as a last
resort. A set of pipe rams may be installed below the shear rams to support
the severed drillstring.
Slip ram which can hold full weight without damage and allow pulling up of
string to the surface, it is usually applicable in coiled tubing drilling.
245
Drilling Spools
A drilling spool is a connector which allows choke and kill lines to be attached to
the BOP stack.
Casing Spools
The wellhead, from which the casing strings are suspended are made up of
casing spools.
Tubing Spool
It is double flange spool from which the tubing strings are suspended.
Choke Manifold
The choke manifold is an arrangement of valves, pipelines and chokes designed
to control the flow from the annulus of the well during a well killing operation. It
must be capable of:
246
247
FIGURE 11: MUD - GAS SEPARATOR
Choke Device
A choke is simply a device which applies some resistance to flow. The resistance
creates a back pressure which is used to control bottomhole pressure during a
well killing operation. Both fixed chokes and adjustable chokes are available. The
choke can be operated hydraulically or manually if necessary.
248
ACCUMULATOR
A float valve installed in the drillstring will prevent upward flow, but allow normal
circulation to continue. It is more often used to reduce backflow during
connections. One disadvantage of using a float valve is that drill pipe pressure
cannot be read at surface. A manual safety valve should be kept on the rig floor
at all times. It should be a full opening ball-type valve so there is no restriction to
flow. This valve is installed onto the top of the drillstring if a kick occurs during a
trip. Kelly cock valve installed at one or both ends of the Kelly. When a highpressure backflow occurs inside the drill stem, the valve is closed to keep
pressure off the rig floor.
An example of the API code (API RP 53) for describing the stack arrangement is:
There are a variety of tools used to prevent formation fluids rising up inside the
drillpipe. Among these are float valves, safety valves, check valves and the Kelly
cock.
5M - 13 5/8" - RSRdAG
Where,
5M refers to the working pressure = 5000 psi
13 5/8" is the diameter of the vertical bore
RSRdAG is the order of components from the bottom up
249
Conventional Stripper
Tandem Stripper
Side Door Stripper
Radial Stripper
250
251
252
The passive system depends on a friction fit between the drill pipe and the
rotating pack-off and well bore pressure to effect a seal. Examples of the passive
system are the Weatherford-Williams RCH, Drilco Grants low-pressure heads
and Stacys medium pressure heads.
The active system uses hydraulic pressure to effect and maintain the seal
around the drill pipe. Some examples of RCD that have been used on Shells
operations are:
1. Rotating Control Head (RCH Weatherford-Williams Tool Company Inc.)
2. Rotating Blowout Preventer (R-BOP Northland Energy.)
3. Pressure Control While Drilling (PCWD Shaffer Pressure Control)
It is also worth noting that an RCD is not a diverter although it diverts flow as
one of its functions. Diverters refer to a specific piece of equipment and are
used in low-pressure applications only.
This unit is rated for 5000 psi in static (non-rotating / non-stripping) mode. The
unit is rated for 2500 psi in dynamic mode (stripping and rotating).
A disadvantage of the RCH is that staging large diameter tools through the
stripper rubber is not possible. Therefore, the bearing assembly must be
removed which eliminates the primary well control device from the system during
the staging operation.
253
254
In an Underbalanced Drilling operation, the rigs kill system remains tied per
normal drilling operation. If the ESD system is activated, the driller (and crew)
must ensure that the rigs HCR valve to the choke manifold remains closed since
opening the HCR valve will bypass the closed in ESD valve and allow well-bore
fluids to enter the UBD surface system.
A surface safety valve (fail close) provides an additional barrier between wellbore pressure and the surface separation equipment. A surface safety valve is
usually installed between the wellhead and the choke manifold and controlled by
an emergency shutdown system (ESD). The ESD system used in UBD
operations is usually a combination Manual/Automatic system.
255
256
Blind rams should be installed in the bottom set of rams (when a two ram system
is used). Sometimes a third set of rams (pipe rams) is utilized. In this case the
RBOP is installed atop an annular preventer. The blind ram is placed between
the two sets of pipe rams. So the arrangement would be as follow;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
RBOP
Annular preventer
variable Pipe ram
blind ram
Pipe ram
The lowermost set of rams should be installed directly atop the wellhead (or an
adapter spool if necessary). You should never place any choke or kill lines below
the lowest set of rams because if one of these lines cuts out, there is no way to
shut in the well.
Care must be taken to utilize a rig with a substructure high enough so that
the wellhead is not below ground level, with space enough to put the entire
desired BOP stack below the rig floor.
Gasified liquids, flow drilling, mud cap drilling are utilized on high pressure wells.
Rotating heads on top of conventional hydraulically operated BOP usually suffice.
Nitrified liquids are often used with an RBOP installed atop a conventional BOP
stack.
257
258
If hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas is expected or if formations with even higher pore pressure
are drilled, wellhead equipment design might call for either coiled tubing drilling (CTD) or
snub drilling operations.
cubic meters per second (m3/s) or greater and less than 0.1 m3/s and which is
located within 500 meters (m) of the boundaries of an urban center;
m3/s or greater and less than 0.3 m3/s and which is located within 1.5 km of the
boundaries of an urbancenter;
m3/s or greater and less than 2.0 m3/s and which is located within 5 km of the
boundaries of an urban center;
Snub drilling and CT drilling have BOP stacks that also allow tripping at much higher
pressures than other forms of UBD (routinely up to 10,000 psi). The BOP stack
arrangement will be as follow
1.
2.
3.
4.
Critical sour well is any gas well from which the maximum potential H2S release rate is
greater than:
259
260
OF OBAIYED
D-2
References
261
WELL COMPLETION
FOR UNDERBALANCED DRILLING
262
Well completion in underbalanced drilling
Well
Completion
Wells are one of the main investment items in the development of
a field and must be completed setting the goal of maximum
production rates obtainment Well Completion is a very important
activity in the upstream part of the hydrocarbon exploitation
which interfaces the reservoir with the Topside Facilities to the
Production Network.
The completion design is a part of the well design and sequentially
follows the drilling engineering side of it.
Contents
1- Completion
objective and
functions
2- Vertical well
completion
3- Horizontal well
Completion
4- UBD completion
5- Obaiyed D2-c/d
263
Completion
264
Completion Types
There are several ways of classifying or categorizing completion types. The most
common criteria for the classification of completions include the following:
Wellbore/reservoir interface, i.e., open-hole or cased hole, horizontal
completion
Producing zones, i.e., single zone or multiple zone production
Production method, i.e., natural flowing or artificially induced production
RESERVOIR-WELLBORE INTERFACE
265
This type of completion entails a liner with flow slots machined throughout
its length installed below the production casing. The slot widths can range
between 0.254 - 1.016mm.
A slotted liner is used where there is a risk of wellbore instability to
maintain a bore through the formation which otherwise might collapse and
plug off all production. It also helps in liquid lift due to the smaller flow
area.
266
FIGURE 1 S LOTTED LINER
A plain wire wrapped screen is used either as a simple filter to strain out
small amounts intermittently produced sand from a relatively stable formation
or as a sand retention where high permeability, coarse sands would readily
flow onto the screen forming zone.
267
This type of completions are the most common world-wide due to the selectivity,
flexibility, lower costs, increased safety and convenience that they provide. There
are three subdivisions, standard, fracture stimulation and cased hole gravel pack
The key issues in cased hole completion design are:
Perforated interval selection, gun type, shot density, underbalanced or
Overbalance and perforating method, i.e. casing guns, through tubing
guns or TCP.
Completion fluids program selection with regard to fluid quality and
formation damage.
Type of formation and if special perforating techniques are required, e.g.
high shot density, ultra deep penetration or stimulation treatments.
268
b. slotted liner, where slots of various width and depth Are milled along the
liner length.
269
It is possible to Cement and perforate medium and long radius wells. At the present
time it is not economically possible to Cement short radius Wells. Cement using
horizontal Well completion should have significantly less free Water content than that
used for vertical well Cementing. This is because in a horizontal will, due to Gravity,
free Water segregates near the top portion of The well and heavier cement settles at
the bottom. This Results in a poor cement job.
270
UB Completion
One of the primary advantages of drilling wells underbalanced is the elimination
or minimization of formation impairment. In overbalanced situations, drilling fluid
and Solids can penetrate and damage matrix porosity or fractures, reducing the
permeability.
If a well is properly drilled under underbalanced Conditions, but is completed
using over balanced methods, much if not all of the impairment-reducing benefits
might be permanently lost.
Even if this completion-related damage can be removed or bypassed, the
associated expenses can be avoided if the operator uses proper underbalanced
completion procedures.
These procedures, sometimes called live well, underbalanced completion
techniques, are described in this section.
They include:
If the completion is not barefoot, it becomes necessary to run the casing or liner
without Killing the well. In this scenario, surface pressures are usually increased
to subdue exposed down hole Formations, without exceeding their pore
pressures. This is done by replacing the lighter annular fluid by bull heading a
heavier fluid down the back Side before tripping out of the hole.
271
272
There are other methods to isolate surface pressure and trip into a well.
For example, a wire line-set permanent packer can be run with a pump-out or
push-out plug assembly. Once the packer is run and set in place, pressure
above the packer can be bled off to zero to run the tubing.
Another method to protect against surface pressure while running tubing into
the well Involves the use of a pressure rupture disk located inside the tubing
string. Again, after setting and hydrostatic testing of the packer, this pressure
disk is ruptured by pressuring up the tubing to a preset limit. Of all of these
methods, the most commonly used is the shear glass disk sub because of its
reliability and simplicity.
Alter the tubing is stung into the packer and pressure tested, either pump
pressure or a sinker bar is used to "open" the well to the surface;
communicating the formation below the packer with the surface through the
production tubing.
All of the above options can be deployed in underbalanced drilled wells. The use
of cemented liners in an underbalanced drilled well is not recommended if the
gains in reservoir productivity are to be maintained. It is generally not possible to
cement a liner in an underbalanced mode, although the use of foamed cements
may provide some solutions in certain circumstances. The completion
273
requirements for a UBD well must be reviewed and analyzed as part of the
feasibility study prior to commencing an underbalanced operation
Irrespective of the completion lining required for the reservoir, the installation
process for a completion will have to be carefully reviewed during the planning
process to ensure that underbalanced status is maintained during the completion
installation.
If a packer type completion is installed. The production packer and tailpipe are
run and set on drill pipe with an isolation plug installed in the tailpipe. If the well is
maintained underbalanced, well pressure will normally require the production
packer and tailpipe to be snubbed into the well against well pressure.
If a liner top completion is used in a monobore well drilled underbalanced, the
use of a float collar may have to be considered to maintain well control.
274
1. Install THS and N/U BOP and test both to 5,000 psi.
2. Retrieve RTTS packer.
3. R/U for running 5 completion string with the redressed KC-22 S anchor
seal assembly and 4 AF nipple, SC-SSSV.
4. RIH with completion string as per program and pressure test 5 tubing as
per completion program.
5. Make up the SC-SSSV, connect the control to the safety valve, open the
flapper and start RIH with tubing to surface as per sketch.
6. Sting into the Premier packer seal head with the KC-22S anchor seal
assembly, space out the completion string to land in the tubing hanger.
Set down 10,000 lbs.
7. Pooh and install pup joints as required, re-sting in the packer head and
latch the KC-22S anchor seal assembly in the head, pull test the anchor
seal assembly by 10 klbs.
8. Set tubing hanger, with 10,000 lbs. compression, in place and tie down
connect control line.
9. Install BPV in tubing hanger.
10. N/D BOP
Steps:
275
Installing wellhead
A 5K FMC wellhead (Bapetco standard) will be installed. Follow FMC detailed
procedure for installing, function and pressure testing the X-mas tree. An
FMC representative will need to be available at the well site.
