History of Greece

This article covers the Greek civilization as a whole. For from Anatolia and the Near East, by the end of the 28th
the history of the modern nation-state, see History of century BC (early Helladic period).
modern Greece.
In about 2100 B.C, the Proto-Indo-Europeans overran the
Greek peninsula from the north and east.[3] These IndoThe history of Greece encompasses the history of the Europeans, known as Mycenaeans, introduced the Greek
territory of the modern state of Greece, as well as that language to present-day Greece.[4]
of the Greek people and the areas they ruled historically.
The scope of Greek habitation and rule has varied much
through the ages, and, as a result, the history of Greece is 1.2 Bronze Age
similarly elastic in what it includes. Each era has its own
Main articles: Helladic period and Aegean Bronze Age
related sphere of interest.
The rst (proto-) Greek-speaking tribes, are generally
thought to have arrived in the Greek mainland between
the late 3rd and the rst half of the 2nd millennium BC 1.2.1 Cycladic and Minoan civilization
probably between 1900 and 1600 BC.[1] When the
Mycenaeans invaded, the area was inhabited by various Main articles: Cycladic civilization and Minoan Civilizanon-Greek-speaking, indigenous pre-Greek people, who tion
practiced agriculture as they had done since the 7th mil- One of the earliest civilizations to appear around Greece
lennium BC.[2]
At its geographical peak, Greek civilization spread from
Greece to Egypt and to the Hindu Kush mountains in
Afghanistan. Since then, Greek minorities have remained
in former Greek territories (e.g., Turkey, Albania, Italy,
and Libya, Levant, Armenia, Georgia, etc.), and Greek
emigrants have assimilated into diering societies across
the globe (e.g., North America, Australia, Northern Europe, South Africa, etc.). Today most Greeks live in the
modern state of Greece (independent since 1832) and
Cyprus.

Prehistoric Greece

Main article: Prehistoric Balkans

See also: Dimini, Sesklo and Dispilio

1.1

Neolithic

Main article: Neolithic Europe

Jug with bird, example of Cycladic art, about 1600 BC. National
Archaeological Museum of Athens.

The Neolithic Revolution reached Europe by way of

Greece and the Balkans, beginning in the 7th millennium BC. Some Neolithic communities in southeastern
Europe, such as Sesklo in Greece, were living in heavily
fortied settlements of 3,0004,000 people. The Greek
Neolithic era ended with the arrival of the Bronze Age

was the Minoan civilization in Crete, which lasted from

about 2700 (Early Minoan) BC to 1450 BC, and the Early
Helladic period on the Greek mainland from ca. 2800 BC
to 2100 BC.
1

1 PREHISTORIC GREECE

A fresco found at the Minoan site of Knossos, indicating a sport

or ritual of bull leaping"; the red-skinned gure is a man and
the two light-skinned gures are women.

Little specic information is known about the Minoans

(even the name is a modern appellation, from Minos, the
legendary king of Crete).[4] They have been characterized
as a pre-Indo-European people, apparently the linguistic
ancestors of the Eteo-Cretan speakers of Classical Antiquity, their language being encoded in the undeciphered
Linear A script. They were primarily a mercantile people
engaged in overseas trade, taking advantage of their lands
rich natural resources. Timber was then an abundant natural resource that was commercially exploited and exported to nearby lands such as Cyprus, Syria, Egypt and
the Aegean Islands.[4] During the Early Bronze Age (3300
BC through 2100 BC), the Minoan Civilization on the island of Crete held great promise for the future.[5]

Proto-Greek linguistic area according to linguist V. I. Georgiev.

