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Version 1.0
Winter 2010
Table of Contents
Introduction Part 1 .............................................................................................. 4
Downloading the Data Files ................................................................................... 4
Starting PASW Statistics ........................................................................................ 4
The PASW Statistics Window................................................................................ 5
Data View ................................................................................................................. 5
Variable View .......................................................................................................... 6
Creating a Data File ................................................................................................ 6
Defining Variables .................................................................................................. 6
Data Entry ............................................................................................................... 8
Descriptive Statistics ............................................................................................... 9
Frequency Analysis ................................................................................................. 9
Crosstabs ................................................................................................................ 11
Data Manipulation ................................................................................................ 12
Select Cases ............................................................................................................ 12
Splitting a File ....................................................................................................... 14
Find and Replace................................................................................................... 15
Reporting ............................................................................................................... 16
Appendix ................................................................................................................ 17
Introduction Part 2 ............................................................................................ 18
Downloading the Data Files ................................................................................. 18
Null Hypothesis ..................................................................................................... 18
Statistical Tests ...................................................................................................... 19
Tests of Significance.............................................................................................. 19
For additional SPSS help, visit http://www.youtube.com/mycsula
Correlations ........................................................................................................... 19
Paired-Samples T Test .......................................................................................... 20
Independent-Samples T Test ............................................................................... 22
Multiple Response Sets ......................................................................................... 23
Multiple Response Frequencies ........................................................................... 24
Multiple Response Crosstabs ............................................................................... 25
Data Manipulation ................................................................................................ 27
Copying and Pasting Variable Properties .......................................................... 27
Inserting Variables and Cases ............................................................................. 29
Deleting Variables and Cases ............................................................................... 30
Merging Data Files ................................................................................................ 30
Creating the Data File for Merging ..................................................................... 30
Inputting the Data in Variable View ................................................................... 30
Merging the Data Files ......................................................................................... 32
Appendix ................................................................................................................ 35
Introduction Part 3 ............................................................................................ 37
Downloading the Data Files ................................................................................. 37
Simple Regression ................................................................................................. 37
Scatter Plot ............................................................................................................ 37
Predicting Values of Dependent Variables ......................................................... 39
Predicting This Years Sales with Simple Regression Model ........................... 41
Multiple Regression .............................................................................................. 43
Predicting Values of Dependent Variables ......................................................... 43
Predicting This Years Sales with Multiple Regression Model ........................ 45
Data Transformation ............................................................................................ 46
Computing ............................................................................................................. 46
Polynomial Regression.......................................................................................... 47
PASW Statistics 17 (SPSS 17), Part 1
Introduction Part 1
PASW stands for Predictive Analytics Software. This program can be used to analyze data
collected from surveys, tests, observations, etc. It can perform a variety of data analyses and
presentation functions, including statistical analysis and graphical presentation of data. Among
its features are modules for statistical data analysis. These include 1) descriptive statistics, such
as frequencies, central tendency, plots, charts, and lists; and 2) sophisticated inferential and
multivariate statistical procedures, such as analysis of variance (ANOVA), factor analysis,
cluster analysis, and categorical data analysis. PASW Statistics is particularly well-suited for
survey research, though by no means is it limited to just this topic of exploration.
This handout (Descriptive Statistics) introduces basic skills necessary to run PASW Statistics. It
includes how to create a data file and run descriptive statistics. It is especially tailored to answer
three research questions formulated in the sample survey questionnaire, eventually giving users
an overview of how PASW Statistics can be used for survey research. The three research
questions formulated in the sample survey are as follows:
1. What kind of computer do people prefer to own?
2. What color do people prefer for their computer?
3. Is computer color preference different between genders?
DATA VIEW
When PASW Statistics is launched, the Data Editor window opens in Data View, which looks
similar to a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet (which is just an array of rows and columns). The
difference is that the rows and columns in Data View are referred to as cases and variables,
respectively (see Table 1).
Table 1 - Elements in Data View
Element
Variable
Description
Each column represents a variable. Any survey questionnaire item or test
item can be a variable. Commonly defined variable types are numeric or
string. When defining variables as numeric, users need to specify decimal
places. Variable names can be up to 256 characters long and must start
with a letter. Make variable names meaningful and easily recognizable.
Case
Each row represents a case. The participants in the study can be cases. For
example, if 100 participants are involved in your study, then 100 cases (or
rows) of information should be generated. Responses to the question
items should be entered consistently from left to right for each participant.
Cell
VARIABLE VIEW
Variable View is where variables are defined by assigning variable names and specifying the
attributes, such as data type (String, Date, Numeric, etc.), value labels, and measurement
scales (Nominal, Ordinal, or Scale). Users can think of Variable View as the backbone
structure for the Data View; data cannot be entered nor viewed without first defining variables in
Variable View (see Table 2).
Table 2 - Elements in Variable View
Element
Variable Name
Description
PASW Statistics will initially give a default variable name (var00001) that
users can change. It is recommended to assign a brief and meaningful
name to variables (e.g., Name, Gender, and GPA).
Variable Type
The variable type determines how the cases are entered. Generally, textbased characters are of String type and number-based characters are of
Numeric type. For example, if a user has a variable called Name,
then its variable type should be String. Similarly, a variable named
GPA should be a Numeric type with (normally two) decimal places.
Value Labels
Value labels allow users to describe what the variable name stands for.
For example, if a variable has been defined as Fav, most likely others
may not know what it stands for. To avoid misinterpretation, value labels
can be utilized to clearly define variable names.