276
Steps:
1) Hook-up production flow lines and control panel and test same
2) Rig up coiled tubing on the wellhead and lift the column of kill fluid from the
well using nitrogen
3) Record fluid returns in order to calculate the potential differential pressure
across the WL plugs
4) Rig up slick line and recover the top and bottom No-Go plugs
5) Rig up well test package for short well test
6) Bring well on production and monitor flow rates
7) Shut-in well for build up
8) Rig down all equipment and bring well on stream to OBA production facilities
277
Thread
Weight / Material
OD/ID (in)
Item description
278
Tubing
15 ppf / S13Cr
5.0 / 4.4
Flow coupling
15 ppf / S13Cr
(819-24)
5.563/4.276
TR-Safety valve
Incoloy 825
5.5 / 4.125
Flow coupling
15 ppf / S13Cr
(819-24)
5.563/4.276
Tubing
15 ppf / S13Cr
5.0 / 4.4
AF no-go nipple
S13Cr
5.0 / 4.0
Tubing
15 ppf / S13Cr
5.0 / 4.4
S13Cr (443-38)
5.0 / 4.2
Packer head
5.8 / 3.9
Spacer Joint
4.5 / 3.9
Premier
Production Packer
7.0 / 3.9
Pup Joint
15 ppf / S13Cr
5.0 / 4.4
Crossover Sub
S13Cr
3.958
F-top No-Go
Nipple
S13Cr
4.5 / 3.81
Tubing
4.5 / 3.9
R-bottom No-Go
Nipple
S13Cr
4.5 / 3.81
Seal Assembly
SI/SO
3.958
THA 11 x 5 VAM
279
Casing Head Spool 13 5/8 5ksi x 11 10ksi
Weatherford
DDV
procedures
Mandrel Hanger
11operating
x 7
References
Snyder, R. and Suman G (1978, 1979) "World Oil's Handbook of High
Pressure Well Completions World Oil".
280
280
Contents
1- Minimum volumetric flow
rate theory
2- Injection pressure
calculation approximation
models
3- Injection pressure
calculation
With major and minor
losses
4- compressor selection
281
Introduction
Aerated drilling operations use a variety of incompressible fluids and compressed
gases to develop a gasified drilling fluid. The majority of the operations use
standard fresh water based drilling mud with injected compressed nitrogen. More
recently inert atmosphere has been used as the injected gas to reduce the
corrosion of the drill string and the borehole casing. In this chapter a standard
drilling mud and nitrogen will be used as the example aerated drilling fluid.
The basic direct circulation drilling program goes through two models:
The minimum volumetric flow rate model
The injection pressure calculation model
282
Vc
k
3600 C
Where,
The drilling cuttings particle average diameter can be estimated using the following
expression:
Dc
k
(60) N
Where,
Terminal Velocities
For direct circulation operations the terminal velocity of the rock cutting particle is
assessed in the annulus section of the borehole where the cross-sectional area is
the largest. The terminal velocity will depend on the actual flow conditions in the
annulus section (i.e., whether the flow is laminar, transitional, or turbulent).
The fluid flow regions are classified as Laminar, transitional, or turbulent. These
flow regions can be approximately defined using the non-dimensional Reynolds
Number. The Reynolds Number is
NR
DV
where
D is the diameter of the flow channel (ft, or m).
V is the velocity of the flow (ft/sec, or m/sec)
is the kinematic viscosity of the flowing fluid (ft 2/sec, or m2/sec)
283
s f
Vt1 0.0333Dc2
e
0<NR<2100
( s f ) 2 / 3
Vt 2 0.492 Dc
( )1 / 3
e
f
0<NR<4000
Vt 2
s
5.35 Dc
f
1/ 2
NR>4000
Where,
s
f
284
Hole=3.875 in
Mud with a plastic viscosity of 30 cps and a plastic yield stress of 5 lb/100 ft2.
Drill pipe injection technique will be used and the drilling operation will be
carried out to maintain a Bottomhole pressure of 5900 psia while drilling the
interval from the 13727 ft to 14360 ft (md).
k
10.23
=0.071 ft/sec
s f
Vt1 0.0333Dc2
e
165.36 78.54
0.0333 0.0165 2
=1.256 ft/sec
0.0006267
The above total velocity of the fluid must be the minimum average velocity of the
incompressible fluid in the borehole annulus section where the cross-sectional area
is the largest.
The largest cross-sectional area of the annulus is in the cased section of the well
where the inside diameter of the casing is 4.09 inch and the outside of the
diameter of the drill pipe is 3.875 inch.
285
Aa
6.184 2 3.875 2
0.1266 ft2
144
(6.184 3.875)
=0.192 ft
12
f
g
78.54
=2.439 lb.sec2/ft4
32.2
e 0.0006267
=0.0002569 ft2/sec
m
2.439
Reynolds number for the volumetric flow rate derived from the laminar flow
terminal velocity equation.
NR
DV
0.192 1.33
=994
0.0002569
s f
Vt 2 2.95 Dc
f
1/ 2
165.36 78.54
5.35 0.0165
78.54
1/ 2
=0.78 ft/sec
286
For turbulent flow conditions, the effective absolute viscosity of a drilling mud
with a plastic viscosity must to be modified before it is used in the Reynolds
number equation
e
3.2
0.0006267
=0.000196 lb.ft/sec2
3.2
The effective kinematic viscosity for the drilling mud with plastic properties
is
t 0.000196
=0.000080 ft2/sec
m
2.439
Reynolds number for the volumetric flow rate derived from the turbulent flow
terminal velocity equation.
NR
DV
0.192 0.9
=2160
0.000080
The Reynolds number above is greater than 2,000. This indicates that the
volumetric flow rate of 51.14 gal/min produces turbulent flow conditions in the
largest cross-section of the annulus.
The turbulent flow analysis result is inconsistent with the result of the laminar flow
analysis. Also, since the turbulent flow analysis indicates turbulent flow conditions
exist at a lower volumetric flow rate than the laminar flow analysis, then the laminar
flow analysis is considered valid and the turbulent flow analysis invalid
Therefore, the minimum volumetric flow rate of the incompressible drilling fluid (the
drilling mud) is assumed to be approximately 76 gpm (says 80 gpm)
287
1. Non-Friction Approximation
The simple non-friction methodology allows straight forward deterministic
approximate solutions of aerated drilling problems. However, the practical
applicability of these non-friction solutions is limited to shallow (generally less than
3,000 ft of depth) wells with simple geometric profiles
Tbh Ts G H =535+0.0154*14370=756R
The borehole average temperature, Tav, is
Tav
288
Tbh Ts
=645R
2
Pg S
R Tg
S=0.05*32+0.95*28/28.97=0.973
Pg S
R Tg
1872 0.973
=0.0656
53.36 519.67
80
=0.178 ft3/sec
7.48 60
ws
Dh2 w S s k
10.23
=0.0385 lb/sec
3600
( w wm ) H Qm Pbh Pe
Qg s
T P
Pg av ln bh g H
T
g Pe
The volumetric flow rate of compressed air determined above which is rounded up
to 300 scfm is the flow rate to be injected into the incompressible fluid volumetric
flow rate of 80 gal/min. This gas flow rate has been determined with the non-friction
method.
289
Pg S
R Tg
S=0.05*32+0.95*28/28.97=0.973
Pg S
R Tg
1872 0.973
=0.0656
53.36 519.67
80
=0.178 ft3/sec
7.48 60
290
Dh=3.875 inc=3.875/12=0.323 ft
Weight rate of flow of solids from the advance of the drill bit is
ws
Dh2 w S s k
10.23
=0.0385 lb/sec
3600
wt wg wm ws =1.28+13.98+0.0385=15.29 lb/sec
f
g
78.54
=2.439 lb.sec2/ft4
32.2
e 0.0006267
=0.0002569 ft2/sec
m
2.439
0.0741
=0.0023 lb.sec2/ft4
32.2
g 0.000000251
=0.000109 ft2/sec
g
0.0023
The kinematic viscosity of the aerated drilling fluid (the mixture of the drilling mud
and the compressed air) can be approximated with an average kinematic viscosity
term. This average kinematic viscosity term can be approximated by weight
averaging the separate viscosities with the weight rates of flow of the separate
fluids.
.
sr
wg g wm m
.
wg wm
291
The average velocity of the aerated drilling fluid (the mixture of the drilling
mud and the compressed air) as the mixture exits the end of the surface
return flow line into the atmosphere, Vsr
Vsr
Qm Q g
0.178 19.47
D sr2
=113.73 ft/sec
0.469 2
Thus, the Reynolds number of the aerated drilling fluid as it exits the surface
return flow line, NRsr, is
N Rsr
Vsr Dsr
sr
113.73 0.469
=219507.49
0.000244
The Reynolds number calculation above is greater than 4,000. This indicates that
the flow condition is turbulent.
Therefore, the empirical von Karman equation must be used to determine the
Fanning friction factor for the aerated fluid flow inside the return flow line.
The surface roughness of the inside of the steel surface return flow line is
the absolute surface roughness of commercial steel pipe, ep
ep=0.00015 ft
The Fanning friction factor, fsr , for flow inside the return flow line is
2
1
1
=0.015
f
Dsr
0.469
2 log 10 e 1.14
2 log 10 0.00015 1.14
For the surface return flow line increment can be solved for the pressure at the
entrance end of the line, Psr . This involves selecting this upper limit of the left side
intergal by a trial and error procedure. The magnitude of the upper limit pressure
on the left side of the equation is selected to allow the left side integral to equal the
right side integral.
292
100
dl =100 ft
Pen
dP
P Bs ( P) 0 dl
ex
Bs ( P )
Pg
P
f
wt
2 gD
Tav
sr
Q g Qm
Tg
2381
1826.6
Pg
P
Q g Qm
Dsr
4
Tr
Tg
dP
2
45260
P 0.178
15.29
0.000497
45260
0.1726
P 0.178
100
The integration can be carried out on the computer using one of the commercial
analytic software programs (e.g., Mathcad).
The aerated drilling fluid flows from the top of the annulus into the entrance of the
surface return flow line. The friction flow loss of the turn and of the two valves at
the entrance of the surface return flow line must be included. The approximate
specific weight of the aerated drilling fluid just after it passes through the Tee and
the valves at the top of the annulus is determined using the above determined P sr
.
tee
wt
Pg
Psr
tee
Tr
Q g Qm
Tg
15.29
=0.983 lb/ft=7.4 ppg
1826.6
535
19.47 0.178
2381 519.67
293
The approximate velocity of the aerated fluid flow just downstream of the Tee
and valves is
Pg
Vtee
Vtee
Psr
Tr
Q g Qm
Tg
/ 4 Dsr2
1826.6
535
19.47 0.178
2381
519
.
67
=90 ft/sec
/ 4 0.469 2
The approximate pressure change, PTee , through the two valves and Tee is
Vtee2
2
g
Where,
KTee is the minor loss flow resistance coefficient for the Tee,
Using the dimensions of the Tee, to obtain the approximate minor loss resistance
coefficient of the Tee. This is assumed as
KTee= 27
The approximate minor loss resistance coefficient for the valve is
Kv= 0 2
By Substituting
90 2
=3348.85 lb/ft2
Ptee 0.983 27 2 0.2
2
32
.
2
The pressure upstream of the Tee at the top of the annulus, P Tee
294
D/P 9184 ft (do not exceeds 3400 m), OD 3.5 , ID 2.6, N.W.=14.63lb/ft
Approximately every 30 ft there are tool joints which are about 1.5 ft in
length. The outside diameter of these tool joints (XT-M39) is 4.66 inches
with an inside diameter of 3.4 inches
The outside diameter of these tool joints (WT-23) is 3.125 inches with an
inside diameter of 1.5 inches
These lumped approximations for the drill pipe tool joints are somewhat rough
approximations, but will give quite accurate bottomhole and injection pressures.
Using this lumped approximation, the pressure terms along the annulus around the
drill pipe and inside the drill pipe are in error by a few percent. However, this
shortcoming can obviously be relieved by calculating a short 1 1/2 ft long tool joint
every 30 ft along the entire drill pipe length of the drill string. This can easily be
accomplished with a sophisticated computer program. But these lumped
approximations are very useful in demonstrating the calculation technique steps.
295
The calculation sequence for this illustrative example is divided into seven depth
increments. The increments start at the top of the borehole with the first increment
at the top and the seventh increment at the bottom.