The Mycenaean Greeks invaded Crete and adopted much

of the Minoan culture they found on Crete.[6] The Minoan
civilization which preceded the Mycenaean civilization The Lion Gate, Mycenae.
on Crete was revealed to the modern world by Sir Arthur
Evans in 1900, when he purchased and then began excavating a site at Knossus.[5]
is the historical setting of the epics of Homer and of most
Greek mythology. The Mycenaean period takes its name
from the archaeological site Mycenae in the northeastern
1.2.2 Mycenaean civilization
Argolid, in the Peloponnesos of southern Greece. Athens,
Pylos, Thebes, and Tiryns are also important Mycenaean
Main article: Mycenaean Greece
sites.
The Proto-Greeks are assumed to have arrived in the
Greek peninsula during the late 3rd to early 2nd millen- Mycenaean civilization was dominated by a warrior
aristocracy. Around 1400 BC the Mycenaeans extended
nium BC.[7] The migration of the Ionians and Aeolians re[8][9] their control to Crete, center of the Minoan civilization,
sulted in Mycenaean Greece by the 16th century BC.
The transition from pre-Greek to Greek culture appears and adopted a form of the Minoan script called Linear A
to have been rather gradual. Some archaeologists have to write their early form of Greek. The Mycenaean era
pointed to evidence that there was a signicant amount script is called Linear B.
of continuity of prehistoric economic, architectural, and The Mycenaeans buried their nobles in beehive tombs
social structures, suggesting that the transition between (tholoi), large circular burial chambers with a high vaulted
the Neolithic, Helladic and early Greek cultures may have roof and straight entry passage lined with stone. They ofcontinued without major rifts in social texture.[10]
ten buried daggers or some other form of military equipOn Crete, however, the Mycenean invasion of around ment with the deceased. The nobility were often buried
1400 BC spelled the end of the Minoan civilization. with gold masks, tiaras, armor and jeweled weapons.
Mycenaean Greece is the Late Helladic Bronze Age civ- Mycenaeans were buried in a sitting position, and some
ilization of Ancient Greece. It lasted from the arrival of of the nobility underwent mummication.
the Greeks in the Aegean around 1600 BC to the col- Around 1100 BC the Mycenaean civilization collapsed.
lapse of their Bronze Age civilization around 1100 BC. It Numerous cities were sacked and the region entered what

2.1

Archaic Greece

historians see as a dark age. During this period Greece

experienced a decline in population and literacy. The
Greeks themselves have traditionally blamed this decline
on an invasion by another wave of Greek people, the
Dorians, although there is scant archaeological evidence
for this view.

1.3

Early Iron Age

Main article: Greek Dark Ages

Further information: Protogeometric art
The Greek Dark Ages (ca. 1100 BC800 BC) refers to the
period of Greek history from the presumed Dorian invasion and end of the Mycenaean civilization in the 11th
century BC to the rise of the rst Greek city-states in the
9th century BC and the epics of Homer and earliest writings in alphabetic Greek in the 8th century BC.

The Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens is one of the best

known symbols of classical Greece.

Greek cultures that they should be classed separately.

Traditionally, the Ancient Greek period was taken to begin with the date of the rst Olympic Games in 776 BC,
The collapse of the Mycenaean coincided with the fall of but most historians now extend the term back to about
several other large empires in the near east, most notably 1000 BC.
the Hittite and the Egyptian. The cause may be attributed
The traditional date for the end of the Classical Ancient
to an invasion of the sea people wielding iron weapons.
Greek period is the death of Alexander the Great in 323
When the Dorians came down into Greece they also were
BC. The period that follows is classed as Hellenistic. Not
equipped with superior iron weapons, easily dispersing
everyone treats the Classical Ancient and Hellenic periods
the already weakened Mycenaeans. The period that folas distinct, however, and some writers treat the Ancient
lows these events is collectively known as the Greek Dark
Greek civilization as a continuum running until the advent
Ages.
of Christianity in the 3rd century AD.
Kings ruled throughout this period until eventually they
Ancient Greece is considered by most historians to be
were replaced with an aristocracy, then still later, in some
the foundational culture of Western Civilization. Greek
areas, an aristocracy within an aristocracyan elite of the
culture was a powerful inuence in the Roman Empire,
elite. Warfare shifted from a focus on cavalry to a great
which carried a version of it to many parts of Europe.
emphasis on infantry. Due to its cheapness of production
Ancient Greek civilization has been immensely inuenand local availability, iron replaced bronze as the metal of
tial on the language, politics, educational systems, phichoice in the manufacturing of tools and weapons. Slowly
losophy, art and architecture of the modern world, parequality grew among the dierent sects of people, leading
ticularly during the Renaissance in Western Europe and
to the dethronement of the various Kings and the rise of
again during various neo-Classical revivals in 18th- and
the family.
19th-century Europe and the Americas.
At the end of this period of stagnation, the Greek civilization was engulfed in a renaissance that spread the Greek
world as far as the Black Sea and Spain. Writing was re- 2.1 Archaic Greece
learned from the Phoenicians, eventually spreading north
into Italy and the Gauls.
Main article: Archaic Greece

