1-Methylcyclopropene (1-MCP)

Chris B. Watkins
Department of Horticulture, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
The plant hormone ethylene affects a wide range of physiological processes in
horticultural crops, including abscission, senescence and ripening, chlorophyll
loss, softening, physiological disorders, sprouting, isocoumarin synthesis,
lignification, discoloration (browning), decay, and stimulation of defense systems
(Saltveit 1999). Depending on the desired use of the produce, these effects can be
positive or negative. However, most postharvest handling is focused on
controlling ethylene production or action. Among the available methods, chemical
control of ethylene biosynthesis by aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG) and
inhibition of its action by 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) have become useful
tools for the horticulture industry as they seek to maintain quality of produce after
harvest (Venburg et al. 2008, Watkins 2008c).
1-MCP belongs to a class of compounds known as cyclopropenes. The discovery
that cyclopropenes inhibit ethylene perception by competitively binding to
ethylene receptors represented a major breakthrough in controlling ethylene
responses of horticultural products (Blankenship and Dole 2003). The process of
discovery of the effects of cyclopropenes and their proposed method of action has
been described (Sisler and Serek 2003, Sisler 2006).
1-MCP has several characteristics that make it conveniently useful by the fresh
produce industry. It is a gaseous molecule that is easily applied, has an excellent
safety profile, leaves no residues in or on treated produce, and is active at very
low concentrations (parts per billion).
Of the cyclopropenes, 1-MCP proved to be extremely active, but it is unstable in
the liquid phase. A process has been developed in which 1-MCP is complexed
with -cyclodextrin, maintaining the stability of 1-MCP. After application, 1MCP is released from the complex to expose horticultural products to the
molecule.
When applied during the preharvest period, 1-MCP has the useful effects of
delaying fruit drop, slowing fruit maturation and ripening, and maintaining
postharvest quality (McArtney et al. 2008, Watkins 2010, Watkins et al. 2010).
Produce must be exposed to 1-MCP at an effective rate and for a sufficiently long
time to elicit physiological responses. In essence, this means applying a higher
preharvest concentration of 1-MCP than that used for postharvest application,
while ensuring stability of the formulation without inducing phytotoxicity.
Some reports on postharvest dipping of fruit into aqueous 1-MCP have been
published (Choi et al. 2008), but this method is not currently used commercially.
Registration

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) approved use of 1-MCP on

floriculture and ornamental products in 1999 and on edible food products in 2002.
By 2011, more than 40 countries had approved use of 1-MCP. It is registered for
use on a wide variety of fruits and vegetables including apple, apricot, Asian pear,
avocado, banana, broccoli, calabrese, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, cabbage,
carrot, cherimoya, cucumber, date, guava, kiwifruit, lime, mango, melon,
nectarine, papaya, paprika, peach, pear, pepper, persimmon, pineapple, plantain,
plum, plumcot, squash, tomato, and many ornamentals. The specific products for
which 1-MCP is registered in each country vary greatly according to the
importance of the crop in that country. For example, 1-MCP can be applied to
tulip bulbs in the Netherlands.
Recently, 1-MCP formulations have been approved by the EPA and other
regulatory authorities for preharvest application. Semicommercial trials have been
carried out at several locations in the United States, Argentina, Brazil, Canada,
Chile, New Zealand, and South Africa.
Effects of 1-MCP on Fruits, Vegetables, and Ornamental Products
The availability of 1-MCP has provided outstanding opportunities for researchers
to investigate both ethylene-dependent and ethylene-independent events during
ripening and senescence, in addition to developing practical uses for 1-MCP.
Studies have focused on the effects of 1-MCP on quality of horticultural crops,
specific postharvest issues such as handling and packaging, physiological and
biochemical responses, and storage disorders. A number of detailed reviews on
the effects of 1-MCP have been published (Blankenship and Dole 2003, Serek et
al. 2006, Watkins 2006,2007, Huber 2008, Watkins 2008a,2008b,2010). These
reviews report on the use of an extensive range in 1-MCP concentration,
depending on the responsiveness of the product to the molecule.
Ripening and Senescence. 1-MCP affects many ripening and senescence
processes, including pigments, softening and cell wall metabolism, flavor and
aroma, and nutritional properties (Watkins 2006,2008b, Serek et al. 2006). These
processes are affected to varying degrees in both nonclimacteric and climacteric
products. The range of responses reflects the enormous diversity of these crops in
terms of both inherent diversity and morphological derivation (Huber 2008).
Several generalizations can be made about responses of crops to 1-MCP:
Genotype, cultivar, and maturity effects can be highly variable, but
responses to 1-MCP are typically concentration exposure time
dependent.
Most if not all climacteric fruit are affected by 1-MCP treatment, but the
capacity to interrupt the progression of ripening, once initiated, varies by
fruit and by attributes studied.
Nonclimacteric fruit can also respond to 1-MCP; such effects are
providing interesting insights about ethylene-dependent and ethylene-

independent events during ripening.