The first cased section from the surface to 11175 ft
CSG dimensions OD/ID= 7''/6.184''
The total length of the lumped drill pipe body increment (first), H1, in the
cased section of the borehole is
H1=11175-1.5*11175/30=10616 ft
The inside diameter of the casing along this length of the cased section of
the borehole is
D1=6.184/12=0.515 ft
And the outside diameter of the drill pipes body along this length is
296
D2=3.5/12=0.292 ft
The total length of the lumped drill pipe tool joints increment (second), H2, in
the cased section of the borehole is
H2=1.5*11175/30=558.75 ft
The inside diameter of the casing along this length of the cased section of
the borehole is
D1=0.515
And the outside diameter of the drill pipe tool joints along this length is
D3=4.66/12=0.388 ft
The total length of the lumped drill pipe body increment (third), H3, in the
cased section of the borehole is
H3=2506-1.5*2506/30=2381 ft
The inside diameter of the casing along this length of the cased section of
the borehole is
D4=4.09/12=0.341 ft
And the outside diameter of the drill pipes body along this length is
D2=0.198 ft
The total length of the lumped drill pipe tool joints increment (fourth), H4, in
the cased section of the borehole is
H4=1.5*2506/30=126 ft
The inside diameter of the casing along this length of the cased section of
the borehole is
D4=0.341 ft
And the outside diameter of the drill pipe tool joints along this length is
D3=3.125/12=0.26 ft
The total length of the lumped drill pipe body increment (fifth), H5, in the
openhole section of the borehole is
H5=1307-1.5*1307/30=1242 ft
The inside diameter of the openhole along this length of the openhole
section of the borehole is
Dh=3.875/12=0.323 ft
And the outside diameter of the drill pipe body along this length is
D2=0.198 ft
297
The total length of the lumped drill pipe tool joints increment (sixth), H6, in
the openhole section of the borehole is
H6=1.5*1307/30=66 ft
The inside diameter of the openhole along this length of the openhole
section of the borehole is
Dh=0.323 ft
And the outside diameter of the drill pipe tool joints along this length is
D3=0.26 ft
The total length of the drill collar increment (seventh), H7, in the openhole
section of the borehole is
H7=330 ft
The inside diameter of the openhole along this length of the openhole
section of the borehole is
Dh=0.323 ft
And the outside diameter of the drill collars along this length is
D5=3.126/12=0.261 ft
298
H1 (ft)
10616
D1 (ft)
0.515
D2 (ft)
0.292
H2 (ft)
558.75 D1 (ft)
0.515
D3 (ft)
0.388
H3 (ft)
2381
D4 (ft)
0.341
D2 (ft)
0.198
H4 (ft)
126
D4 (ft)
0.341
D3 (ft)
0.26
H5 (ft)
1242
Dh (ft)
0.323
D2 (ft)
0.198
H6 (ft)
66
Dh (ft)
0.323
D3 (ft)
0.26
H7 (ft)
330
Dh (ft)
0.323
D5 (ft)
0.261
Tr T1
=616.74 OR
2
The approximate specific weight of the gas as it exits this cased annulus
section and starts into the Tee is determined from PTee
ga1
Ptee S
=0.1141
R Tr
ga1
ga1
g
=0.1141/32.2=0.0035447 lbsec2/ft4
ga1
gas
=0.000000251/0.0035447=0.0000708 ft 2/sec
ga1
The kinematic viscosity of the aerated drilling fluid mixture can be approximated
with an average kinematic viscosity term. This average kinematic viscosity term
can be defined by weight averaging the separate viscosities with the weight rates
of flow of the separate fluids. Therefore, the kinematic viscosity term can be
modified to determine the average kinematic viscosity of the mixture as it exits this
annulus section. This is
.
.
ava1
wg ga1 wm m
.
=0.0002413 ft2/sec
wg wm
The approximate average velocity of the aerated drilling fluid as it exits this
annulus section
299
Pg
Va1
Ptee
Tg
Tav
Q g Qm
( D12 D22 )
1826.6 616.74
19.67 0.178
=53.4 ft/sec
5729.89 519.67
2
2
(0.515 0.292 )
4
The Reynolds number of the aerated drilling fluid as it exits this annulus
section
N Ra1
The Reynolds number calculation above is greater than 4,000. This indicates that
the flow condition is turbulent. Therefore, the empirical von Karman equation is
used to determine the approximate Fanning friction factor for the aerated flow in
this annulus section.
Both annulus section surfaces are commercial steel with the surface roughness
ep=0.00015 ft
2
f a1
=0.02484
0.515 0.292
For the first increment in the annulus can be solved for the pressure at bottom of
the increment, Pbh1. This involves selecting this upper limit by a trial and error
procedure. The magnitude of the upper limit pressure on the left side of the
equation is selected to allow the left side integral to equal the right side integral.
The integration can be carried out on the computer using one of the commercial
analytic software programs. The trial and error magnitude of the upper limit
pressure that satisfies Equation for this annulus section is
Pbh
5729.85
300
dP
2
1826.6 588.08
P 519.67 19.47 0.178
15.29
0.02484
2
2
1826.6 616.74 19.47 0.178 2 32.2(0.515 0.292)
(
0
.
515
0
.
292
)
P 519.67
10616
dh
0
The second annulus section increment is denoted by length H2. The temperature at
the bottom of the length H2 in the cased annulus section of the borehole (bottom of
the drill pipe tool joints lumped geometry), T2, is
T2=Tr+G(H1+H2)=535+0.0154*(10616+558.75)=707.0912 OR
Tr T2
=616.74 OR
2
The approximate specific weight of the gas as it exits this cased annulus
section and starts into the annulus section above is determined from Pbh1
Pbh1 S
=8.51663 lb/ft3
R Tr
ga2
ga2
ga2
=8.51663/32.2=0.264492 lbsec2/ft4
ga2
gas
=0.000000251/0.26449=0.000000949 ft 2/sec
ga2
The
average
kinematic
viscosity
of
the
mixture
at
this
position
.
.
ava2
wg ga1 wm m
.
=0.0002354 ft2/sec
wg wm
The approximate average velocity of the aerated drilling fluid as it exits this
annulus section
Pg
Va 2
Pbh1
Tav
Q g Qm
Tg
( D12 D22 )
1826.6 621.045
19.67 0.178
249876
519
.
67
=3.8667 ft/sec
2
2
(0.515 0.388 )
4
The Reynolds number of the aerated drilling fluid as it exits this annulus
section
N Ra 2
301
The Reynolds number calculation above is greater than 2,000 and less than 4,000.
This indicates that the flow condition is transition. Therefore, the empirical
Colebrook equation is used to determine the approximate Fanning friction factor in
this annulus section
Both annulus section surfaces are commercial steel with the surface roughness
ep=0.00015 ft
By assuming =0.029
1
f a2
e
Dh D p
2 log 10
3.7
2.51
N R f a2
This equation is solved by trial and error to find the value of fanning friction factor in
this section
a2=0.02909
For the second increment in the annulus can be solved for the pressure at the
bottom of the increment, Pbh2. This involves selecting this upper limit by a trial and
error procedure. The magnitude of the upper limit pressure on the left side of the
equation is selected to allow the left side integral to equal the right side integral.
The integration can be carried out on the computer using one of the commercial
analytic software programs. The trial and error magnitude of the upper limit
pressure that satisfies Equation for this annulus section is
Pbh
249876
302
dP
2
1826.6 621.045
P 519.67 19.47 0.178
15.29
0.02909
1826
.
6
621
.
045
2
32
.
2
(
0
.
515
0
.
388
)
2
2
(0.515 0.388 )
P 519.67 19.47 0.178
558.75
dh
0
698.4864
Tav
616.7432
0.0060652
4.138E-05
0.0002388
53.401496
49863.504
0.00015
0.0248411
249876
707.0912
Tav
621.0456
Specific weight of gas as it exit this cased annulus, lb/ft3
8.51663
0.2644916
9.49E-07
0.0002354
3.8666187
2085.7942
0.00015
0.0290963
276302
303
743.7586
Tav
639.3793
9.4173187
0.2924633
8.582E-07
0.0002354
5.5592341
3376.7697
0.00015
0.0281243
403860
304
T4
745.699
Tav
640.3495
13.764932
0.4274824
5.872E-07
0.0002354
7.4973875
2579.8079
0.00015
0.0334201
411667
764.8258
Tav
649.9129
14.031022
0.435746
5.76E-07
0.0002354
5.5951501
2971.0904
0.00015
0.01
0.0073096
0.1641604
491427
765.8422
Tav
650.4211
16.749516
0.5201713
4.825E-07
0.0002354
9.3151502
2493.0959
0.00015
0.01
0.0061271
0.2435745
514670
305
770.9242
Tav
652.9621
17.541717
0.5447738
4.607E-07
0.0002354
9.3171588
2454.0711
0.00015
0.01
0.0061091
0.2463172
633405
It is assumed that the 3 7/8 inch impregnated drill bit is equipped with six 8/32 inch
diameter jet nozzles
dn=0.25 inches=0.02083 ft
306
The approximate specific weight of the aerated fluid at the bottom of the
annulus
.
.
mixbh
wg wm
1.28 13.98
=58.41 lb/ft3
Pg T7
1826.6 770.4942
19.47 0.178
Q g Qm
633405 519.67
Pbh7 Tg
The pressure change in the aerated fluid through the drill bit, Pb, can be
approximated by
2
.
.
w g wm
2
1.28 13.98
Pb
=22610.256 lb/ft2
2
2
2 g mixbhC 2 / 4 De4 2 32.2 58.41 0.812 / 4 0.0514
The pressure in the aerated fluid just above the drill bit inside the drill string,
Pi7
307
D10=1.185/12=0.09875 ft
The total length of the lumped drill pipe tool joints geometry increment, H4,
in the second cased section is
H4=126 ft
The inside diameter of the drill pipe tool joints lumped geometry in this
cased section is
D9=0.125 ft
The total length of the lumped drill pipe body geometry increment, H3, in the
second cased section is
H3=2381 ft
The inside diameter of the drill pipe body lumped geometry in this cased
section is
D10=0.09875 ft
The total length of the lumped drill pipe tool joints geometry increment, H2,
in the first cased section is
H2=558.75 ft
The inside diameter of the drill pipe tool joints lumped geometry in this
cased section is
D11=3.4/12=0.283 ft
The total length of the lumped drill pipe body geometry increment, H1, in the
first cased section is
H1=10616 ft
The inside diameter of the drill pipe body lumped geometry in this cased
section is
D12=2.6/12=0.217 ft
TABLE 9:TABLE 1: SEVENTH DEPTH INCREMENT INSIDE DRILLSTRING
308
H7 (ft)
330
D8 (ft)
0.125
H6(ft)
66
D9 (ft)
0.125
H5 (ft)
1242
D10 (ft)
0.09875
H4 (ft)
126
D9 (ft)
0.125
H3 (ft)
2381
D10 (ft)
0.09875
H2 (ft)
0.283
H1 (ft)
10616
0.271
D8 (ft)
gi7
gi7
gi7
=0.5689 lb.sec2/ft4
gi7
gas
=0.000000251/0.5689=0.0000004412 ft 2/sec
gi7
The
average
kinematic
viscosity
of
the
mixture
at
this
position
.
.
avi7
wg gi7 wm m
.
=0.0002354 ft2/sec
wg wm
The approximate average velocity of the aerated drilling fluid as it enters this
drill collar section
Pg
Vi 7
Pi 7
Tav
Q g Qm
Tg
=20.0656 ft/sec
2
8
(D )
The Reynolds number of the aerated drilling fluid as it enters this drill collar
section
309
N Ri 7
20.0656 (0.125)
=10655.578
0.0002354
The Reynolds number calculation above is greater than 4,000. This indicates that
the flow condition is turbulent. Therefore, the empirical von Karman is used to
determine the approximate Fanning friction factor for the aerated fluid flow inside
drill collars.
The inside surface of the drill collars is commercial steel with the surface
roughness
ep=0.00015
2
1
=0.02052
f i7
0.125
For the seventh increment inside the drill string can be solved for the pressure at
the top of the increment, Pi6. This involves selecting this lower limit by a trial and
error procedure. The magnitude of the lower limit pressure on the left side of the
equation is selected to allow the left side integral to equal the right side integral.
The integration can be carried out on the computer using one of the commercial
analytic software programs. The trial and error magnitude of the lower limit
pressure is
656015.26
Pi 6
dP
2
1826.6 588.08
19
.
47
0
.
178
P 519.67
15
.
29
0
.
0205157
1826.6 652.96
2 32.2(0.125)
(0.125 2 )
P 519.67 19.47 0.178
So,
Pi6=634600 lb/ft2
The calculation is repeated similarly for each section to determine the
injection pressure at the surface.
310
330
dh
0
T ABLE 10:GEOMETRY IN SIDE THE DRILL STING AT OPEN HOLE SECTION (H7=330')
Open hole section of annulus (13682 to 15320 ft)
Section increment H7=330 ft
T7
770.9242
Tav
652.9621
18.319895
0.5689408
4.412E-07
0.0002354
20.065593
10655.578
0.00015
0.0205157
634600
TABLE 11:GEOMETRY INSIDE THE DRILL STING AT OPEN HOLE SECTION (H6=66')
Section increment H6=66 ft
T6
765.8422
Tav
650.4211
17.791086
0.5525182
4.543E-07
0.0002354
20.230661
10743.185
0.00015
0.0205157
630329
311
TABLE 12:GEOMETRY INSIDE THE DRILL STING AT OPEN HOLE SECTION (H5=1242')
Section increment H5=1242 ft
T5
764.8258
Tav
649.9129
17.685166
0.5492288
4.57E-07
0.0002354
32.470615
13621.977
0.00015
0.021774
546990
TABLE 13: GEOMETRY INSIDE THE DRILL STING AT SECOND SECTION (H4=126')
Second cased section of annulus (13682 to 11175 ft)
Section increment H4=126 ft
312
T4
745.699
Tav
640.3495
15.576122
0.4837305
5.189E-07
0.0002354
20.180259
10716.172
0.00015
0.0205157
539142
743.7586
Tav
639.3793
15.375938
0.4775136
5.256E-07
0.0002354
33.854981
14202.395
0.00015
0.021774
389542
707.0912
Tav
621.0456
11.437413
0.3551992
7.066E-07
0.0002354
4.5666805
5489.856
0.00015
0.016904
361580
313
698.4864
Tav
616.7432
12.323885
0.3827293
6.558E-07
0.0002354
5.1122938
5885.2763
0.00015
0.0170707
30129
The injection pressure while drilling at 15320 ft of depth is approximately 210 psia.