Ancient Greece

Further information: Orientalizing Period and Geometric

Art
In the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from the
Dark Ages which followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization. Literacy had been lost and Mycenaean script forgotten, but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet,
modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. From about
the 9th century BC, written records begin to appear.[11]
Greece was divided into many small self-governing communities, a pattern largely dictated by Greek geography,
where every island, valley and plain is cut o from its
neighbours by the sea or mountain ranges.[12]

Main article: Ancient Greece

Ancient Greece was an ancient civilization belonging to
a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity
(ca. 600 AD). In common usage it refers to all Greek
history before the Roman Empire, but historians use the
term more precisely. Some writers include the periods
of the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations, while others
argue that these civilizations were so dierent from later The Archaic period can be understood as the

ANCIENT GREECE

Greek territories and colonies during the Archaic period.

Orientalizing period, when Greece was at the fringe,

but not under the sway, of the budding Neo-Assyrian
Empire. Greece adopted signicant amounts of cultural
elements from the Orient, in art as well as in religion and
mythology. Archaeologically, Archaic Greece is marked
by Geometric pottery.

2.2

Classical Greece

Main article: Classical Greece

Further information: Classical Athens
The basic unit of politics in Ancient Greece was the The safest general characterisation of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato.
(Alfred North Whitehead, Process and Reality, 1929).

Empire and were supported by some of the mainland

cities, eventually led by Athens. The notable battles of
this war include Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis, and
Plataea.)

Leonidas at Thermopylae by Jacques-Louis David.

polis, sometimes translated as city-state. Politics literally means the things of the polis. Each city was independent, at least in theory. Some cities might be subordinate to others (a colony traditionally deferred to its
mother city), some might have had governments wholly
dependent upon others (the Thirty Tyrants in Athens was
imposed by Sparta following the Peloponnesian War),
but the titularly supreme power in each city was located
within that city. This meant that when Greece went to
war (e.g., against the Persian Empire), it took the form of
an alliance going to war. It also gave ample opportunity
for wars within Greece between dierent cities.

To prosecute the war and then to defend Greece from further Persian attack, Athens founded the Delian League
in 477 BC. Initially, each city in the League would contribute ships and soldiers to a common army, but in time
Athens allowed (and then compelled) the smaller cities
to contribute funds so that it could supply their quota of
ships. Secession from the League could be punished. Following military reversals against the Persians, the treasury
was moved from Delos to Athens, further strengthening
the latters control over the League. The Delian League
was eventually referred to pejoratively as the Athenian
Empire.

In 458 BC, while the Persian Wars were still ongoing, war broke out between the Delian League and the
Peloponnesian League, comprising Sparta and its allies.
After some inconclusive ghting, the two sides signed a
peace in 447 BC. That peace, it was stipulated, was to
last thirty years: instead it held only until 431 BC, with
the onset of the Peloponnesian War. Our main sources
concerning this war are Thucydides's History of the PeloTwo major wars shaped the Classical Greek world. The ponnesian War and Xenophon's Hellenica.
Persian Wars (500448 BC) are recounted in Herodotus's The war began over a dispute between Corcyra and
Histories. Ionian Greek cities revolted from the Persian Epidamnus. Corinth intervened on the Epidamnian side.

2.3

Hellenistic Greece

Fearful lest Corinth capture the Corcyran navy (second

only to the Athenian in size), Athens intervened. It prevented Corinth from landing on Corcyra at the Battle of
Sybota, laid siege to Potidaea, and forbade all commerce
with Corinths closely situated ally, Megara (the Megarian
decree).