DEFINING VARIABLES
First, variable names based on your research questionnaire need to be assigned. If variable names
are not assigned, PASW Statistics will assign default names that may not be recognizable.
Second, the Type attribute should be specified for each variable. If necessary, assign labels to
values to help all users of the file understand the data better.
To define variables (example):
1. Click the Variable View tab at the lower left corner of the Data Editor window (see
Figure 3).
2. Type [Name] in the first cell under the Name column and press the [Enter] key.
3. Under the Type column, click the ellipses button . The Variable Type dialog box opens
(see Figure 4).
4. Select the String option.
5. Click the OK button.
23. Repeat steps 20-22 for values [2] through [5] and label them as shown in Table 3 (you
may also refer back to the sample questionnaire). See Figure 6 for the results.
24. Click the OK button.
Table 3 - Value Labels
Value
2
3
4
5
Label
20-23
24-27
28-31
32 or over
DATA ENTRY
After defining the variables, users can enter data for each case. If variables are defined as having
a Numeric data type, then numeric data should be entered. PASW Statistics will only accept
numeric digits (0-9) for a Numeric data type. If variables are defined as String data, any
keyboard character can be entered.
To enter data:
1. Click the Data View tab at the lower left corner of the Data Editor window (see Figure
7).
2. Click in a cell and type the corresponding data. The entry will also appear in the Cell
Editor (see Figure 8).
Cell Editor
Figure 8 - Data Entry
Figure 7 - Data View Tab
Descriptive Statistics
After data has been entered, users may begin analyzing the data by using descriptive statistics.
Descriptive statistics are the most commonly used statistics for summarizing data frequency or
measures of central tendency (mean, median, and mode).
Research Question # 1
What kind of computer do people prefer to own?
FREQUENCY ANALYSIS
We can use frequency analysis to answer the first research question. Frequency analysis is a
descriptive statistical method that shows the number of occurrences of each response chosen by
the respondents. When using frequency analysis, PASW Statistics can also calculate the mean,
median, and mode to help users analyze the results and draw conclusions. The following
example will use a frequency analysis to answer Research Question # 1: What kind of computer
do people prefer to own? using the data collected from our sample survey (see Appendix).
To perform frequency analysis:
1. Click the Open button
on the Data Editor toolbar. The Open Data dialog box
opens.
2. Locate and open the Part 1.sav file.
3. Click the Analyze menu, point to Descriptive Statistics, and select Frequencies (see
Figure 9). The Frequencies dialog box opens (see Figure 10).
4. Select the variable(s) desired to be analyzed. In this case, select the variable Computer
Owned from the list box on the left.
5. Click the transfer arrow button . The selected variable is moved to the Variable(s): list
box.
6. Select the Display frequency tables check box if necessary.
7. Click the Statistics button. The Frequencies: Statistics dialog box opens (see Figure
11).
8. Select the Mean, Median, and Mode check boxes in the Central Tendency section; select
the Std. deviation check box in the Dispersion section.
9. Click the Continue button. This returns you to the Frequencies dialog box.
10. Click the OK button. An Output Viewer window opens and displays the statistics and
frequency table (see Figure 12). The columns of the table Computer Owned display the
Frequency, Percent, Valid Percent, and Cumulative Percent for each different
type of computer owned.
The measures of central tendency (mean, median, and mode) can be used to summarize various
types of data. Mode can be used for nominal data, such as computer type, computer color,
ethnicity, etc. Mean or median can be used for interval/ratio data, such as test scores, age, etc.
The mean is also useful for data with a skewed distribution.
Answer to Research Question # 1
What kind of computer do people prefer to own?
PASW Statistics 17 (SPSS 17), Part 1
10
CROSSTABS
Crosstabs are used to examine the relationship between two variables. To answer the second
research question, users will need to analyze two variables: Computer Owned and Color
(which indicates color preference). Using crosstabs will show the intersection between these two
variables and reveal the computer type and color preferred by most people.
To perform a crosstabs analysis:
1. In Data View, click the Analyze menu, point to Descriptive Statistics, and select
Crosstabs (see Figure 13). The Crosstabs dialog box opens.
2. Select the variable Computer Owned from the list box on the left.
3. Click the transfer arrow button
to move it to the Row(s): list box.
4. Select the variable color (see Figure 14).
5. Click the transfer arrow button
to move it to the Column(s): list box.
6. Click the OK button. An Output Viewer window opens and displays two tables: Case
Processing Summary and the Crosstabulation matrix (see Figure 15).
11
Data Manipulation
Data files are not always ideally organized in a form to meet specific needs. For example, users
may wish to select a specific subject or split the data file into separate groups for analysis.
SELECT CASES
If you have two or more subject groups in your data and you want to analyze each subject in
isolation, you can use the select cases option. For example, the data we are currently analyzing
has both male and female participants. However, if you wish to analyze only female cases, then
you select Gender cases and set the condition for female cases only.
To select cases for analysis:
1. Click the Data menu and select Select Cases (see Figure 16). The Select Cases dialog
box opens (see Figure 17).
2. Click the If condition is satisfied option.
3. Click the If button. The Select Cases: If dialog box opens.
4. Select the variable Gender in the left list box.
5. Click the transfer arrow button
to move it to the right text box.
6. Click the = button .
7. Click the 1 button .
8. Click the Continue button. This takes you back to the Select Cases dialog box.
9. Click the OK button. This takes you back to Data View. All males will be excluded from
the statistical analysis.
10. Rerun the crosstabs analysis by following steps 1-6 of the Crosstabs section of this
handout.