This is the approximate injection pressure for both the compressed gas and the
drilling mud as they enter the surface flow lines that lead to the top of the drill
string. When drilling at a depth of 15320 ft, the corresponding injection pressure
above is a air volumetric flow rate of 1,168 acfm (with a drilling mud volumetric flow
rate of 80 gal/hr). This compressed air injection pressure is the pressure the
compressor output must match.
TABLE 17: SUMMERIZE THE PRESSURE PROFILE INSIDE THE ANNULUS & DS
314
H0
Pbh
39.8
Pi
209.2292
H1
10616
Pbh1
1735.25
Pi1
2510.972
H2
11175
Pbh2
1918.764 Pi2
2705.153
H3
13556
Pbh3
2804.583 Pi3
3744.042
H4
13682
Pbh4
2858.799 Pi4
3798.542
H5
14924
Pbh5
3412.688 Pi5
4377.285
H6
14990
Pbh6
3574.097 Pi6
4406.944
H7
15320
Pbh7
4398.646 Pi7
4556
Pressure profile
pressure (psi)
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
0
2000
4000
depth (ft)
6000
8000
in annulus
in drill string
10000
12000
14000
16000
18000
FIGURE 2: PRESSURE PROFILE INSIDE THE ANNULUS AND DRILL STRING
Figure 2: shows the aerated drilling fluid (both air and mud) pressures in the
annulus and inside the drill string as a function of depth for this illustrative example
(while drilling at the depth of 15320 ft). The figure shows the pressure at the bottom
of the annulus is approximately 4399 psia (Ph7 above). If a target oil or natural gas
rock formation pore pressure at the bottom of the borehole is above this value, the
oil or natural gas will flow into the borehole as the drill bit is advanced into the
315
Compressor selection
Product Specifications
compressor
4-stage reciprocating
driver
Driver rating
Volume output
cylinders
316
ns k Pi qi Po
Ws
k 1 229.17 Pi
K 1
ns k
Where,
1.4 1
Ws
1 =264.1
0.4
229.17
12.685
1 / ns
420
12.685
1/ 4
=2.4
The volumetric efficiency (only for the reciprocating piston compressor), ev,
is
ev 0.96 1 C rs1 / k 1
Where;
C is the clearance volume ratio and equal 0.06
ev=0.91
The actual shaft horsepower required by each compressor
.
.
.
W as
Ws
em ev
=322.5
At this surface location, the input horsepower available from the Caterpillar Model
D398 prime mover is a derated value (derated from the rated 760 horsepower
available at 900 rpm). In order for the compressor units to operate, the derated
input power available must be greater than the actual shaft power needed.
317
FIGURE 3: RIME MOVER PERCENTAGE REDUCTION IN POWER AS A FUNCTION OF ELEVATION ABOVE SEA LEVEL
PR
Was
.
=322.1/684=0.471=47.1%
Ws
With the power ration percent, the approximate fuel consumption rate can be read
on the ordinate using the diesel fuel curve. The approximate fuel consumption rate
at this power level is 0.650 lb/hp-hr. The total weight of diesel fuel consumption per
hour is
.
318
209.4
=30.8 gal/hr
0.8156 8.33
Where 0.8156 is the specific gravity of diesel fuel and 8.33 is the specific weight of
fresh water (lb/gal)
319
References
1. Bobo, R. A., and Barrett, H. M., Aeration of Drilling Fluids, World Oil, Vol 145,
No. 4, 1953.
2. Graves, S. L., Niederhofer, J. D., and Beavers, W. M., A Combination Air and
Fluid Drilling Technique for Zones of Lost Circulation in the Black Warrior
Basin, SPE Drilling Engineering, February 1986.
3. Allan, P. D., Nitrogen Drilling System for Gas Drilling Applications, SPE
28320, Presented at the SPE 69th Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition, New Orleans, Louisiana, September 2528, 1994.
4. Underbalanced Drilling Manual, Gas Research Institute Publication, GRI
Reference No. GRI-97/0236, 1997.
5. Gatlin, C., Petroleum Engineering: Drilling and Well Completions, Prentice-Hall,
1960.
6. Bourgoyne, A. T., et al, Applied Drilling Engineering, SPE, First Printing, 1986.
320
320
BAPETCO is involved in the exploration and development of many concessions including Badr el
Din, North East Abu Gharadig, Obaiyed, Sitra, Matruh and others
The Badr El Din Petroleum Company (Bapetco), ranks amongst Egypt's 10 largest
joint venture operators. Daily production averages some 25 000 STB of oil and
condensate and some 300 MMSCF of gas. The company aims to continuously
increase value of its operations on behalf of the shareholders, by pursuing the
following targets:
increase ultimate recovery and production rates;
reduce costs of developing hydrocarbon assets;
improve staff competence and efficiency;
321
PETROLUM ACTIVATES
To benefit from the increase in reservoir properties towards JB16-3SDT the D2 well
is proposed to be sidetracked towards this well (to NW). Pending the reservoir quality
found the well design is kept flexible to allow the well to be delivered with the
optimum drain hole completion and geometry. The following case is based on the
identification of poor reservoir during the initial OB drilling into the reservoir section:
Poor (kh<0.01mD) reservoir means that the well will not flow after setting
liner/perforating. UBD is a must to be able to flow the well. It is planned to test the
well prior to handing over to production.
322
Geology of target horizon (Lower Safa): The D2ST well is targeting the Mesozoic
Lower Safa reservoir in the northern part of the Western Block where Obaiyed 163/SDT, D7, D12 and 4H are located. The Lower Safa comprises a high N/G
sequence of estuarine deposits, with a total thickness of some 90m in the area where
D2ST is planned , although only 29m of these are considered productive. The
sequence is made up of low permeable sandstone with some thin higher perm
intervals. The sequence is subdivided into 5 distinct reservoir units, numbered from
top to bottom and a 6th non-reservoir unit (called waste zone) which uncomformably /
erosively overlies the sequence. Units 1-3 are the main reservoir units on which the
bulk of the Obaiyed wells have been completed. They are composed of low to
medium permeable (1-500 mD) micaceous sandstone deposited in a strongly tidally
influenced estuary. Unit 4 is a non-reservoir unit composed of very fine to fine very
micaceous sandstones, siltstones and mudstones which forms a seal between the
deeper unit 5 and the other Lower Safa reservoir units. Unit 5 is composed of
medium grained sandstones deposited under limited tidal influence. At the target
location units 1 and 2 are eroded, leaving only relatively low quality unit 3
sandstones.
The Base Kabrit Mb/ top Lower Safa (Top prospective sequence) map shows a
consistent fault pattern (predominant NW-SE en-echelon fault pattern) with the
overburden horizons, which dissected the older deep seated NNE-SSW fault system.
Petrophysical evaluation
The reservoir pressure at the liner shoe and throughout the openhole sections will
affect the ability to remain UB throughout. The current reservoir pressure estimate is
????psi (with a tolerance of +/- ???psi). If the BHP is less than this, maintaining UB
conditions throughout the wellbore will be compromised and as such the drilling
phase may have to be terminated earlier than initially planned.
Porosity
o Upper safa: The log porosities as determined by using the density log
(10% porosity in D2), no cores were taken in U. Safa in wells D2 and
Jbl6-3.
o Lower safa The log porosities as determined by using the density log in
D2 & JM6-3 were corrected using porosity measurements from cores
which have been taken in D2 and JM6-3 in L.safa formation. Stress
corrections were applied for cores porosity. Fig. 9 gives the complete
evaluation of the cored wells OB A D2 and JB 16-3SDT.
Permeability
o Lower Safa: Extensive core data allowes a good calibration with
transform (permeability vs porosity relationship). The original D2 well
found core permeabilities in the range of (0.25 : 1.5md ).
323
324
OBAIYED - D2
S U R FA C E
TARG ET
Lat.
Long.
Lat.
Long.
31 06' 56.13"
26 34' 27.54"
PROGNOSIS
DEPTH
mbdf
(mss)
FMS.
323 756
659 394
ELEVATIONS
GL.
203.77 m
m
m
DF.
213.87 m
ACTUAL
REMARKS
LITHOLOGY
N.
E.
N.
E.
MARMARICA
DEPTH
mbdf LITHOLOGY
(mss)
FMS.
REMARKS
MARMARICA
164
Partial Total
Losses
MOGHRA
173(-40)
MOGHRA
AP
O
AP
O
LL
ON
500
LL
O
NI
A
332(118)
IA
333
793 + 30
819(605)
I
1000
KHOMAN
1073+ 30
KHOMAN
13 3 /8 "
1095 m
1092 m
Heaving Swelling
Shales
1500
ABU ROASH
"A-F"
1583 + 30
ABU ROASH
"A-F"
F
1600
(1386)
ABU ROASH
"G"
Tight hole
ABU ROASH
"G"
1830
(1620)
1843 + 30
MIDIEWAR
BAHARIYA
2000
BAHARIYA
13 3/8 "
1070
(856)
2073
+ 30
2098 + 30
MIDIEWAR
KHARITA
2083
2109(1895)
2500
KHARITA
2623 + 30
2638 + 30
DAHAB
DOL.
2753 + 30
ALAMIEN
CL.
Caving
2843 + 30
2918 + 30
9 5 /8 "
3000
2965m
Caving
D1
2753
2843
D2
9 5 /8 "
2942
(2728)
2972m
MASAJID
3500
K.O.P @
3480
ZAHRA
3668 + 30
DARDUMA@3676(3456)
3758 + 30 F
KHATATBA@3760(3530)
UM A
DA RD T
LS
L. SAFA
3744
(3530)
3945
(3731)
3945
+ 30
4000
KABRIT
3670
(3456)
KHATATBA
U. SAFA
L. SAFA
SHIFAH ??
SHIFAH ??
L.SAFA@4102(3735)
D1
3398
(3184)
3403 + 30
KHATATBA
CL.
MASAJID
ALAM EL BUIEB
D2
ALAM EL BUIEB
ALAMIEN
2639
2654
DAHAB
DOL.
3997
(3783)
T.D.
4115mbdf
T.D.
4125 mbdf
Seismic Reflector
Planned Core Interval
T.D.
4413
(3974)
Author : XGO
Date : 22.9.2002
Drawn by : XDF
325
Vertical loads:
o Dead load of derrick itself.
o Dead load of the load supported by the C/B.
o Live and impact load
Horizontal loads:
o Hz. component of pipe set back.
o Wind load .
Wind load Lw = 0.004V 2 A , lb and V = 50 mph
Note:
Use maximum dead load capacity of a derrick equal to the heaviest casing column,
an additional length (from 25 50 % of casing) is added for friction
Onshore well:
Use Jack knife rig.
From its API specification:
Determine the maximum casing weight
From the casing design
For 13-3/8
Wc1=243559.68 lb
For 9-5/8
Wc2=459138.336 lb
For 7
Wc3=108722.16 lb
For 4.5
Wc4=1680 lb
326
Note:
For wind load,
Wind load = 0.004 * (50)2 * 510 ft2 (for rig class 8A) = 5100, lb
The derrick specifications are:
from A Complete Well Planning Approach N. J. Adams
Derrick size No.
18 A
Height
136
ft
Base square
30
ft
Casing capacity
400,000 lbs
Pipe size
5 in
Total length
8900 ft
Pipe weight
22.5 lb/ft
510 ft2
Swivel selection
Maximum swivel rated dead load capacity = (Max. Drill string weight) +( Kelly weight )
= 295706+1055.5=296762 lb
From the drilling data handbook
we can select the appropriate design
Depth capacity
15000 ft
19.5 in
3 in
Hook clearance
22 in
3960 lb
327
Kelly selection
From the drill string design, we can calculate the maximum drill string weight as
follow;
Max. Drill string weight = (weight of drill pipe+ weight of BHA+ weight of bit)max
After considering the buoyancy factor and the safety factor
Max. Drill string weight = (258745 170) 0.866 1.35 =295706 lb
From the drilling data handbook we can select the appropriate design at maximum
tensile yield of 322000 daN
Square 3.5
Lower pin connection (size & style)
Hexagonal 4.5
NC 38 C
3.5 IF
NC 38 C
3.5 IF
Inside diameter
2.25
Inside diameter
2.25
Outside diameter
Outside diameter
6 5/8
6 5/8
153.1
172.4
322000
daN
Tensile yield.
