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Pulpal diagnosis
ASGEIR SIGURDSSON
Correct pulpal diagnosis is the key to all predictable endodontic treatment. It is paramount that prior to proceeding
with a treatment that will affect the contents of the pulp chamber that a clinical diagnosis of the pulp and the
periapical tissues is established. This diagnosis should be based on presenting symptoms, history of symptoms,
diagnostic tests and clinical findings. If it is not possible to establish the diagnosis or one diagnosis is not dominant
within a differential diagnosis, therapy should not be initiated until further evaluation has been performed. In this
review, current knowledge on pulpal and periapical status as it pertains to diagnosis will be reviewed. Additionally,
most common diagnostic tests will be presented and critically reviewed.
Healthy pulp
According to the classification a healthy pulp is vital,
without inflammation. A healthy pulp will be asymptomatic, react to vitality tests such as heat, carbon dioxide
(CO2) snow, ice and/or electric pulp tester (EPT).
Once the pulp gets older it forms increasing amount
of secondary dentin in the pulp chamber such that its
reaction to thermal test might be diminished, but even
in those cases a healthy pulp should predictably react to
EPT (4). With the limitations of the diagnostic tests
presently available, it would be unrealistic to assume
that our diagnosis of a healthy pulp is definitely correct.
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Reversible pulpitis
This diagnosis implies that the pulp is vital, but has
some local area/s of inflamed tissue that will heal after
conservative vital pulp therapy (Fig. 1). Symptoms can
be very misleading in this diagnostic category, from
none at all to very intense and sharp sensation
associated with thermal stimuli. It is well established
that there is a poor correlation between clinical
symptomalogy and the pulpal histopathological state
(1, 2, 69). The history of symptoms will most often
reveal pain or sensation on stimulation only, such that
the tooth will only bother the patient when the tooth is
exposed to a stimulus that is hot and/or cold.
According to the classification, reversible pulpitis
should heal once the irritant is removed or, in case of
an exposed dentin surface, the exposed dentin is
adequately sealed. The mild trauma with subsequent
inflammation can cause small regions of neurogenic
inflammation and sufficient mechanical damage to
Pulpal diagnosis
Fig. 1. Moderate carious lesion results in a localized pulpitis. Since nothing in the history points to irreversible pulpitis,
it is assumed that after vital pulp therapy this pulp inflammation will heal.
Irreversible pulpitis
In case of irreversible pulpitis, the pulp is still vital but is
severely inflamed so that healing is an unlikely outcome
with conservative pulp therapy. Thus, ultimately, pulp
necrosis and infection is the predicted outcome if vital
pulp therapy is attempted. Apical periodontitis will be
the final outcome. In order to avoid pulp necrosis, the
pulp is aseptically removed and the entire space filled
with a root canal filling material (Fig. 2). As with
reversible pulpitis, symptoms can be very misleading. It
has been well documented that in most cases a pulp that
is irreversibly inflamed is asymptomatic. It has been
reported that dental pulps can progress from vitality to
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Sigurdsson
Fig. 2. Irreversible pulpitis due to a carious exposure. The most predictable treatment to prevent apical periodontitis is a
puplectomy.
Necrotic pulp
This diagnostic category implies partial (below the
cemento-enamel junction) or total pulp space with no
vital structures. The distinction between partial and
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Periapical diagnosis
The term apical periodontitis implies that there is
inflammation in the periapical tissues. Like pulpal
Pulpal diagnosis
inflammation, the periapical inflammation can be
symptom free and then may only be diagnosed on a
periapical radiograph; however, it is very important to
appreciate that a periapical lesion is most likely caused
by an infection in the root canal system, irrespective of
the patient having history or being symptomatic (30).
As always, if the patient is symptomatic then it is very
important to be able to diagnose the source, prior to
any treatment. Treatment of such is always to remove
the irritant that causes the symptoms or lesion. This
could be accomplished by simple occlusal adjustment in
case of occlusal trauma, but more likely the cause is
bacteria in the root canal system and the only
predictable treatment is to effectively disinfect the
canal space followed by filling of the canal and coronal
cavity. Antibiotics cannot penetrate into a root canal
space with necrotic tissue since the blood supply that
would transport the antibiotic is not viable. Therefore,
antibiotics will not accomplish disinfection and any
relief in symptoms will be temporary (33).