ponnesian War began in 415 BC when Athens embarked

on the Sicilian Expedition to support an ally (Segesta) attacked by Syracuse and to conquer Sicily. Initially, Sparta
was reluctant, but Alcibiades, the Athenian general who
had argued for the Sicilian Expedition, defected to the
Spartan cause upon being accused of grossly impious acts
There was disagreement among the Greeks as to which and convinced them that they could not allow Athens to
party violated the treaty between the Delian and Pelo- subjugate Syracuse. The campaign ended in disaster for
the Athenians.
ponnesian Leagues, as Athens was technically defending a
new ally. The Corinthians turned to Sparta for aid. Fear- Athens Ionian possessions rebelled with the support of
ing the growing might of Athens, and witnessing Athens Sparta, as advised by Alcibiades. In 411 BC, an oliwillingness to use it against the Megarians (the embargo garchical revolt in Athens held out the chance for peace,
would have ruined them), Sparta declared the treaty to but the Athenian navy, which remained committed to the
have been violated and the Peloponnesian War began in democracy, refused to accept the change and continued
ghting in Athens name. The navy recalled Alcibiades
earnest.
(who had been forced to abandon the Spartan cause after reputedly seducing the wife of Agis II, a Spartan king)
and made him its head. The oligarchy in Athens collapsed
and Alcibiades reconquered what had been lost.
In 407 BC, Alcibiades was replaced following a minor
naval defeat at the Battle of Notium. The Spartan general Lysander, having fortied his citys naval power, won
victory after victory. Following the Battle of Arginusae,
which Athens won but was prevented by bad weather
from rescuing some of its sailors, Athens executed or exiled eight of its top naval commanders. Lysander followed with a crushing blow at the Battle of Aegospotami
in 405 BC which almost destroyed the Athenian eet.
Athens surrendered one year later, ending the Peloponnesian War.
Map of the Delian League (Athenian Empire) at its height, 450
B.C.

The rst stage of the war (known as the Archidamian War

for the Spartan king, Archidamus II) lasted until 421 BC
with the signing of the Peace of Nicias. The Athenian
general Pericles recommended that his city ght a defensive war, avoiding battle against the superior land forces
led by Sparta, and importing everything needful by maintaining its powerful navy. Athens would simply outlast
Sparta, whose citizens feared to be out of their city for
long lest the helots revolt.
This strategy required that Athens endure regular sieges,
and in 430 BC it was visited with an awful plague that
killed about a quarter of its people, including Pericles.
With Pericles gone, less conservative elements gained
power in the city and Athens went on the oensive. It
captured 300400 Spartan hoplites at the Battle of Pylos. This represented a signicant fraction of the Spartan
ghting force which the latter decided it could not aord
to lose. Meanwhile, Athens had suered humiliating defeats at Delium and Amphipolis. The Peace of Nicias
concluded with Sparta recovering its hostages and Athens
recovering the city of Amphipolis.

The war had left devastation in its wake. Discontent with

the Spartan hegemony that followed (including the fact
that it ceded Ionia and Cyprus to the Persian Empire
at the conclusion of the Corinthian War (395387 BC);
see Treaty of Antalcidas) induced the Thebans to attack.
Their general, Epaminondas, crushed Sparta at the Battle
of Leuctra in 371 BC, inaugurating a period of Theban
dominance in Greece. In 346 BC, unable to prevail in its
ten-year war with Phocis, Thebes called upon Philip II of
Macedon for aid. Macedon quickly forced the city states
into being united by the League of Corinth which led to
the conquering of the Persian Empire and the Hellenistic
Age had begun.

2.3 Hellenistic Greece

Main article: Hellenistic Greece

The Hellenistic period of Greek history begins with the
death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and ends with the
annexation of the Greek peninsula and islands by Rome
in 146 BC. Although the establishment of Roman rule did
not break the continuity of Hellenistic society and culture,
which remained essentially unchanged until the advent of
Christianity, it did mark the end of Greek political indeThose who signed the Peace of Nicias in 421 BC swore pendence.
to uphold it for fty years. The second stage of the Pelo- During the Hellenistic period the importance of Greece

ANCIENT GREECE

Aegean islands, except Rhodes, under its rule as well.

Sparta remained hostile to the Achaeans, and in 227 BC
invaded Achaea and seized control of the League. The
remaining Acheans preferred distant Macedon to nearby
Sparta, and allied with the former. In 222 BC the Macedonian army defeated the Spartans and annexed their
citythe rst time Sparta had ever been occupied by a
dierent state.