Tensile yield.
322000
daN
3.5 2 2.25 2
144
Most of rotating head are driven by a kelly driver. This attaches to the kelly and is
mated to a machined piece on top of the bearing assembly. The kelly driver transfers
rotation of the drillstring to the sealing element in the rotating head. The bearing
assembly provides a seal and allows rotation of the stripper rubber while the bowl
remains stationary. The stripper rubber is designed to rotate with the kelly since
rotating the kelly within the stripper rubber would cause the stripper rubber to wear jut
much faster.
328
Hexagonal kellys allow for a better seal than do square kellys. These should be used
whenever possible for air drilling applications.
Plain bearing
K = 1.09
Roller bearing
K = 1.04
Dimensions, L X W X H
(in)
weight
(lb)
H-250
250
7.5
4806
329
450 tons
No. of sheaves
Sheave diameter
54 inch
Approximate weight
16105 lbs
Line size
1 3/8 inch,
1 1/4 inch
Overall length
Overall weight
56 inch
Thickness
33 inch
Clevis width
8 1/2 inch
204,314 inch
19,500 lbs
Hook length
Hook width
33 inch
325 tons
No. of sheaves
Sheave diameter
54 inch
Approximate weight
330
13995
lbs
Length I beam
108 inch
24 inch
Drilling line
1 inch
49 inch
Cat line
1 1/2 inch
15 inch
16,000 ft
32 ,in
57 ,in
Drum Height
25 ,in
1.2 ,ft
25 ,in
Drope
2.625 ,in
Brake horsepower
1930.8, HP
331
Tf.l. = 71266.24 lb
L N l n
Where:
Aa
B
( D A) *
d 4
d
L=K*(A + D) *A*B
12 * d 2
0.04
L=0.04*25*57*(32+25)=3119 ft
332
Line
H.L
Leg A
Leg B
n T
4
n T
4
F.L
T
2
Leg C
Leg D
Position
n T
4
n T
4
Between
A,B,C,D
T
2
T
2
Between C,D
T
2
1
2
D.L
T
2
T
2
For position 1:
DEP=
CB load
T ( N 2)
=
=100%
4 Max eq Derrick leg T ( N 2)
For position 2:
DEP=
CB load
T ( N 2)
( N 2)
=
=
4 Max eq Derrick leg 4.( NT / 4 T ) ( N 4)
333
DEP=
CB load
T ( N 2)
=
4 Max eq Derrick leg T ( NT / 4 T )
CB load
T ( N 2)
N 2
=
=
4 Max eq Derrick leg 4.( NT / 4 3T / 2) N 6
so, DEP= 71.4%
D/C
OD
4.5 inch
ID
3.826
inch
Length
12611.6ft
OD
6.5 inch
ID
3.5 inch
Length
270 ft
Hole
8.5 inch
ud
Viscosity
30 cp
10.05
ppg
YP ( yield
point)
18lb/100
ft
334
(8.5) 2 (4.5) 2
ft
gal.
180
7.48
=381.86 gpm
min
cu. ft
144
Pt
Ps
Pp
Pc
Pb
Pc*
Pp*
Vc
12
md
Where :
Vc
335
Q
2.45 d 2
Where :
381.86
= 10.65 ft/sec
2.45 3.826 2
While V VC ,
Re
Re
2970 mV d
So,
Pp
f m LV 2
25.8d
Vc
336
Where :
d : inside diameter d/c, ft
md
12
Vc
Q
2.45 d 2
Where :
d : inside diameter of d/c, inch
V
381.86
=12.7 ft/sec
2.45 3.5 2
While V VC ,
Then, flow is turbulent.
Re
2970 mV d
Where :
d : inside diameter of d/c, inch
Re
f m L V 2
Pc
25.8d
Where :
L : length of d/c ,ft
d : inside diameter of d/c
Pc
,inch
337
Vc
12
md
Where :
d: clearance between open hole and D/P = 8.5 4.5 = 4 inch
338
Q
2.45 d 2
381.86
=2.99 ft/sec
2.45 (8.5 2 4.5 2 )
While V VC ,
Then,
flow is laminar.
L p V L Y .P
1500 d 2 300 d
12612 30 3 12612 18
=203.73 psi
P
2
2
1500 (8.5 4.5 ) 300 (8.5 4.5)
E- Pc* : total pressure loss in annulus outside D/C:
2-1 calculate the critical velocity
Vc
12
md
Where :
d: the clearance between the open hole and OD of D/C=8.5-6.5=2 inch
Vc
Q
2.45 d 2
381.86
=5.195 ft/sec
2.45 (8.5 2 6.5 2 )
339
While V VC ,
Then, flow is laminar
L p V L Y .P
1500 d 2 300 d
270 30 5.195
270 18
=9.035 psi
P
2
2
1500 (8.5 6.5 ) 300 (8.5 6.5)
Pb : total pressure loss in bit:
Assume a cone bit has 3 nozzles 13/32, in with a bit nozzle coefficient C=0.95
Corrected value for multiple nozzle coefficient
d e n d 2 in
Where :
d e 3 13 / 32 =0.7036
2
The pressure drop in the bit calculated from the following equation Use the eqn.
Pb
Pb
q2 m
7430 C 2 d e
381.86 2 10.04
=890 psi
7430 0.95 2 0.7036 4
340
Selection of Flange
At the 5000 working pressure, there are two flanges types
Type
Nominal size, in
6B
2 1/16 11
6 BX
13 5/8 21.25
13 3/8 in
26.5 in
18 in
4.94 in
18.94 in
16.69 in
Selection of bolts
341
23.25 in
Number of bolt
16
Diameter of bolt
1.625 in
Length
12.5 in
Ring joint
160
Nominal
size (in)
fluid volume
(gallon)
working
prssure(psi)
To open
13 5/8
5,000
5.8
To
close
close
ratio
5.45
open
ratio
2.3
112.125 in
171.5 in
Single BOP
Hight between
flanges (in)
33.812
Weight, lb
7700
Hight between
flanges (in)
55.875
Weight, lb
14800
Double BOP
342
Operating data
Nominal Size
(in)
Working pressure
(psi)
13 5/8
5000
Fluid volume
(gal)
To
open
To
close
5.2
5.9
Open
ratio
Close
ratio
5.2
2.1
116 in
52.25 in
Single BOP
Hight between
flanges (in)
36.25
Weight, lb
8850
Hight between
flanges (in)
58 1/8
Weight, lb
16700
Double BOP
343
1- Choose from the above table the recommended DC sizes ( ID, OD ).and
specify its nominal weight.
W f 2.67( D p2 Di2 )
Minimum collar OD 2 ( casing coupling OD) - (bit sub)
2- Calculate the length of drill collar used using:
mud
( steel 65.5 ppg )
steel
WOB
wt dc B.F 0.85
Where:
Safety factor=0.85
344
Ndc =Ldc / 30
Calculations:
For hole size (17 1/2) @ MD = 1099 m & TVD = 3968.87 m
First drill collar design: For hole size (17 1/2) @ MD = 1099 m & TVD = 3968.87 m
Hole (in)
WOB (klb)
Depth (m)
MW(ppg)
17.5
25
1099
8.8
OD (in)
ID (in)
3.5
N.W (lb/ft)
138.1725
BF
0.865649
WOB (lb)
25000
weight of DC in air
28880.07
Ldc (ft)
245.8995
33976.55
8.196651
new length of DC
rounded up to
270
ID (in)
5
3-
N.W (lb/ft)
length (ft)
49.3
300
It was decided to run 300 ft of HWDP for transition purpose and to also be used for weight on bit then
the amount of drill collars used can be reduced.
345
14790
19186.55
138.8594
4.628647
150
450
34623.65
134623.7
rounded up
to
OD
ID
G105
4.5
3.826
NW
16.6
EW
14.98
thickness
0.337
Collapse
resistance
9467
Internal
yield
12581
pipe body
yield
364231
torsional
yield
33795
327807.9
319698
length of DP (ft)
3154.72
No. of stands of DP
33.92172
3162
52489.2
75409.14
4.347058
346
rounded up to
34
5956.988
1.589226
Since S.F is greater than 1.125 so it's accepted.
13017.89
100
12917.89
4.405203
19.21124
82681.99
214437
27436.79
1.23174
accepted
Description
OD (in)
ID (in)
Weight (lb/ft)
length (m)
Length (ft)
bit
17.5
795.63
0.75
2.46
bit sub
9.5
217.48
3.28
DC
3.5
138.1725
9.14
235.0171
217.48
3.28
DC
3.5
138.1725
18.28
235.0171
jar
2.81
150.17
9.14
29.9792
DC
9.5
3.5
208.26
18.28
235.0171
10
2.81
150.17
0.75
2.46
11
10xHVWDP
49.3
91
298.48
No. of DC used
10
347
Hole (in)
WOB (klb)
MW(ppg)
12 1/4
18
9.2
OD (in)
ID (in)
3.5
N.W (lb/ft)
138
0.859542
BF
18000
WOB (lb)
weight of DC in air
20941.39
Ldc (ft)
178.3056
24636.92
5.943518
rounded up to
180
new length of DC
ID (in)
N.W (lb/ft)
length (ft)
49.3
300
It was decided to run 300 ft of HWDP for transition purpose and to also be used for weight on bit
then the amount of drill collars used can be reduced.
Weight of HWDP (lb)
New weight of D/C after taking weight of HWDP
9846.924
71.26544
2.375515
90
390
27225.53
127225.5
348
14790
rounded up to
OD
ID
NW
EW
thicknes
s
Collapse
resistance
Internal
yield
torsional
yield
G105
4.5
3.826
16.6
14.98
0.337
9467
12581
364231
33795
327807.9
12083.28
9384.4
length of DP (ft)
100.9075
No. of stands of DP
new length of DP according to the rounded value (ft)
rounded up to
101
9393
155923.8
157424.5
2.082318
6227.76
1.520129
13017.89
226
12791.89
4.405203
19.21124
82681.99
212345.4
27579.71
1.225357
349
accepted
Description
OD (in)
ID (in)
Weight (lb/ft)
Length (m)
Length (ft)
12.25
377.57
0.3
0.984
bit
NB stabilizer
147.22
1.5
4.92
DC
3.5
138.1725
9.14
29.9792
ST. stabilizer
2.81
150.17
6.56
DC
3.5
138.1725
18.28
59.9584
jar
2.81
150.17
9.14
29.9792
DC
3.5
138.1725
9.14
29.9792
2.81
150.17
0.75
2.46
10xHVWDP
49.3
91
298.48
No. of DC used
10
Hole (in)
WOB (klb)
MW(ppg)
4115
8 1/2
15
10.05
OD (in)
6.5
ID (in)
3.5
N.W (lb/ft)
80
BF
WOB (lb)
15000
weight of DC in air
17718.6655
Ldc (ft)
260.243306
20845.4888
8.67477685
new length of DC
350
0.84656489
270
rounded up to
ID (in)
N.W (lb/ft)
length (ft)
49.3
240
It was decided to run 240 ft of HWDP for transition purpose and to also be used for weight on bit
then the amount of drill collars used can be reduced.
Weight of HWDP (lb)
11832
9013.48878
112.52795
3.75093166
120
360
40668
140668
rounded up to
OD
ID
NW
EW
thicknes
s
Collapse resistance
Internal yield
torsional
yield
G105
4.5
3.826
16.6
14.98
0.337
9467
12581
364231
33795
327807.9
11273.488
13137.2
length of DP (ft)
141.260215
No. of stands of DP
new length of DP according to the rounded value (ft)
rounded up to
142
13206
219219.6
220011.716
1.48995656
351
6803.1512
1.39156102
13017.8936
104
12913.8936
4.30965
10.2408058
81414.5
200165.351
18814.7971
1.20144798
accepted
Description
OD (in)
ID (in)
Weight (lb/ft)
Length (m)
bit
8.5
2.8
172.4
0.3
bit sub
7.5
58.3
4.12
drill collar
6.5
3.5
80.1
9.14
blade stabilizer
6.75
254.4
1.5
drill collar
6.5
3.5
80.1
9.14
jar
42.83
9.14
drill collar
6.5
3.5
80.1
18.28
6.75
254.4
0.3
8x HWDP
49.3
72
123.92
352
No. of DC used
Hole (in)
WOB (klb)
MW(ppg)
4,171
9.3
OD (in)
4.75
ID (in)
2.6
N.W (lb/ft)
42
BF
0.85801527
WOB (lb)
5000
weight of DC in air
5827.40214
Ldc (ft)
383.06267
6855.76722
12.7687557
new length of DC
rounded up to
13
390
ID (in)
N.W (lb/ft)
length (ft)
3.5
2.063
21.4
180
It was decided to run 180 ft of HWDP for transition purpose and to also be used for
weight on bit then the amount of drill collars used can be reduced.