11. Click the OK button. The Output Viewer window updates (see Figure 18).
PASW Statistics 17 (SPSS 17), Part 1
12
From the cross tabulation in the Output Viewer window in Figure 18 below, look at the column
for the most preferred color and the row for the computer types. Since we selected only female
cases, what is the computer color most preferred by women? Ten women chose IBM or
Compatible with color option 5. Thus, you may conclude that most female participants prefer
the color 5 for IBM or Compatible computers. However, what does 5 represent? This
problem arose by not labeling the variable value 5 as Other. Moreover, even if it were
labeled Other, it does not indicate any particular color, making it difficult to draw a
conclusion. In order to avoid such problems, it is suggested that you provide a blank space where
participants can specify Other color preferences besides the ones specified in the survey
questionnaire.
Example:
What kind of color do you like to have for your computer?
1. Beige 2.Black 3.Gray 4.White 5.Other __________
Research Question # 3
For additional SPSS help, visit http://www.youtube.com/mycsula
SPLITTING A FILE
To answer the third research question, we need to split the file. You can analyze one particular
group of subjects using the select cases option. However, if you wish to compare the response or
performance differences by groups within one variable, it is best to use the split files option.
To split a file for analysis:
1. Turn off the select cases option.
2. Click the Data menu and select Select Cases. The Select Cases dialog box opens.
3. Select the All cases option.
4. Click the OK button. Notice that the male cases that were excluded are now all included
in the data file.
5. Select the Data menu and select Split File. (see Figure 19). The Split File dialog box
opens (see Figure 20).
14
15
NOTE: Under the Match to section of the Find and Replace dialog box (see Figure 22),
Contains means PASW Statistics will find each instance of the word/phrase/number appearing in
a cell, whether or not it is the only information enclosed. The Entire cell option will find the
word/phrase/number that matches the entire cell as a whole. Selecting the Begins with and Ends
with options will search the character indicated by the user.
Reporting
Once the statistical analysis is complete, the final step is to create a report. In the report, you may
include PASW Statistics output (e.g., graphs and tables) for supporting your analysis. Using the
Copy and Paste functions, the tables/graphs generated in PASW Statistics can be copied from the
Output Viewer window and pasted into a Microsoft Word document without having to create
new tables or graphs.
To create a report using Microsoft Word:
1. In the Output Viewer window, right-click a table. A box appears around the table and a
red arrow to the left of the table (which means it is selected).
2. Select Copy from the shortcut menu.
3. Open Microsoft Word.
4. Right-click in the Word document and select Paste from the shortcut menu. The table is
copied into the Word document.
16
Appendix
SAMPLE SURVEY
Research Questions
1. What kind of computer do people prefer to own?
2. What color do people prefer for their computer?
3. Is computer color preference different between genders?
Survey Questions
1. What is your name? ____________________________
2. What is your gender? ____________________________
3. What is your G.P.A.? ____________________________
4. What is your age?
1. 19 or younger
2. 20-23
3. 24-27
4. 28-31
5. 32 or over
2. $1000$1499 3. $1500$1999
2. Sophomore
3. Junior
4. Senior
5. Graduate
2. Apple
5. None
3. Toshiba
4. Other
5. None
4. White
5. Other
2. Apple
2. Black
3. Gray
17
Introduction Part 2
PASW stands for Predictive Analytics Software. This program can be used to analyze data
collected from surveys, tests, observations, etc. It can perform a variety of data analyses and
presentation functions, including statistical analysis and graphical presentation of data. Among
its features are modules for statistical data analysis. These include 1) descriptive statistics, such
as frequencies, central tendency, plots, charts, and lists; and 2) sophisticated inferential and
multivariate statistical procedures, such as analysis of variance (ANOVA), factor analysis,
cluster analysis, and categorical data analysis. PASW Statistics is particularly well-suited for
survey research, though by no means is it limited to just this topic of exploration.
This handout (Test of Significance) introduces 1) several data entry and data manipulation
techniques that help you save time, 2) basic skills to perform tests of significance, such as
correlations and t tests, and 3) an introduction to multiple response sets. The step-by-step
instructions will help you understand how to interpret the output of your tests from data supplied
by your research question(s). Follow the steps carefully to get appropriate results. Please note
that a slightly different process might yield unexpected and complicated results. This is a
continuation of the PASW Statistics Descriptive Statistics handout.
Null Hypothesis
The null hypothesis (H0) represents a theory that has been presented, either because it is believed
to be true or because it is to be used as a basis for an argument. It is a statement that has not been
proven. It is also important to realize that the null hypothesis is the statement of no difference.
For example, in a clinical trial of a new drug, the null hypothesis might be that the new drug is
no better, on average, than the current drug (in other words, the new drug exhibits the same
behavior as the old drug). The null hypothesis (H0) and the alternative hypothesis (H1) can be
stated as:
H0: There is no difference between the two drugs.
H1: There is a significant difference between the two drugs.
Special consideration is given to the null hypothesis. This is due to the fact that the null
hypothesis relates to the statement being tested, whereas the alternative hypothesis relates to the
statement to be accepted if and when the null is rejected.
The final conclusion, once the test has been carried out, is always given in terms of the null
hypothesis. The result is either "Reject H0 in favor of H1" or "Do not reject H0"; the conclusion is
never "Reject H1" or "Accept H1."