Treated fruit are firmer, slower to soften, slower to change peel color and
they develop aroma and flavor slower, but if 1-MCP concentrations and
exposure periods are appropriate for the product, the final quality attained
in the ripened fruit is similar to that of untreated product.
Rate of loss of nutritionally important compounds such as vitamin C are
usually reduced in 1-MCP-treated fruits and vegetables, and effects on
phenolic compounds are minor.

Physiological Disorders. An important area of postharvest responses to 1-MCP is

its effects on physiological disorders (Watkins 2007,2008a,2008b). These
disorders can be divided into categories:
Ethylene-induced disorders. Examples include russet spotting of lettuce
and isocoumarin accumulation in carrots (Fan and Mattheis 2000a),
lignification of asparagus (Liu and Jiang 2006), and water-soaking of
watermelons (Mao et al. 2004). These disorders are preventable by
inhibition of ethylene production.
Senescence-related disorders. Examples include senescent breakdown of
apples (Moran and McManus 2005), senescent scald and breakdown of
pears (Ekman et al. 2004), and yellowing of broccoli (Fan and Mattheis
2000b). These disorders are also prevented by inhibition of ethylene
production.
Controlled atmosphere-related storage disorders. 1-MCP can increase
susceptibility of apple fruit to carbon dioxide injuries. Incidence of both
internal and external forms of injury is increased by 1-MCP (DeEll et al.
2003, Fawbush et al. 2008, Argenta et al. 2010).
Chilling-related disorders that are increased by inhibition of ethylene
production. Examples include woolliness and internal breakdown of
peaches and nectarines (Dong et al. 2001), chilling injury of citrus and
bananas (Porat et al. 1999, Jiang et al. 2004), and flesh browning of the
Empire apple (Watkins 2008b).
Chilling-related disorders that are decreased by inhibition of ethylene
production. Examples include superficial scald; brown core (coreflush)
and soft scald of apples and pears (Fan et al. 1999); internal flesh
browning of avocados and pineapples (Selvarajah et al. 2001, Pesis et al.
2002); and chilling injury of bamboo shoots (Luo et al. 2008), melons (Gal
et al. 2006), and persimmon (Luo 2007).
Pathological Disorders: Disease incidence can be increased, decreased, or
unaffected by 1-MCP, depending on the product, although results are not always
consistent because of the complex interaction between host, pathogen, and
environment (Watkins 2008b). In some instances, disease incidence can be lower
because the beneficial effects of 1-MCP on skin integrity and flesh firmness result
in greater resistance to infection. However, ethylene is necessary for defense
systems in other plant systems (Marcos et al. 2005).

Application
For postharvest use of 1-MCP on both ornamental plants and edible food products,
material must be treated in an enclosed area, such as a storage room, greenhouse,
trailer, or shipping container. Leakage of 1-MCP from the treatment area can
reduce its concentration and therefore effectiveness. 1-MCP can only be applied by
authorized service providers, not by commercial storage operators. Testing of
rooms for leakage, certification of product quality, and application of the proper 1MCP concentration for the product maximize the benefits of treatment.
The apple has been an excellent crop for use of 1-MCP, which is used extensively
around the world to maintain quality through the whole marketing chain from
storage to consumer (Watkins 2008b). Applications rates for apples vary from 625
to 1,000 nL L-1, depending on the country of registration. The major benefit of 1MCP to the grower is more time to get high quality produce through marketing
channels to the consumer. The successful use of 1-MCP on apples is largely
associated with varieties for which maintenance of at-harvest quality and only
moderate softening to a crisp texture is desirable.
In contrast, challenges exist for effective use of 1-MCP on fruits that ripen to a
melting texture or have major color change. For example, failure to ripen
normally has been shown in avocado, banana, pear, and tomato after fruit were
treated at an early ripening stage or if the applied 1-MCP concentration was too
high (Golding et al. 1998, Mir et al. 2004, Hurr et al. 2005, Bai et al. 2006). Fruit
must ripen uniformly to quality characteristics (texture, flavor, aroma, color) that
are expected by the consumer. Despite the challenges, successful 1-MCP
treatment of avocados, bananas, melons, persimmons, and tomatoes has resulted
from careful attenuation of 1-MCP concentrations or selecting fruit at the
appropriate ripening stage at harvest. Research on reinitiating ripening after 1MCP treatment in extremely sensitive fruit like pear is ongoing (Bai et al. 2006,
Chiriboga et al. 2011, Villalobos-Acuna et al. 2011). A considerable amount of
research on crops other than apple is proprietary and therefore not yet in the
public domain.
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