Weight of HWDP (lb)
3852
3003.76722
71.1916753
2.37305584
90
270
15244.0223
rounded up to
353
pipe body
yield
Internal
yield
Collapse
resistance
thickness
EW
NW
ID
OD
grad
e
22605
3580868
21552
20260
0.449
14.63
15.5
2.6
3.5
G105
12937.8824
13410.88
146
rounded up to
length of DP (ft)
144.203011
13578
210459
193656.639
1.63062419
3.21819556
354
accepted
200366.851
18805.652
1.20203224
Description
OD (in)
ID (in)
Weight (lb/ft)
Length (m)
2.8
75.37
0.3
5.25
3.5
40.99
9.06
MWD
4.75
DC
4.75
2.6
18.0225
9.14
Jar
4.75
36.3
9.14
DC
4.75
2.6
18.0225
18.28
8x HWDP
3.5
2.063
25.3
115.853659
No. of DC
9.14
2
170.913659
Depth (m)
Hole (in)
WOB (klb)
MW(ppg)
4670
3 7/8
8.4
OD (in)
3.125
ID (in)
1.5
N.W (lb/ft)
20
BF
WOB (lb)
0.87175573
2000
weight of DC in air
2294.22067
Ldc (ft)
317.095973
2699.08314
10.5698658
new length of DC
330
330
6622.01719
106622.017
rounded up to
11
355
OD
ID
NW
EW
thickness
Collapse resistance
Internal yield
torsional yield
G105
2.375
1.185
6.65
6.62
0.28
18726
19806
6735
135595.8
4356.95982
length of DP (ft)
14987.6
No. of stands of DP
161.156989
rounded up to
162
15066
100188.9
93113.0286
1.45624949
5686.21592
3.29322703
356
Description
Drill pipe
OD
ID
2.6
Top
Bottom
XTM-39 Box
XTM-39 Pin
X/O
XTM-39 Box
3 IF pin
X/)
3 IF Box
4 IF Pin
4 IF box
4 IF box
4 IF pin
8
7 7/16
Length
As rqd
item
Item
OD
ID
Top
Bottom
Length
2.6
XTM-39 Box
XTM-39 Pin
As rqd
XTM-39 Box
WT-23 Pin
WT-23 Box
WT-23 Pin
Drill pipe
Drill pipe
2 7/8
X/O
3 1/8
WT-23 Box
Drill collar
3 1/8
Stabilizer
3 3/8
Motor
3 1/8
1.815
As rqd
+/- 60m
Description
OD
ID
Top
Bottom
Length
Drill pipe
2.6
XTM-39 Box
XTM-39 Pin
As rqd
X/O
XTM-39 Box
WT-23 Pin
Drill pipe
2 7/8
WT-23 Box
WT-23 Pin
X/O
3 1/8
WT-23 Box
MWD/GR/PWD
3 1/8
NRV (2)
3 /18
X/O
3 1/8
Turbine
2 7/8
Impreg Bit
3 7/8
1.815
As rqd
48.33
357
3 " x 4 " IF
Crossover
Rig
358
Drilling BHA
3.5" XTM39 Box MU Torque 14,700# - 23,300#
3 " XTM39 GTDP
Weatherford
Weatherford
Weatherford
2 3/8" Reg
MWD Tool
Sperry Sun
2 3/8" Regular Pin MU Torque 2,600#
2 3/8" Reg Box MU Torque 2,600#
2 x 2 3/8" NRVs
Weatherford
2 3/8" Reg Pin MU Torque 2,600#
2 3/8" Regular Cross Over 2 3/8" Pac
Weatherford
2 3/8" Pac Box MU Torque 2600#
2 7/8" Turbine
Neyrfor
359
i.
Casing Type :
1 - Conductor.
2 - Surface.
3 - Intermediate.
360
4 - Production.
5 - Liner.
1) Conductor casing:
Is set below the drive pipe or marine conductor that is run to protect loose, near
surface formations and enable circulation of drilling fluid, it Prevents Washing-Out
around the base of the rig.
Function :
o
o
2) Surface casing:
The surface casing is the first string of any sequence to be run into a well, after a
hole has been drilled. Diameter of the surface casing must obviously be less then
the diameter of the conductor, if a conductor was run. It ranges from (7 5/8)" to
20" commonly (13 3/8)". Attached to the surface Casing, after it has been
cemented, is the following pieces of equipment. Casing head from which part of
the suspended weight of subsequent strings are hang.
Functions :
o The surface casing is also designed to seal off fresh water aquifers and
prevent them from being contaminated by hydrocarbons or salt water,
which may be encountered in deeper drilling.
o Provides blowout protection, isolates water sands, and prevents lost
circulation
o In deviated wells, the surface casing may cover the build section to
prevent key seating of the formation during deeper drilling
3) Intermediate casing:
Isolates unstable hole sections, lost circulation zones, low pressure zones, and
production zones. The size ranges from (6 5/8)" to 20 "and commonly (9 5/8)".
4) Production casing:
Isolates production zones and contains formations pressures in the event of a
tubing leak. It may also be exposed to injection pressure from fracture jobs down
casing, gas lift, or the injection inhibitor oil.
5) A Liner:
Is a casing string that does not extend back to the wellhead, extending from the
bottom of a well to a point 100 feet-or more the lower end of the intermediate
string. Liners are used to reduce cost, improve hydraulic performance during deep
drilling, and allow the use of larger tubing above the liner top.
361
A Tieback string:
a casing string that provides additional pressure integrity from the liner top to the
wellhead. Used when it is necessary to extend an existing liner further up hole, with a
tieback casing string.Is
Reasons for running tieback string:
i.
362
ii.
properties of casing:
Casing is classified according to Six properties:
Outside diameter of pipe (e.g. 9 5/8)
Wall thickness
(e.g. 1/2)
Grade of material
(e.g. N-80)
Type to threads and couplings (e.g. API LCSG)
Length of each joint (RANGE) (e.g. Range 3)
Determine the number of casing string needed and their setting depth
psi
wher,
m is mud density,
ppg
h is depth, ft
2) Determine the formation pressure :
Pf Ph 200,
psi
v Pf Pf ,
psi
where,
363
6) From plotting we can find the number and setting depth of the casing string
364
Depth
Dept
h
Ph
Pf
Mud
Weight
ft
Psi
Psi
ppg
1305.4
4
398
596.
7
396.73
1
8.790598
29
1476
450
674.
7
474.69
6
8.790598
29
2476.4
755
119
6
996.30
8
9.290064
1
3562.0
8
1086
176
7
1567.0
4
4127.8
8
1258.
5
215
5
4127.8
8
1258.
5
4880.6
4
Mud
Type
Mud
gradient
Pore
gradient
frac
gradient
Kick
margin
psi/ft
psi/ft
psi/ft
psi/ft
0.4571111
11
0.3039060
61
0.5359373
74
0.3827323
25
0.4571111
11
0.3216097
56
0.5477398
37
0.4122384
82
0.4830833
33
0.4023209
36
0.6015472
91
0.5207848
94
9.539797
0.4960694
44
0.4399224
74
0.6266149
83
0.5704680
12
1954.9
3
10.03926
28
0.5220416
67
0.4735906
46
0.6490604
31
0.6006094
1
215
5
1954.9
3
10.03926
28
0.5220416
67
0.4735906
46
0.6490604
31
0.6006094
1
1488
233
2
2132.4
9.190170
94
0.4778888
89
0.4369106
57
0.6246071
04
0.5836288
72
6038.4
8
1841
291
7
2717.0
9
9.290064
1
0.4830833
33
0.4499624
15
0.6333082
77
0.6001873
59
6523.9
2
1989
313
5
2934.6
5
9.240117
52
0.4804861
11
0.4498296
96
0.6332197
97
0.6025633
82
6888
2100
329
2
3091.7
9.190170
94
0.4778888
89
0.4488528
84
0.6325685
89
0.6035325
85
7097.9
2
2164
337
4
3173.5
8
9.140224
37
0.4752916
67
0.4471143
98
0.6314095
99
0.6032323
3
7452.1
6
2272
354
2
3341.9
5
9.140224
37
0.4752916
67
0.4484538
1
0.6323025
4
0.6054646
84
7855.6
2395
371
3
3513.3
9.090277
77
0.4726944
44
0.4472349
0.6314899
33
0.6060303
88
8118
2475
383
7
3637.3
3
9.090277
77
0.4726944
44
0.4480578
34
0.6320385
56
0.6074019
46
8413.2
2565
397
7
3776.8
7
9.090277
77
0.4726944
44
0.4489222
77
0.6326148
51
0.6088426
84
8760.8
8
2671
416
4
3963.9
7
9.140224
37
0.4752916
67
0.4524629
1
0.6349752
73
0.6121465
16
9193.8
4
2803
439
4
4193.6
3
9.190170
94
0.4778888
89
0.4561351
93
0.6374234
62
0.6156697
66
9456.2
4
2883
420
0
3999.7
5
8.540865
38
0.444125
0.4229749
45
0.6153166
3
0.5941665
74
9882.6
4
3013
436
3
4163.4
6
8.490918
81
0.4415277
78
0.4212902
7
0.6141935
14
0.5939560
06
10230.
32
3119
483
6
4635.8
2
9.090277
77
0.4726944
44
0.4531447
14
0.6354298
09
0.6158800
79
Spud
Mud
Kclpolym
er
365
366
10489.
44
3198
512
2
4921.7
6
9.389957
27
0.4882777
78
0.4692109
83
0.6461406
55
0.6270738
61
10705.
92
3264
531
1
5110.8
8
9.539797
0.4960694
44
0.4773881
91
0.6515921
28
0.6329108
75
10791.
2
3290
535
3
5153.1
8
9.539797
0.4960694
44
0.4775358
24
0.6516905
5
0.6331569
3
10791.
2
3290
535
3
5153.1
8
9.539797
0.4960694
44
0.4775358
24
0.6516905
5
0.6331569
3
10837.
12
3304
540
4
5204.1
1
9.589743
6
0.4986666
67
0.4802115
79
0.6534743
86
0.6350192
98
10906
3325
543
8
5238.4
6
9.589743
6
0.4986666
67
0.4803281
37
0.6535520
92
0.6352135
62
11014.
24
3358
549
2
5292.4
3
9.589743
6
0.4986666
67
0.4805083
55
0.6536722
37
0.6355139
25
11076.
56
3377
552
4
5323.5
1
9.589743
6
0.4986666
67
0.4806105
19
0.6537403
46
0.6356841
99
11076.
56
3377
497
7
4776.9
1
8.640758
54
0.4493194
44
0.4312632
97
0.6208421
98
0.6027860
51
11338.
96
3457
518
4
4984.2
8.792357
92
0.4572026
12
0.4395643
1
0.6263762
07
0.6087379
05
11765.
36
3587
558
1
5381.4
4
9.122993
31
0.4743956
52
0.4573965
97
0.6382643
98
0.6212653
43
12113.
04
3693
591
6
5716.1
9
9.392588
33
0.4884145
93
0.4719034
61
0.6479356
41
0.6314245
09
12372.
16
3772
617
2
5972.0
1
9.593512
9
0.4988626
71
0.4826973
45
0.6551315
63
0.6389662
37
12588.
64
3838
639
0
6189.8
9
9.761373
94
0.5075914
45
0.4917041
05
0.6611360
7
0.6452487
31
12673.
92
3864
647
7
6276.7
5
9.827501
02
0.5110300
53
0.4952496
16
0.6634997
44
0.6477193
07
12673.
92
3864
647
7
6276.7
5
9.827501
02
0.5110300
53
0.4952496
16
0.6634997
44
0.6477193
07
12719.
84
3878
652
4
6323.7
7
9.863107
9
0.5128816
11
0.4971581
43
0.6647720
95
0.6490486
27
12788.
72
3899
659
5
6394.6
2
9.916518
23
0.5156589
48
0.5000201
67
0.6666801
11
0.6510413
3
12896.
96
3932
670
7
6506.7
2
10.00044
88
0.5200233
36
0.5045158
05
0.6696772
03
0.6541696
73
13497.
2
4115
704
6
6846.1
10.03926
28
0.5220416
67
0.5072237
79
0.6714825
19
0.6566646
31
14694.