PASW Statistics 17 (SPSS 17), Part 2
18
If the conclusion is "Do not reject H0," this does not necessarily mean that the null hypothesis is
true. It only suggests that there is no sufficient evidence against H0 in favor of H1. Rejecting the
null hypothesis then suggests that the alternative hypothesis may be true.
NOTE: The null hypothesis essentially states that the given cases or items under consideration are
statistically the same or exhibit the same behavior without any significant difference. The alternate
hypothesis states that the given cases exhibit different behavior or that they have a statistically significant
difference.
Statistical Tests
Statistics is a set of mathematical techniques used to summarize research data and determine
whether the data supports a proposed hypothesis. PASW Statistics includes tools that can be used
to analyze variables and determine the strength and nature of the relationship between two
variables and whether the means (averages) of two data sets (samples) are statistically the same
or different.
Tests of Significance
The following examples are sample research questions that can be answered using PASW
Statistics analytical methods.
CORRELATIONS
A correlation is a statistical device that measures strength or degree of a supposed linear
association between two or more variables. One of the more common measures used is the
Pearson correlation, which estimates a relationship between two interval variables.
Research Question # 1
Is there a relationship between academic performance and Internet access?
H0: There is no difference between academic performance and Internet access.
H1: There is a significant difference between academic performance and Internet access.
To run a correlation analysis:
1. Locate and open the Part 2.sav file.
2. Click the Analyze menu, point to Correlate, and select Bivariate. The Bivariate
Correlations dialog box opens (see Figure 23).
3. Select the variables active, posttest, and gpa in the list box on the left.
4. Click the transfer arrow button to move them to the Variables: list box.
5. Select the Pearson check box and the Two-tailed option if necessary.
6. Click the OK button. The Output Viewer window opens with a Correlations table
(see Figure 24).
19
PAIRED-SAMPLES T TEST
A Paired-Samples T Test is used to test if an observed difference between two means is
statistically significant. To run a t test, the following assumptions should be met: the data 1) has
normal distribution, 2) is a large data set, and 3) has no outliers. If any of these assumptions are
not met, then a nonparametric test should be used.
20
Research Question # 2
Is there an instructional effect taking place in the computer class?
H0: There is no influence of using the Internet on academic achievement for this class.
H1: There is an influence of using the Internet on academic achievement for this class.
The hypothesis is that Internet familiarity cannot influence the academic achievement in the
computer class. The variables that reflect academic achievement are pretest and posttest.
To run a Paired-Samples T Test:
1. Click the Analyze menu, point to Compare Means, and select Paired-Samples T
Test. The Paired-Samples T Test dialog box opens (see Figure 25).
2. Select the variables pretest and posttest in the list box on the left.
3. Click the transfer arrow button to move them to the Paired Variables: list box.
4. Click the OK button. The Output Viewer window opens (see Figure 26).
Answer: Yes
Explanation: The observed mean difference is -4.5172. Since the value of t is -3.820 at p < .001,
the mean difference (-4.5172) between pretest and posttest is statistically significant.
According to the Sig. of 0.001 (which is less than 0.05), the hypothesis is rejected. Therefore, it
can be inferred that there was instructional effect taking place in the computer class.
PASW Statistics 17 (SPSS 17), Part 2
21
INDEPENDENT-SAMPLES T TEST
An Independent-Samples T Test is used to determine the likelihood that two independent data
samples came from populations that have identical means. If this were true, then the difference
between the means should be equal to zero. The null hypothesis in this case would be that the
two means are equal.
Two variables are required in the data set. One variable is the measured parameter. Examples
include weight, height, or frequency. The second variable divides the data set into two groups.
Light and Dark are the groups whose means will be compared.
Research Question # 3
Is there a difference in the average number of seedlings grown in the light
and those grown in the dark?
In this example, 20 Petri dishes each contained 10 celery seeds. Ten of the dishes were kept in
the dark for one week; the other 10 were placed under a grow light for the same amount of time.
At the end of the week, the number of seeds that sprouted was counted in each dish.
H0: Variance (light) = variance (dark).
H1: Variance (light) variance (dark).
H0: There is no difference between seedlings under the light and in the dark ( (light) = (dark)).
H1: There is sig. difference between seedlings under the light and in the dark ( (light) (dark)).
NOTE: The first set of hypotheses is testing the variance, while the proceeding set is testing for the mean.
The variances have to be equal before we can determine if the means are equal.
NOTE: Variance: The arithmetic mean of the squared deviations from the mean, which is essentially used
to see how far the single samples are from the mean. We need to make sure the variances are equal before
we can determine if the means are equal. If the variances are equal, users will be able to move to the T
Test. If the variances are not equal, users will have to do more testing.
22
Answer: Yes
Explanation: The mean difference in seedlings sprouted between the two treatments (light and
dark) was -2.900. The value of t, which is -3.179, was statistically significant (p=0.005).
Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected.
23
3. Select the American, TWA, United, USAir, and Other airline variables and
move them to the Variables in Set: list box.
4. Make sure the Dichotomies option is selected and enter [1] in the Counted value: box.
5. Type [Airlines] in the Name: box.
6. Type [Airline frequency of response] in the Label: box.
7. Click the Add button. The set is created as $Airlines and listed in the Multiple
Response Sets: list box.
8. Click the Close button.
24
Answer: United
Explanation: As seen in the Output Viewer window, there were 18 people surveyed and 44 total
responses generated. Of the 44 total responses, United was selected most often with 12 responses
(representing 27.3% the largest portion of the total responses).
25
2. Select the FearFactor variable as the Row(s): variable and the $Airlines multiple
response set as the Column(s): variable.