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Sigurdsson
Pain complaint
Diagnostic procedures
It has been stated by Dr Okeson (34) that dentists are
disadvantaged by their dental training because it
focuses primarily on diagnosing a problem by visual
means. However, when diagnosing the origins of pain,
16
Pulpal diagnosis
Fig. 6. Histological, clinical and radiographic appearance of a apical periodontitis with sinus tract.
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Sigurdsson
muscle area, where the lower teeth tended to be
referred to the body of the mandible and back to the
ear. However, not only the pulp can refer pain to a
remote area. It has been shown that certain muscle
groups can refer pain from myalgia to the dentition
(44) confusing the patient into thinking that he/she is
suffering from toothache when they actually are
suffering from myofacial pain (muscle ache). Therefore,
clearly it is very important to palpate facial structures
where pain is felt by the patient. If pain is felt in a tooth
that is made worse by palpation of the temporalis
muscle it is much more likely that the patient is
suffering from myalgia than toothache (see Table 1).
Diagnostic tests
Unfortunately, many clinicians rely solely on diagnostic
tests to make a definitive diagnosis. It is very important
to remember that most commonly used test systems do
not actually assess the vitality (blood circulation) of the
pulp and most do not give much if any indication about
presence or severity of inflammation in the pulp. So
why are these tests used? The main reasons for doing
pulpal test are to reproduce the symptoms, to localize
the symptoms and to access the severity of the
symptoms. With every test it has to be remembered
that the responses are going to be subjective and some
patients will have the tendency to exaggerate while
others will understate the pain felt (45, 46).
Thermal tests
Electric pulp tester (EPT)
The EPT uses electric current to stimulate the sensory
nerves of the dental pulp (4749), specifically, the fastconducting myelinated fibers (A-Delta) at the pulp
dentin junction. The unmyelinated (C) fibers of the
pulp may (50) or may not respond (51). Measurement
of electric voltage in teeth may be inconsistent due to
thickness of enamel and dentin, dryness and electrical
resistance of enamel (52), infractions, restorations, pits,
fissures and caries. In addition, the movement of the
electric current to the pulp may be impossible if the
tooth is covered with a crown or large restoration.
Bipolar and monopolar are the two stimulating
modes available. The bipolar mode is presumably more
accurate because the current is confined the coronal
pulp (53, 54). However, most EPTs are still monopolar
(51).
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Cold test
The most effective cold tests are those with frozen
sticks of carbon dioxide ( ! 781C; CO2 snow) or a
cotton pellet sprayed with difluordichlormethane
(DDM) ( ! 501C) (57). Older techniques of using
refrigerator ice or ethyl chloride ( ! 41C) are less
reliable (57) and should be replaced by the newer
techniques. A major advantage of these newer thermal
tests may be their ability to effectively move cold
Pulpal diagnosis
Table 1. Formulation of a pulpal diagnosis
Vital pulp
Symptom, test, supporting information
Necrotic pulp
Irreversible inflammation
Reversible inflammation
Pulp test
Negative
Positive
Positive
Pulpal exposure
Present
Absent
Pain to percussion
Present
Absent
Severe pain
Present
Absent
Spontaneous pain
Present
Absent
Present
Absent
Present
Absent
Present
Absent
Questionable
Questionable
Key factors
Related factors
Fig. 7. Correct placement of pulp-testing devices. Left: CO2 ice stick placed on the incisal edge. Right: the electric pulp
tester placed on the mesio-buccal cusp of the lower molar.
Heat test
The heat test is a difficult test to perform since too
much heat can in itself cause irreversible harm to the
pulp. The reaction to heat has been described as
biphasic. Initially, there is a sharp localized pain reaction
due to stimulation of A-delta fibers (65), and with
continued stimulation, a dull radiating pain follows
(66) due to activation of the C fibers (22, 40). No
correlation has been found between an abnormal
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Sigurdsson
response to heat and a histologic diagnosis including
liquefaction necrosis. A negative response is indicative
of necrosis in the pulp (6, 8). Thus, as with the other
sensitivity tests, this test only differentiates a vital from a
non-vital pulp. Degrees of inflammation or the
reversibility of an inflamed pulp cannot be ascertained
from this test.
Mechanical tests
Percussion and palpation
These are not true vitality tests but rather are indicative
of periodontal ligament inflammation (67). Pain is
elicited on percussion more frequently in all pulp
conditions where partial or total necrosis is present (49)
and as such is an indirect method of assessing the status
of the pulp. Also, the presence of percussion and/or
palpation sensitivity in conjunction with a vital pulp is
indicative of a pulp that is severely and thus (probably)
irreversibly inflamed.