4
4480
704
6
6846.1
10.03926
28
0.5072237
79
0.6714825
19
0.6566646
31
0.6566646
31
LTOB
M
Measure Depth, ft
Casing
Length, ft
TVD
V. Length
Casing Bottom, ft
Casing Length, ft
13017.89
13017.89
From
To
4 1/2
13497.2
13684.16
186.96
7"
9748.16
13497.2
13497.2
9 5/8
0.00
9748.16
9748.16
9748.16
9748.16
13 3/8
0.00
3581.76
3581.76
3581.76
3581.76
30 "
Conductor
0.00
75.6
75.6
75.6
75.6
367
i.
Casing Design
When we design casing, it must be designed to withstand the maximum burst
pressure, collapse pressure, and tensile forces that we anticipate that the casing will
ever be exposed to. We then increase this by design factors. Casing is way over
designed. Why? It will be exposed to hostile treatment from rotation of the drillstring
inside it, pressures imposed on it from the inside and outside, and tension forces
from changing internal pressures, external pressures, and changing temperatures
during treatment and production. It will also be called upon to keep formation fluids in
place long after in the well is plugged and abandoned.
Steps of design
The process of casing string design is divided into three stages:
368
1-
2-
3-
4-
pf max =
pc min =
1954.9 psi
1998.902 psi
nominal wt
pc selected
L1
Casing
68 lb/ft
1950 psi
3581.76ft
Measure Depth, M
13 3/8
Casing Length, M
From
To
3581.76
3581.76
TVD
V. Length
Casing Bottom, M
Casing Length, M
3581.76
3581.76
m, ppg
9.539797
Check
For tensile :
Section
Length, Ft
Depth ,Ft
N.Wt Ib/ft
Wt, Ib
Joint Strength , Ib
S.F
L1
3581.76
0 - 3581.76ft
68
243559.68
1069000
4.38906
8
For Brust :
GRADE
N.WT
P(I)
P(I)/Pf
case
K-55
68
3450
1.7647733
Safe
369
4163.46 psi
3679.989 psi
47.1 lb/ft
7030 psi
9748.16 ft
Check
For tensile :
ection
Length,
Ft
Depth ,Ft
N.Wt Ib/ft
Wt, Ib
Joint
Strength
, Ib
S.F
L1
9748.16
09748.16
47.1
459138.34
1100000
2.3957
GRADE
N.WT
P(I)
P(I)/Pf
case
N-80
53.5
7930
1.9046658
Safe
For Brust :
Design of 7
IN CSG:
pf max=
6846.100783 psi
select grade N-80
nominal wt
pc selected
L
29 lb/ft
7030 psi
3749.04 ft
Check
Section
Length,
Ft
Depth ,Ft
N.Wt
Ib/ft
Wt, Ib
L1
13497.2
13497.29748.16
29
108722.16
Section
Length,
Ft
Depth ,Ft
N.Wt
Ib/ft
Wt, Ib
L1
13497.2
13497.2- 9748.16
29
108722.16
Joint
Strength
, Ib
676000
S.F
6.2176837
For tensile :
370
Joint
Strength
, Ib
676000
S.F
6.2176837
For Brust :
GRADE
N-80
N.WT
29
P(I)
8160
P(I)/Pf
1.1919194
case
Safe
Final Report
grade
Pc,psi
Wt, lb/ft
Length, ft
No.of joint
13 3/8''
K-55
1950
68
3570
85
9 5/8''
N-80
7030
53.5
9744
232
7''
N-80
3270
29
3738
89
4 1/5''
J-55
2270
20
84
casing
371
Available Grades:
Grade
Weight, Ib/ft
Collapse,Psi
Tensile Strength,Ib
K-55
54.5
1130
636000
K-55
68
1950
1300000
L-80
72
2670
1693000
pf max =
Pi
=
1954.9 psi
1840.127209 psi
pc min =
select grade L80
2070.143 psi
nominal wt
pc selected
L1
select grade K55
72 lb/ft
2670 psi
204.26308 ft
nominal wt
pc selected
L2
select grade K55
68 lb/ft
1950 psi
1420.2808 ft
nominal wt
pc selected
L3
54.5 lb/ft
1130 psi
1957.2162 ft
Check
For Tensile :
372
Section
Grade
Length, Ft
N.Wt
Ib/ft
Wt, Ib
14706.94
Joint
Strength
, Ib
636000
L1
L-80
204.263078
72
L2
k-55
1420.2808
L3
K-55
1957.2162
S.F
43.24489
68
96579.09
130000
1.346047
54.5
106668.3
1693000
15.87163
Grade
L-80
Length,
Ft
204.26308
N.Wt
Ib/ft
72
L1
P(I)/Pf
3.0909
L2
k-55
1420.2808
68
3.21876
L3
K-55
1957.2162
54.5
1.76477
Check
Above
1.1
Section
case
Safe
Safe
Safe
Collapse,Psi
J-55
N-80
Weight,
Ib/ft
40
47
2570
4750
Tensile
Strength,Ib
630000
1086000
N-80
53.5
6620
1244000
pf max =
Pi
=
pc min =
select grade N-80
nominal wt
pc selected
L1
select grade N-80
nominal wt
pc selected
L2
4163.46 psi
4329.398831 psi
4870.574 psi
53.5 lb/ft
6620 psi
231.15323 ft
47 lb/ft
4750 psi
4367.8052 ft
40 lb/ft
2570 psi
5149.2016 ft
373
Check
For Tensile :
Section
Grade
Length, Ft
N.Wt Ib/ft
Wt, Ib
10928.075
Joint Strength ,
Ib
1244000
L1
N-80
204.26308
53.5
L2
N-80
1420.2808
L3
J-55
L3'
J-55
L4
N-80
113.8352
47
66753.196
1086000
15.99923
1957.2162
40
78288.647
630000
8.047143
3308.661
40
132346.44
630000
4.760233
1840.54
53.5
98468.89
1244000
12.6334
Length,
Ft
204.26308
N.Wt
Ib/ft
53.5
L1
3.6876
L2
N-80
1420.2808
47
1.1998
L3
J-55
1957.2162
40
1.6335
L3'
L4
J-55
N-80
3308.661
1840.54
40
53.5
1.1511
1.4454
Design of 7 IN CSG:
Grade
Collapse,Psi
J-55
Weight,
Ib/ft
24
1370
Tensile
Strength,Ib
381000
H-40
24
2030
276000
N-80
29
7030
676000
Available Grades :
374
pf max =
Pi
=
pc min =
6846.100783 psi
1949.5008 psi
2193.188 psi
P(I)/Pf
Check
Case
Safe
Above 1.1
Section
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
S.F
29 lb/ft
7030 psi
275.24321 ft
24 lb/ft
2030 psi
1129.4118 ft
24 lb/ft
1370 psi
2344.385 ft
Check
For Tensile :
Section
Grade
Length,
Ft
N.Wt
Ib/ft
Wt, Ib
7982.053
27105.88
Joint
Strength
, Ib
676000
276000
L1
L2
N-80
H-40
275.24321
1129.4118
29
24
L3
J-55
2344.385
24
S.F
84.68999
10.18229
56265.24
381000
6.77149
Check
Case
Section
Grade
N-80
Length,
Ft
275.24321
N.Wt
Ib/ft
29
L1
P(I)/Pf
1.24132
L2
H-40
1129.4118
24
1.15455
L3
J-55
2344.385
24
1.13467
Above
1.1
Safe
Safe
Safe
375
grade
Pc,psi
Wt, lb/ft
Length, ft
No.of joint
13 3/8''
L-80
2670
72
204.263078
K-55
1950
68
1420.280757
34
K-55
1130
54.5
1957.216165
47
N-80
6620
53.5
204.263078
N-80
4750
47
1420.280757
34
J-55
2570
40
1957.216165
47
J-55
2570
40
3308.661
79
N-80
6620
53.5
1840.54
44
N-80
7030
29
275.24321
H-40
2030
24
1129.4118
27
J-55
1370
24
2344.385
56
J-55
2270
20
84
9 5/8''
7''
4 1/5''
376
CEMENT PROGRAM
Cementing is one of the most important operation in drilling & producing a well
Cement operation is a one shot "process with no second chance , unlike mud is run
as a dynamic continuously changing process
Primary cementing is the initial step that seeks to seal the area between the casing
and the drilled hole, completing the isolation needed for form a pressure vessel and
appropriate barriers. Squeeze cementing is a technique to repair channels that may
remain after the primary cement job
Cement job
secondary
primary
one stage
Multi
stage
Squeeze
cement
377
378
Type
depth
Tempera
ture
F
Water
Ratio
Gal/sk
Slurry
weight
Ib/gal
Volum
e
3
Ft /sk
Remarks
Class A
6000ft
60-170
5.2
15.6
1.18
Class B
Class C
6000ft
6000ft
60-170
60-170
5.2
6.3
15.6
14.8
1.18
1.32
Class G
8000ft
200
5.0
15.8
1.15
Class H
8000ft
12000ft
200
200
4.3
5.2
16.4
15.6
1.06
1.18
Class A
Depth surface 6000 ft (1830 m)
No special properties
Similar to ASTM C 150,Type I
Class B
Depth surface 6000 ft (1830 m)
Moderate to high sulphate resistance
Similar to ASTM C 150 Types II
Class C
Depth surface 6000 ft (1830 m)
High early strength
Moderate to high sulphate resistance
Class D
Depth from 6000 ft 10,000 ft (1830 m - 3050 m)
Moderate and high sulphate resistance
Moderately high pressure and temperature
Class E
Depth from 10,000 ft 14,000 ft (3050 m - 4270 m)
Moderate and high sulphate resistance
High pressure and temperature
Class F
Depth from 10,000 ft 16,000 ft (3050 m - 4270 m)
Moderate to high sulphate resistance
Extremely high pressure and temperature
Class G
Moderate to high sulphate resistance
No addition other than calcium sulphate or water
Class H
Depth surface 8000 ft. (2440 m), as basic cement, course
Can be used with accelerators and retarders for other
Specifications
Moderate to high sulphate resistance
Class J
* Depth 12,000 16,000 ft. (3660 m - 4880 m)
* Extremely high pressure and temperature
* Can be used with accelerators and retarders for other
379
****Methods of cementing:
It is employed in cementing long casing string in order to reduce the total pumping
pressure, reduce the total hydrostatic Pressure on weak formations There preventing
Their fracture, allow of selective cementing of formations and ensure effective
Cementing around the shoe of the previous casing string In multistage cementing a
stage cementer is installed at a selected position in the casing string, the position of the
stage cementer is dictated by the total length of the cement column and the strength of
formations.
The liner is a short string of casing, which does not reach to the surface .It is hung
from the bottom of the previous casing string by use of a liner hanger.
The liner is run on drill pipe and cemented by pumping the cement slurry through the
drill pipe and liner and finally displacing it behind the liner to Just above the liner
hanger.
380
Component
Description
Guide Shoe
photo
Generally placed
1 - 2 joints above the
shoe to 80 ft [13 to 26 m]
Float Collars
centralizes
scratchers
381
Bottom plug
Description
Top plug
382
Chemical Washes
Spacers
Measure Depth, m
From
To
13 3/8"
1092
9 5/8"
7"
4.5"
Casing
Length,m
Casing ID"
Casing OD"
1092
13.375
12.415
2792
2792
9.625
8.861
2817
4115
1298
6.184
3407
4171
764
4.5
4.09
Cement of class "G" was used for well cementing as a result of its
properties for this high depth and salinity resistance
383
D :Hole diameter, in
:Casing outside diameter, in
Slurry volume V
384
Because the surface casing is set at depth of 1092m the cement class that will
be used is (class G)that intended to be used at depth in range of 1000- to
8000 ft in conditions that require moderate strength, temperature, and
pressure with the ability of adding additives or can be used a manufactured
Properties of cement
component
Weight
Lb
Specific
gravity
Density
Lb/gal
Volume
Gal
Dry cement
94
3.14
3.14 8.34
3.5938
2 %bentonite
1.88
2.65
2.65 8.34
0.0852
41.36
1 8.34
4.9652
9.4
1 8.34
1.12845
385
386
387
388
389
Lightweight Additives
Sometimes, a slurry weight needs to be reduced to protect formations that have a
low fracture gradient or for economics. To reduce the weight of cement slurries,
you can add water, low specific-gravity solids, or foam cement.
390
Cement companies have additive in which the HSP of the cement can be reduced.
Example is hollow glass micro spheres.
Lightweight additives or extenders are used to decrease the density of cement
Excess mix water can be used to decrease the density to a limited extent
Excess water increases thickening time, increases free water and reduces
compressive strength
391
3) Tangent section:
It is drilled from the end of second build arc (EOC) to the end of proposed
distance
to be drilled horizontally in the pay zone, in accordance with the type
of horizontal
well to be drilled.