3. Select the FearFactor variable after it is designated as the Row(s): variable. The
Define Ranges button becomes active.
4. Click the Define Ranges button. The Multiple Response Crosstabs: Define Variable
Ranges dialog box opens (see Figure 35).
5. Enter [0] in the Minimum: box and [1] in the Maximum: box for the FearFactor
variable.
6. Click the Continue button.
7. Click the Options button. The Multiple Response Crosstabs: Options dialog box opens
(see Figure 36).
8. Select the Cases option and then click the Continue button.
9. Click the OK button. The Output Viewer window opens with the crosstab results (see
Figure 37).
26
Answer: USAir
Explanation: Of the 18 people surveyed, ten identified themselves as being afraid to fly. Within
that group of survey respondents, USAir was the airline selected most often (seven times).
Data Manipulation
PASW Statistics also provides tools to make data manipulation a simple task.
27
3. Type [active] in the first cell under the Name column and press the [Enter] key.
4. Click in the first cell under the Decimals column and decrease the entry to 0.
5. Click in the first cell under the Values column and click the Ellipses button . The
Value Labels dialog box opens (see Figure 39).
6. Type [1] in the Value: box.
7. Type [Strongly Disagree] in the Label: box.
8. Click the Add button.
9. Assign [2], [3], and [4] for [Disagree], [Agree], and [Strongly Agree], respectively, by
repeating steps 6-8 for each value added (see Figure 39).
28
4. To define the properties of the new variable, double-click the variable heading. The
Variable View is activated for the new variable.
5. Type [midterm] in the Name column of the new variable.
6. Change the variable type if desired.
In the same manner, it is possible to insert cases in a particular location in Data View. For
instance, assume that a case should be inserted between case 10 and 11 for a particular
students record. By following the instructions below, one case will be inserted after the 10th
case.
To insert cases (example):
1. Switch to Data View.
2. Click row number 11 to highlight the case.
3. Click the Edit menu and select Insert Cases. A new case is inserted above case 11.
29
30
Month
February
Attribute Type
String
Length
10
Label Attribute
What is your favorite shape?
March
String
12
April
String
12
10. Once this information has been defined in Variable View, switch by clicking the Data
View tab to enter the corresponding case information.
11. Enter [Alfred] in case 1 of the ID variable, [Bethel] in case 2 of the ID variable, down to
[Jessie] in case 10 of the ID variable. Enter the corresponding information according to
Table 5. See Figure 46 for the results.
Table 5 - Input Case Information
Case
ID
January
February
March
April
Alfred
Dog
Star
Pizza
Water
Bethel
Cat
Square
Fruit
Soda Pop
Chris
Cat
Triangle
Veggies
Grape Juice
Dante
Dog
Rectangle
Sandwich
Orange Juice
Erica
Tiger
Oval
Chips
Aloe Water
Fernando
Tarantula
Circle
Calzon
Beer
Grenadine
Dog
Octagon
Salad
White Wine
Harold
Bees
Polygon
Soup
Naked Juices
Isadora
Turtle
Rhombus
PandaExpress
V8 Juice
10
Jessie
Hamster
Oval
Egg Salad
Lemonade
31
12. Save the file by clicking the File menu and selecting Save. The Save Data As dialog box
opens.
13. Select the Desktop as the destination and type [Merge 1] in the File name: text box.
14. Click the Save button.
15. Close the Output Viewer window.
32
4. The Add Variables to Merge 1.sav dialog box opens. Select the An external PASW
Statistics data file option and click the Browse button (see Figure 48).
5. Locate and select the Merge 2 data file and click the Open button.
6. Click the Continue button. The Add Variables from Merge 2.sav dialog box opens (see
Figure 49).
7. Select the Match cases on key variables in sorted files check box.
8. From the Excluded Variables: list box, select ID>(+) (see Figure 49), and using the
transfer arrow button , move it to the Key Variables: box.
9. Click the OK button. A warning message dialog box opens (see Figure 50).
33
10. Click the OK button to close the warning message. The finished product should look like
Figure 51.
34
Appendix
QUESTIONNAIRE
This survey is designed to investigate relationships between Internet access and academic
success. It consists of three parts: questions related to the background information of the
respondent, questions about Internet use patterns, and several open-ended questions. Please
select appropriate answers that best describe your activities on the Internet as truthfully as
possible. The results of this study will be used anonymously for the PASW Statistics Part 2: Test
of Significance workshop.
Background Information
1. Age: ____________________________
2. Major: ___________________________
3. G.P.A.: __________________________
4. Monthly Income: __________________
Internet Access
5. Do you have a computer at home?
1. Yes
2. No
6. Where do you surf on the Internet? (You can circle more than one option for this question.)
1. At school
2. At home
3. At work
4. Other ____________
2. 1-2 hours
Questions 8 through 19 are designed to investigate the frequency and types of activities on
the Internet. These questions have a 4 point Likert-scale ranging from strongly disagree to
strongly agree. Please circle the option that best describes your activities on the Internet.
SD: Strongly Disagree
D: Disagree
A: Agree
SA: Strongly Agree
8. I am a very active Internet surfer.
SD
1
D
2
A
3
SA
4
35
SD
1
D
2
A
3
SA
4
36
Introduction Part 3
PASW stands for Predictive Analytics Software. This program can be used to analyze data
collected from surveys, tests, observations, etc. It can perform a variety of data analyses and
presentation functions, including statistical analysis and graphical presentation of data. Among
its features are modules for statistical data analysis. These include 1) descriptive statistics, such
as frequencies, central tendency, plots, charts, and lists; and 2) sophisticated inferential and
multivariate statistical procedures, such as analysis of variance (ANOVA), factor analysis,
cluster analysis, and categorical data analysis. PASW Statistics is particularly well-suited for
survey research, though by no means is it limited to just this topic of exploration.