Coin showing Demetrius I Poliorcetes.

proper (that is, the territory of modern Greece) within

the Greek-speaking world declined sharply. The great
centres of Hellenistic culture were Alexandria and
Antioch, capitals of Ptolemaic Egypt and Seleucid Syria.
(See Hellenistic civilization for the history of Greek culture outside Greece in this period.)
Athens and her allies revolted against Macedon upon
hearing that Alexander had died, but were defeated within
a year in the Lamian War. Meanwhile, a struggle for
power broke out among Alexanders generals, which resulted in the break-up of his empire and the establishment of a number of new kingdoms (see the Wars of the
Diadochi). Ptolemy was left with Egypt, Seleucus with
the Levant, Mesopotamia, and points east. Control of
Greece, Thrace, and Anatolia was contested, but by 298
BC the Antigonid dynasty had supplanted the Antipatrid.
Macedonian control of the city-states was intermittent,
with a number of revolts. Athens, Rhodes, Pergamum
and other Greek states retained substantial independence,
and joined the Aetolian League as a means of defending it
and restoring democracy in their states, where as they saw
Macedon as a tyrannical kingdom because of the fact they
had not adopted democracy. The Achaean League, while
nominally subject to the Ptolemies was in eect independent, and controlled most of southern Greece. Sparta also
remained independent, but generally refused to join any
league.

The major Hellenistic realms included the Diadoch kingdoms:

Kingdom of Ptolemy I Soter
Kingdom of Cassander
Kingdom of Lysimachus
Kingdom of Seleucus I Nicator
Epirus
Also shown on the map:
Greek colonies
Carthage (non-Greek)
Rome (non-Greek)
The orange areas were often in dispute after 281 BC. The
kingdom of Pergamon occupied some of this area. Not shown:
Indo-Greeks.

Philip V of Macedon was the last Greek ruler with both

the talent and the opportunity to unite Greece and preserve its independence against the ever-increasing power
of Rome. Under his auspices, the Peace of Naupactus
(217 BC) brought conict between Macedon and the
Greek leagues to an end, and at this time he controlled
all of Greece except Athens, Rhodes and Pergamum.
In 215 BC, however, Philip formed an alliance with
Romes enemy Carthage. Rome promptly lured the
Achaean cities away from their nominal loyalty to Philip,
and formed alliances with Rhodes and Pergamum, now
the strongest power in Asia Minor. The First Macedonian War broke out in 212 BC, and ended inconclusively
in 205 BC, but Macedon was now marked as an enemy
of Rome.
In 202 BC, Rome defeated Carthage, and was free to turn
her attention eastwards. In 198 BC, the Second Macedonian War broke out because Rome saw Macedon as a
potential ally of the Seleucid Empire, the greatest power
in the east. Philips allies in Greece deserted him and
in 197 BC he was decisively defeated at the Battle of
Cynoscephalae by the Roman proconsul Titus Quinctius
Flamininus.

In 267 BC, Ptolemy II persuaded the Greek cities to revolt against Macedon, in what became the Chremonidean
War, after the Athenian leader Chremonides. The cities
were defeated and Athens lost her independence and her
democratic institutions. This marked the end of Athens as
a political actor, although it remained the largest, wealth- Luckily for the Greeks, Flamininus was a moderate man
iest and most cultivated city in Greece. In 225 BC Mace- and an admirer of Greek culture. Philip had to surrendon defeated the Egyptian eet at Cos and brought the der his eet and become a Roman ally, but was otherwise

7
spared. At the Isthmian Games in 196 BC, Flamininus
declared all the Greek cities free, although Roman garrisons were placed at Corinth and Chalcis. But the freedom promised by Rome was an illusion. All the cities except Rhodes were enrolled in a new League which Rome
ultimately controlled, and aristocratic constitutions were
favoured and actively promoted.

2.4

Roman Greece

Main article: Roman Greece

Militarily, Greece itself declined to the point that the

or just too alien such as Britain, Palestine or Egypt.

Caracallas decree did not set in motion the processes that
led to the transfer of power from Italy and the West to
Greece and the East, but rather accelerated them, setting
the foundations for the millennium-long rise of Greece, in
the form of the Eastern Roman Empire, as a major power
in Europe and the Mediterranean in the Middle Ages.