Percussion (Fig. 8). This test is performed with digital
pressure or more commonly with the handle of a
mouth mirror. The aim of this test is to determine the
presence/absence of inflammation in the apical periodontium. A positive percussion test indicates inflammation of the periradicular tissues. However, a negative
percussion test does not rule out the presence of such
inflammation (6). As already mentioned, a positive
response to percussion in a tooth which tests vital to
sensitivity testing is an indication of severe and
probably an irreversible inflammation in that pulp
(49). Care must be taken, when interpreting the results
of the percussion tests, to rule out a positive response
due to marginal periodontitis, i.e. due to periodontal
disease. This is particularly difficult in those cases where
20
Diagnostic information
As has been discussed for the percussion test, a positive
response when palpating over the root tip is a reliable
indicator of periapical inflammation. However, if a
positive response is not elicited, inflammation is not
necessarily absent (6).
Radiographic examination
The radiographic examination is one of many tests and
the findings should always be evaluated together with
those of the other tests and the clinical examination.
Initial sensitivity tests can suggest which type of radiograph will be most advantageous. If a vital tooth is
evaluated, a bitewing radiograph would be advantageous
to detect caries or other causes of pulpal inflammation. If
periapical disease is suspected by the previous tests, a
periapical radiograph is indicated. All radiographs should
be taken using holders which allow parallelism and
standardization. If comparative radiographs will be
required on follow-up, it is useful to fabricate a rubber
biteblock so that the angulation of follow-up radiographs will be as similar as possible (Fig. 10).
The radiograph cannot detect pulpal inflammation
directly. However, caries or defective restorations seen
on the radiograph will suggest pulp inflammation
(68). Condensing apical periodontitis is a near-path
Pulpal diagnosis
teeth are warmer and will rewarm quicker after cooling
than non-vital teeth. Fanibundas experiments concluded that timetemperature curves comparing the
warming of vital vs. non-vital teeth were diagnostically
informative.
Additionally, it has been attempted to use color
change of cholisteric liquid crystals as a diagnostic tool
to measure crown temperature change (73) with some
success. And a more recent study using an infrared
thermographic camera showed crown temperature
patterns of non-vital teeth to be slower to re-warm
than those of vital teeth (74).
Fig. 10. Bite stent used for every radiography to ensure
that positioning is consistent.
133Xenon radioisotope
gnomonic sign of pulpitis. Also, the presence of an
apical radiolucency of endodontic origin may be a good
indication that necrosis or a necrotic zone is present in
the pulp space.
Additional tests
Test drilling
This test has been used when full coverage restorations
are present making other forms of testing impossible.
The use of CO2 frozen sticks has diminished the need
for test drilling. Some practitioners use the test drill
method as the final diagnosis of pulp necrosis. As with
the other sensitivity tests, a positive response to this test
indicates a vital pulp but gives no information about the
pathologic involvement of the pulp.
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Sigurdsson
Pulse oximetry
This technique has been used to detect vascular
integrity in the tooth (84). A modified probe was used
and two wavelengths used to provide a ratio of the
absorption of wavelengths for oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. This gives the percentage of oxygenation of blood (84). This method has the potential of
not only assessing the presence of a vital pulp but also of
assessing pathological processes (84).
Clinical findings
The findings of the clinical examination in addition to
an extensive knowledge of the pulpal reaction to
external irritants is important for arriving at a correct
diagnosis. A thorough clinical examination is critical
22
Age
Through the years, the pulpal space will be reduced and
thereby the pulp tissue becomes less. At the same time,
the cellular components decrease with increased thickness of the collagen fibers and number of nerves and
blood vessels are lost (6, 91). It is not clear how much
effect all these changes do have on the defense
capability of the pulp. It could be speculated that the
pulp has less ability to reverse an inflammatory response
to an insult; however, there is neither any research that
has confirmed that nor is there any indication that older
patients are more likely to need root canal therapy.
Therefore, increased age on its own does not seem to be
very much of clinical significance in the decision of need
for endodontic care, only it needs to be remembered
Pulpal diagnosis
that responses to tests might be greatly diminished with
increased age.
Periodontal disease
Severe periodontal disease can prematurely age the pulp
(6, 60, 92). However, again the aging of the pulp will
not necessary cause the pulp to be less able to defend it
self and it has been demonstrated that there is no
difference in the pulp status of teeth with or without
periodontal disease (93).
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