This handout (Regression Analysis) provides basic instructions on how to answer research
questions and test hypotheses through the use of linear regression (a technique which examines
the relationship between a dependent variable and a set of independent variables). The value of
the dependent variable (e.g., salespersons total annual sales) can be predicted based on its
relationship to the independent variables used in the analysis (e.g., age, education, and years of
experience). The two research questions proposed for this workshop are as follows:
1. How much will each salesperson make this year?
2. Who will qualify for a $1,000 bonus?
Simple Regression
Simple regression estimates how the value of one dependent variable (Y) can be predicted based
on the value of one independent variable (X). The linear equation for simple regression is as
follows:
Y = aX + b
Simple regression can answer the following research question:
Research Question # 1
How much will each salesperson make this year?
SCATTER PLOT
A scatter plot displays the nature of the relationship between two variables. It is recommended to
run a scatter plot before performing a regression analysis to determine if there is a linear
relationship between the variables. If there is no linear relationship (i.e., points on a graph are
not clustered in a straight line), there is no need to run a simple regression.
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5. If necessary, select the Simple Scatter option, and then click the Define button (see
Error! Reference source not found.). The Simple Scatterplot dialog box opens (see
Error! Reference source not found.).
6. Select the variable Last year sales [lastsale] from the list box on the left.
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3. Select the variable Last year sales [lastsale] from the variable list box on the left and
move it to the Dependent: box by clicking the first transfer arrow button (see Figure 57).
4. Select the variable Years of experience [yearexpe] from the variable list box on the
left and move it to the Independent(s): box by clicking the second transfer arrow button.
5. Click the OK button.
The following tables present the results of a simple regression. R Square (.918) indicates that
this model accounts for almost 92% of the total variation in the data (see Figure 58).
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The slope and the y-intercept as seen in Figure 59 should be substituted in the following linear
equation to predict this years sales: Y = aX + b. In this case, the values of a, b, x, and y will be
as follows:
a = 1954.658
b = 440.987
X = Years of experience (values of independent variable)
Y = Last year sales (values of dependent variable)
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4. In the Numeric Expression: box, enter the following equation by typing or selecting
from the dialog box keypad:
[1954.658 * yearexp2 + 440.987]
NOTE: It is recommended to select the variable yearexp2 directly from the variable list box
on the left of the Compute Variable dialog box to prevent typing mistakes.
5. Click the OK button. The results will be displayed in the Simple column in Data View
(see Figure 61).
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4. Click the OK button, and then click the Data View tab.
NOTE: The prediction of this years sales for each salesperson are computed under the new
variable named Simple as shown in Error! Reference source not found..
Multiple Regression
Multiple regression estimates the coefficients of the linear equation when there is more than one
independent variable that best predicts the value of the dependent variable. For example, it is
possible to predict a salespersons total annual sales (the dependent variable) based on
independent variables such as age, education, and years of experience. The linear equation for
multiple regression is as follows:
Z = aX + bY + c
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one independent variable, such as Years of experience and Years of education, by using
multiple regression analysis.
To run multiple regression analysis:
1. Click the Analyze menu, point to Regression, and select Linear. The Linear
Regression dialog box opens (see Figure 65).
2. From the variable list box, select Last year sales [lastsale] as a dependent variable and
move it to the Dependent: box by clicking the first transfer arrow button .
3. From the variable list box, select Years of experience [yearexpe] and Years of
education [educatio] and move them to the Independent(s): box by clicking the second
transfer arrow button .
4. Click the OK button.
NOTE: If there are variables in the Independent(s): or Dependent: boxes, click the Reset button
before performing steps 2 and 3 above.
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The slopes and the y-intercept as seen in Figure 67 should be substituted in the following linear
equation to predict this years sales: Z = aX+ bY + c
In this case, the values of a, b, x, and y will be as follows:
a = 1874.5
b = 609.391
c = (-8510.838)
X = Years of experience (independent variable)
Y = Years of education (independent variable)
Z = This year sales (dependent variable)
As indicated in the output table, the coefficient for Years of experience is 1874.5and the
coefficient for Years of education is 609.391.
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6. Click the OK button. The results will be displayed in the multiple column in Data View
(see Error! Reference source not found.).
NOTE: The predictions of sales for each salesperson using two independent variables are listed under the
new variable named multiple.
Data Transformation
Situations may arise where data transformation is useful. Most data transformations can be done
with the Compute command. Using this command, the data file can be manipulated to fit
various statistical performances.
Research Question # 2
Who will earn a $1,000 bonus?
COMPUTING
Since each persons yearly sales were already predicted, those who made more than $2,000
above the predicted values, obtained via multiple regression analysis, will receive $1,000 as a
bonus. Using the Compute command, those salespeople who met the criteria can be easily
located by comparing the values of this years actual sales with the predictions from multiple
regression analysis computed in the previous lesson.
The first step in predicting who will receive a bonus is to calculate the difference between this
years actual sales and the prediction of this years sales from the multiple regression analysis.
To predict who will qualify for the bonus:
1. Open the Bonus.sav file.
2. If the Save As dialog box opens, click the No button.
3. Click the Transform menu and select Compute Variable. The Compute Variable
dialog box opens (see Error! Reference source not found.).