392
393
394
Concession // Field
Obayied
Operator
Drilling Unit
EDC, Rig-41
203.77 m // 213.87 m
Surface Co-ordinates
Y = 323756 m N
& X = 659394 E m
Target Co-ordinates
Y = 323901 mN
& X = 658826 Em
Target Name
Key Points
K.O.P Depth, m MD, (m
TVD)
3460
BUR, O/30 m
2-3
Azimuth, Degrees
279
Maximum inclination
90
2-3
4257 (3968.87)
Y = 323866 m N
4257 (3968.87)
4407 (3968.87)
Target Tolerance
1.54 OF/100 ft
Offset wells
X = 658895 E
395
396
MD
(m)
MD (ft)
Inc.
Azimuth
TVD(ft)
TVD
(m)
DLS /30m
HD
1000
3280
3280
1000
2000
6560
6560
2000
3000
9840
9840
3000
3480
11414.4
11414.4
3480
3510
11512.8
3.5
30
11512.8
3510
3.5
3994
13100.32
60
30
12809.38
3905.3
3.5
88.7
4020
13185.6
60
30
12851.7
3918.2
101.8
4050
13284
64
30
12897.62
3932.2
117.8
4193
13753.04
83
30
13029.8
3972.5
220.5
4200
13776
83
30
13033.08
3973.5
226.5
4480
14694.4
83
30
13144.6
4007.5
472.5
4500
14760
85
30
13151.82
4009.7
490.3
4530
14858.4
88
30
13157.39
4011.4
518.6
5200
17056
88
30
13234.47
4034.9
1165.1
397
FIGURE 6: A CTUAL TRAJECTORY
Surface coordinates
N m
323755.8
Em
659393.8
Nm
323901.6
Em
658826.1
Target Coordinates
398
Nm
323866
Em
658895
3968.87
I2
24
degree
L2
150
I1
degree
I3
87
degree
Calculations
All the calculated data are expressed in meters (m)
Calculations
Displacement @ landing point
486.4745
Raduis of curvature R1
448.9608
Build Up rate
12.76281
182.6088
61.0105
265.7367
KOP
3459.514
38.8147
61.0105
386.6493
626.8213
34.49998
4086.335
4236.335
4270.835
633
4903.8
399
400
401
402
The dog leg severity can be calculated from the dog log angle as follow;
I
2 A
sin
sin I 1 sin I 2 `
2
2
2 sin 1 sin 2
Where:
100
MD
Where:
= Dog leg severity (DLS)
403
MD
4086.335
284
4236.335
24
292.5
4270.835
87
334
MD1=150
The course length over which the change in inclination (m)
MD2=34.5
I1 =24
Change in the inclination
I2= 63
A1=8.5
Change in Azimuth
A2=41.5
100
24
8.5
1
o
sin 2 sin 2
2 sin
sin(0) sin(24) 0.0003 / 100'
150 * 3.28
2
2
100
63
41.5
1
o
sin 2 sin 2
2 sin
sin(24) sin(87) 0.122 / 100'
34.5 * 3.28
2
2
At all times high doglegs should be avoided (DLS < 6 deg/100ft) in order to reach the
total depth required, minimize torque and preventing sinusoidal / helical buckling of
the slim drill string.
404
Mud type
LTOBM with CA
CO3
Density
0.46 - 0.48psi/ft
The use of LTOBM in this section eliminates the hole problems during the 6 hole
drilling and minimum mud weight required to drill the reservoir section, based on RFT
pressures in offset wells for upper safa formation is Hydrostatic plus the formation is
tight and lower safa formation is is 0.42 psi/ft.
To balance between ROP and borehole stability in the 6 hole section, we intend to
start drilling the section with 0.46 or 0.48 psi/ft mud and may be gradually raise it in
stages to 0.49 psi/ft in case of shale caving from Khatatba formation or high gas
reading
405
Operational Sequence
1.
2.
M/up & RIH 7 bridge plug on drill pipe to +/-3461m and set same (avoid to set it
against casing collar)
3.
P/U & M//U 7 Trip Saver WhipStock (Remember: while checking the alignment
with the MWD, the whipstock was dropped).
4.
5.
6.
Set the Whipstock at +/-3460 m @ 279 azimuth and mill 7 window as per
operator recommendation and attached running procedures.
- If the melon mill is damaged or under gauge once retrieved. M/up a new
milling assembly and clean (smoothen) the window.
7.
M/U directional assembly with 1.15 deg bent housing, RIH and displace the well
to LTOBM mud system. Mud weight of 0.46 psi/ft will be used to start the
section. Whilst drilling, the mud weight will be raised in stages to 0.48 psi/ft if
required .
Note : to decrease chance of stuck we are recommend to use Enhanced drill pipe
just after sidetrack to decrease the contact point of BHA and minimize no of
D/C in BHA
Kick Off: 6 Tri cone Bit - Motor W/ 1.15 bent housing MWD 4 D/Cs Jar - 2
D/C 30 HWDP
406
8.
Kick off as plan. Drill 5m of new formation. Condition mud and perform a casing
integrity test to 0.65 psi/ft. Continue kick off to end of build up section or until
the bit has been dulled. POOH.( LWD tool to be consider through Lower Safa
formation ), need to use the tandem pill to clean the hole to avoid the cutting
bed
9.
In the horizontal section of the well, the use of a turbine with impregnated bit will
be considered.
10.
11.
When at TD, sweep the hole clean (150%) with viscous mud. Spot 50 bbls of
hi-vis pill at bottom. POH and rack BHA.
12.
13.
packer and float equipment is NVAM connections. Hence have sufficient spare
NVAM couplings to Bakerlock the shoe track (although not planned to be
drilled out - the liner could get stuck way off bottom!). Prepare the shoe track
on the pipe racks to save time.
No X-overs will be necessary for below the hanger, again onto the shoe track
and to/from the Super 13% Cr which has N.Vam. The rest of the liner has
N.Vam, connections.
This well requires all 4 liner will be Super 13% Cr liner.
Two short pup joints are required as a marker at top and bottom of Lower Safa
payzone.
The exact depths shall be confirmed after TD logging.
The 4 1/2 combination liner will be run with a 100 m liner lap into the 7 liner.
If hole condition is good during the previous trip and while logging, no wipertrip is necessary after logging. Wiper-trip only if hole condition dictates.
Perform the liner cement job with a 30 m shoe track between float shoe and
landing collar. Use a batch mix tank to ensure a high quality and homogenous
tail slurry; flush lines before releasing pump down plug. Cement spacers for
the mud cake removal will be advised (ensure sufficient spacer is used behind
plug to avoid cement/mud interface when pulling back into planned excess
cement above TOL). Critical during this cementation is ECD which needs to
be below the frac gradient of the Shiffah sands (0.60 psi/ft).
Have 3 drillpipe pup joints on site for space out of the liner.
In an attempt to improve the quality of the cementation solid type centralizers
shall be used.
14.
Run 4 liner & tie back packer S 13 % chrome, p110 with a 100 m overlap
inside 7 casing,
15.
407
References:
1- Farahat, M.S., Horizontal well drilling technology ,
Suez Canal University, Faculty of Petroleum & Mining Eng.
2- Bourgoyne, A. T., Applied drilling engineering ,
Society of Petroleum engineers Rechardson, TX 1991.
3- Economides, M. J., Petroleum well construction ,
John wiley & Sons, 1998.
4- Gatlin C., Petroleum engineering , Department of
Petroleum engineering, University
of Texas, 1960.
5- Rabia, L., Oil well drilling engineering ,
John Wiley & Sons, 1998.
6- Rotary drilling data handbook.
7- N. J. Adams, Complete Well Planning Approach .
408
410
Contents:
1. Introduction of risk
assessment
2-Risk Assessment
Risk Assessment
The risk assessment forms an integral part of the underbalanced selection
process and ensuring that operators are made aware of the potential risks, the
risk assessment is carried out during the candidate selection process.
The IADC well Classification form an essential fist step in the overall risk
assessment. The IADC classification for underbalanced wells should be assigned
to every well drilled underbalanced. This gives the first indication of the potential
risks.
The next step in the risk assessment is the review of the reservoir and the
produced Fluids
412
The risk assessment for the reservoir reviews the kind of fluids that are expected,
the gas rates and the production profile. It also reviews if any H2S is being
produced and of course it looks at the depth of the reservoir and the pressure in
the reservoir.
Risk Management
Risk Identification
Quantitative Risk Analysis
Risk Mitigation Planning
Wellbore Instability
Excessive Vibration
Fluid Influxes
Stuck Pipe and Fishing
Corrosion
Risk Management
Introduction
413
Stages
Risk
Identification
Quantitative
Risk
Analysis
Risk
Mitigation
Planning
Risk
Response
Risk Identification
Source of Risk.
Probability of Occurrence.
Potential Impact.
Action to Mitigate.
Cost to Mitigate.
Probability Mitigation Succeeds.
Source of Risk
Internal:
External:
Probability of Occurrence
Can be on a scale of:
1 to 10 or
High, Medium, and Low
Potential Impact
414
415
Environmental Aspects
The underbalanced drilling system is a fully enclosed system. When combined
with a cuttings injection system and an enclosed mud pit system, a sour reservoir
can be safely drilled using an underbalanced drilling system. The pressures and
flow rates are kept as low as possible. It is not the intention to drill a reservoir and
produce it to its maximum capacity.
A well test can be carried out during underbalanced drilling to provide some
productivity information. The hydrocarbons produced during the UBD process can
be routed to the platform process plant, exported or flared.
416
There is work currently being undertaken to reduce flaring and recover the
hydrocarbons for export. In a prolific well, a significant amount of gas can be
flared during the drilling process. Recovering this gas provides an environmental
benefit and an economic benefit. Oil and condensate recovered are normally
exported via stock tank into the process train.
Safety Aspects
Besides the full HAZOP, a significant amount of crew training is required for
underbalanced drilling. A drilling crew has been instructed during its entire career
that if a well kicks it must be shut in and killed. During underbalanced drilling, the
single item to be avoided is to kill the well. This may undo all the benefits of
underbalanced drilling. Working on a live well is not a normal operation for a
drilling crew and good training is required to ensure that accidents are avoided.
The underbalanced drilling process is more complex when compared to
conventional drilling operations. Gas injection, surface separation, and snubbing
maybe required on a well. If the hydrocarbons produced are then pumped into the
process train, it is clear that drilling is no longer a stand-alone operation.
The reservoir is the driving force in the UBD process. The driller must understand
the process and all the interaction required between the reservoir, the liquid pump
rate, the gas injection and the separation process system to safely drill the well.
When tripping operations start, the well must remain under control. Snubbing pipe
in and out of the hole is not a routine operation, and a specialized snubbing crew
is normally brought on to snub the pipe in and out of the hole.
The extra equipment also brings a number of extra crew to the rig. So besides a
more complex operation, a number of service hands are on the rigs that now
need to start working with the drilling crew. Yet the drilling crew will move back to
conventional drilling once the well is completed. The drilling crew will need to be
trained in this change of operating.
If a number of wells are to be drilled underbalanced in a field, it may be an option
to consider batch drilling of the reservoir sections. This saves mobilization and it
also sets a routine with the drilling crew.
References
Bieseman, T.,
RKER.95.071
417
Gasified liquids can be used to achieve underbalance conditions, and damage will
result primarily when making connections, tripping, logging, choking and completing
the well.
Circulation rate program which determines the optimal circulation rate for the
selected technique to guarantee adequate hole cleaning, to ensure vertical
transport of cuttings in annular zones.
Pressure calculation model, which assures that the selected technique, is the
optimal selection, where the bottomhole pressure will be within the safe
operation limits during the UBD operation.
Economic study model, which assures that the sel ected technique, is the optimal
selection in term of economic benefits.
419
RECOMMENDATIONS
Real time field data is needed for different scenarios to guarantee that the system is
capable to be applied for field uses.
Technology is advancing rapidly. While this work focuses on predictive models for
design and supervision purposes, there are always opportunities to improve the
models for better calculation accuracy. In our case study, it was recommended to consider
a foam CTUBD scenario to eliminate the corrosion action take place and minimize the formation
damage. Changing the circulation technique should be also take into account in order to obtain a
correct reading of MWD/LWD equipment.
Recent improvement in UBD technology such as the use of coiled tubing , parasite
string ,concentric string and non-mud pulsed electromagnetic measurement while
drilling have been useful in reducing the periodic overbalanced pressure phases
occurring during some drilling operation and that is what has to be considered from
the first planning of drilling Obaiyed D2 field
420