4. In the Target Variable: box, type [bonus].
5. In the Numeric Expression: box, type [1000].
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6. Click the If button. The Compute Variable: If Cases dialog box opens (see Figure 71).
7. Select the Include if case satisfies condition: option.
8. Enter the following expression by typing or selecting from the dialog box keypad:
[thissale - multiple >= 2000]
NOTE: It is recommended that you select the variables and the >= sign directly from the variable
list box and keypad provided in the dialog box to prevent mistakes.
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Polynomial Regression
This type of regression involves fitting a dependent variable (Yi) to a polynomial function of a
single independent variable (Xi). The regression model is as follows (see Table 6 for the meaning
of the variables):
Yi = a + b1Xi + b2Xi2 + b3Xi3 + + bkXik + ei
Table 6 - Breakdown of the Variables
Variable
a
bj
ei
Meaning
Constant
The coefficient for the independent variable to the jth power
Random error term
REGRESSION ANALYSIS
To look at the growth relationship between weight and age:
1. Open the Growth.sav file.
2. Click the Analyze menu, point to Regression, and select Curve Estimation. The
Curve Estimation dialog box opens to define the parameters of the analysis (see Figure
73).
3. Transfer the wght variable to the Dependent(s): box and the age variable to the
Independent Variable: box.
NOTE: The weight (dependent) variable is what is being predicted using the age (independent)
variable.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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Chart Editing
During the final stage of research, enhancing the appearance of charts and figures can be very
helpful for readers to understand what may seem to be confusing statistics. This will save the
time and effort to copy and paste an object from one program to another and to modify its
features. The following steps explain some useful methods to enhance the appearance of a chart.
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6. Select the Text Style tab in the Properties dialog box, select a color for the title text, click
the Apply button, and then click the Close button.
7. Click the Bold button on the Standard toolbar, and change the Font Size to 12.
8. Resize the text box to fit the text.
9. If necessary, resize the chart to display the title at the top of the chart (see Error!
Reference source not found.).
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Introduction Part 4
PASW stands for Predictive Analytics Software. This program can be used to analyze data
collected from surveys, tests, observations, etc. It can perform a variety of data analyses and
presentation functions, including statistical analysis and graphical presentation of data. Among
its features are modules for statistical data analysis. These include 1) descriptive statistics, such
as frequencies, central tendency, plots, charts, and lists; and 2) sophisticated inferential and
multivariate statistical procedures, such as analysis of variance (ANOVA), factor analysis,
cluster analysis, and categorical data analysis. PASW Statistics is particularly well-suited for
survey research, though by no means is it limited to just this topic of exploration.
This handout (Chi-Square and ANOVA) introduces basic skills for performing hypothesis tests
utilizing Chi-Square test for Goodness-of-Fit and generalized pooled t tests, such as ANOVA.
The step-by-step instructions will guide the user in performing tests of significance using
PASW Statistics and help the user understand how to interpret the output for research questions.
Chi-Square
The Chi-Square (2) test is a statistical tool used to examine differences between nominal or
categorical variables. The Chi-Square test is used in two similar but distinct circumstances:
To estimate how closely an observed distribution matches an expected distribution also
known as the Goodness-of-Fit test.
To determine whether two random variables are independent.
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H0: Patients leave the hospital at a constant rate (there is no difference between the discharge
rates for each day of the week).
To perform the analysis:
1. Start PASW Statistics 17.
2. Click the Open button on the Data Editor toolbar. The Open Data dialog box opens.
3. Navigate to the data files folder, select the chi-hospital.sav file, and then click the
Open button.
Before the Chi-Square test is run, the observed values need to be declared.
To declare the observed values:
1. Click the Data menu and select Weight Cases. The Weight Cases dialog box opens
(see Figure 88).
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2. Select the Day of the Week [dow] variable and transfer it to the Test Variable List: box
(see Figure 89).
3. Click the OK button. The Output Viewer window opens (see Figure 90).
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NOTE: The expected values are equal to the sum of the observed values divided by the number of
rows, while the observed values are the actual numbers of patients discharged.
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Explanation: Figure 92 indicates that on average, about 92 patients were discharged from the
hospital each weekday. The rate for Mondays was below average and the rate for Fridays was
greater than average. Figure 93 indicates that the calculated value of the Chi-Square statistic was
5.822 at four degrees of freedom. Because the significance level (0.213) is greater than the
rejection threshold of 0.05, H0 (patients were discharged at a constant rate on weekdays) could
not be rejected.
Using the Chi-Square test procedure, it was determined that the rate at which patients were
discharged from the hospital was not constant over the course of an average week. This was
primarily due to a greater number of discharges on Fridays and fewer discharges on Sundays.
When the range of the test was restricted to weekdays, the discharge rates appeared to be more
uniform. Staff shortages could be corrected by adopting separate weekday and weekend staff
schedules.
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To create an underwater sensor array, four different alloys are tested for corrosion resistance.
Five plates of the same size of each alloy are placed underwater for 60 days. After 60 days, the
number of corrosion pits on each plate is measured.
H0: The four alloys exhibit the same kind of behavior and are not different from one another.
To run One-Way ANOVA:
1. Open the alloy.sav file.
NOTE: Each case within the One-Way ANOVA data file represents one of the 20 metal plates
(five plates of four different alloys) and is characterized by two variables. One variable assigns a
numeric value to the alloy. The other variable is used to quantify the number of pits on the plate
after being underwater for 60 days (see Figure 96).
2. In Data View, click the Analyze menu, point to Compare Means, and select One-Way
ANOVA. The One-Way ANOVA dialog box opens (Figure 97).
3. Select the pits variable from the box on the left and transfer it to the Dependent List:
box (see Figure 97).
4. Select the Alloy [alloy] variable from the box on the left and transfer it to the Factor:
box (see Figure 97).
5. Click the Options button. The One-Way ANOVA: Options dialog box opens (see
Figure 98).
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6. Select the Descriptive, Homogeneity of variance test, and Means plot check boxes.
7. Click the Continue button.
8. Click the OK button. The Output Viewer window opens.
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the total sample size and the number of sample alloys (20-4=16). Figure 101 lists the sum of the
squares of the differences between means of different alloy populations and their mean square
errors. In Figure 101, the Between Groups variation 6026.200 is due to interaction in samples
between groups. If sample means are close to each other, this value is small. The Within
Groups variation 335.600 is due to differences within individual samples. The Mean
Square values are calculated by dividing each Sum of Squares value by its respective degree
of freedom (df). The table also lists the F statistic 95.768, which is calculated by dividing the
Between Groups Mean Square by the Within Groups Mean Square. The significance level
of 0.000 is less than the threshold value of 0.05 and indicates that the null hypothesis can be
rejected, leading to the conclusion that the alloys are not all the same.
2. Click the Post Hoc button. The One-Way ANOVA: Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons
dialog box opens (see Figure 103).
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3. Select the LSD check box, click the Continue button, and then click the OK button. The
Output Viewer window opens.
NOTE: LSD stands for List Square Difference, which compares the means one by one.
Figure 103 - One-Way ANOVA: Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons Dialog Box
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2. In Data View, click the Analyze menu, point to General Linear Model, and select
Univariate (see Figure 107). The Univariate dialog box opens (see Figure 108).
3. Select the SCORE variable from the box on the left and transfer it to the Dependent
Variable: box (see Figure 108).
4. Select the ABILITY and METHOD variables from the box on the left and transfer
them to the Fixed Factor(s): box (see Figure 108).
5. Click the Options button. The Univariate: Options dialog box opens (see Figure 109).
6. Select the Descriptive statistics check box.
7. Click the Continue button.
8. Click the OK button. The Output Viewer window opens (see Figure 110 and Figure
111).
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(see
Figure 113).
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4. Click the OK button. PASW Statistics will process and read the Excel file and convert all
first row column headings into variables using the best approximation for the variable
attributes (see Figure 114 and Figure 115).
NOTE: If the Excel file contains multiple worksheets, select the desired worksheet by clicking
the Worksheet: arrow. Additionally, if only a specific range of cells in the worksheet is to be
imported, the range must be specified in the Range: box.
The reverse situation may also arise, where data in a PASW Statistics file must be analyzed
using Excel. This can be accomplished by exporting the contents of the Data Editor into an
Excel spreadsheet.
To export PASW Statistics data into an Excel spreadsheet:
1. In the Data Editor, click the File menu and select Save As. The Save Data As dialog
box opens (see Figure 116).
2. Click the Save as type: arrow and select the Excel 97 through 2003 (*.xls) or the
Excel 2007(*.xlsx) file type.
NOTE: Selecting the Write variable names to spreadsheet check box will cause PASW Statistics
to write the variable names as column headings in the spreadsheet.
NOTE: If only certain variables from the Data Editor are desired in the spreadsheet, the user can
click the Variables button and select/deselect variables in the Save Data As: Variables dialog
box (see Figure 117).
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The following example illustrates the usefulness of capturing, storing, and running scripts. The
data for the example is taken from a classroom setting for a class that lasts one week. At the end
of each week, data is compiled for each student. The variables in the set include the subject
name, gender, pretest scores, posttest scores, grade point average, computer ownership, and
method of administering examinations for that individual. Each week, a report is generated that
answers a series of questions about the class from the previous week. The questions answered
and the statistical analyses used are the same every week, as described in Table 7.
Table 7 - Scripted Questions and Statistical Techniques
Question
Does the data set include equal numbers of
each gender and each test method?
Independent-Samples T Test
Paired-Samples T Test
Three-Way ANOVA
Simple regression
4. Click the Data menu and select Split File. The Split File dialog box opens.
5. Select the Compare groups option and transfer the gender variable to the Groups
Based on: box.
6. Click the Paste button to add the command to the script file. The Split File dialog box
closes and the PASW Statistics Syntax Editor window opens with the pasted command
displayed (see Figure 122).
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7. In the PASW Statistics Data Editor window, click the Analyze menu, point to
Descriptive Statistics, and select Crosstabs. The Crosstabs dialog box opens.
8. Move the gender variable to the Row(s): box and the method variable to the
Column(s): box.
9. Click the Paste button. The Crosstabs dialog box closes and the command is pasted in
the PASW Statistics Syntax Editor window (see Figure 123). The first question in
Table 7 has been entered into the script file.
NOTE: Scripts for each of the remaining analytical techniques would be entered into the script
file by using the Paste button in each dialog box after the parameters were set.
10. Save the script file by clicking the File menu in the PASW Statistic Syntax Editor
window and selecting Save As. The Save Syntax As dialog box opens (see Figure 124).
11. Enter the location and name for the file and click the Save button.
PASW Statistics provides several options when running a script file. PASW Statistics script files
have the .sps file extension. The Run menu of the PASW Statistic Syntax Editor contains
commands for All, Selection, Current, and To End.
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