3 Byzantine Empire (4th century

1453)
Main articles: Byzantine Empire and Byzantine Greece
The history of the East Roman or Byzantine Empire is

The Roman Forum of Thessaloniki.

Empress Theodora and her retinue (mosaic from Basilica of San

Vitale, Ravenna, 6th century).

Romans conquered the land (168 BC onwards), though

Greek culture would in turn conquer Roman life. Although the period of Roman rule in Greece is conventionally dated as starting from the sacking of Corinth by
the Roman Lucius Mummius in 146 BC, Macedonia had
already come under Roman control with the defeat of its
king, Perseus, by the Roman Aemilius Paullus at Pydna
in 168 BC.
The Romans divided the region into four smaller republics, and in 146 BC Macedonia ocially became a
province, with its capital at Thessalonica. The rest of the
Greek city-states gradually and eventually paid homage
to Rome ending their de jure autonomy as well. The Romans left local administration to the Greeks without making any attempt to abolish traditional political patterns.
The agora in Athens continued to be the centre of civic
and political life.

Depiction of the Greek re by John Skylitzes' Chronicle (late 11th

century).

described by Byzantinist August Heisenberg as the history of the Christianized Roman empire of the Greek
nation.[13] The division of the empire into East and
West and the subsequent collapse of the Western Roman Empire were developments that constantly accentuated the position of the Greeks in the empire and eventually allowed them to become identied with it altogether. The leading role of Constantinople began when
Constantine the Great turned Byzantium into the new
capital of the Roman Empire, from then on to be known
as Constantinople, placing the city at the center of Hellenism a beacon for the Greeks that lasted to the modern
era.

Caracalla's decree in AD 212, the Constitutio Antoniniana, extended citizenship outside Italy to all free adult
men in the entire Roman Empire, eectively raising
provincial populations to equal status with the city of
Rome itself. The importance of this decree is historical, not political. It set the basis for integration where the
economic and judicial mechanisms of the state could be
applied throughout the Mediterranean as was once done
from Latium into all Italy. In practice of course, integration did not take place uniformly. Societies already
integrated with Rome, such as Greece, were favored by The gures of Constantine the Great and Justinian domthis decree, in comparison with those far away, too poor inated during 324610. Assimilating the Roman tradi-

3 BYZANTINE EMPIRE (4TH CENTURY 1453)

tion, the emperors sought to oer the basis for later developments and for the formation of the Byzantine Empire.
Eorts to secure the borders of the Empire and to restore
the Roman territories marked the early centuries. At the
same time, the denitive formation and establishment of
the Orthodox doctrine, but also a series of conicts resulting from heresies that developed within the boundaries of
the empire marked the early period of Byzantine history.
In the rst period of the middle Byzantine era (610867)
the empire was attacked both by old enemies (Persians,
Lombards, Avars and Slavs) as well as by new ones, appearing for the rst time in history (Arabs, Bulgars). The
main characteristic of this period was that the enemy attacks were not localized to the border areas of the state
but they were extended deep beyond, even threatening the
capital itself. At the same time, these attacks lost their periodical and temporary character and became permanent
settlements that transformed into new states, hostile to
Byzantium. Those states were referred by the Byzantines
as Sclavinias.
Changes were also observed in the internal structure of
the empire which was dictated by both external and internal conditions. The predominance of the small free
farmers, the expansion of the military estates and the development of the system of themes, brought to completion developments that had started in the previous period. Changes were noted also in the sector of administration: the administration and society had become immiscibly Greek, while the restoration of Orthodoxy after
the iconoclast movement, allowed the successful resumption of missionary action among neighboring peoples and
their placement within the sphere of Byzantine cultural
inuence. During this period the state was geographically
reduced and economically damaged, since it lost wealthproducing regions; however, it obtained greater lingual,
dogmatic and cultural homogeneity.
From the late 8th century, the Empire began to recover
from the devastating impact of successive invasions, and
the reconquest of Greece began. Greeks from Sicily and
Asia Minor were brought in as settlers. The Slavs were
either driven out or assimilated and the Sclavinias were
eliminated. By the middle of the 9th century, Greece
was Greek again, and the cities began to recover due to
improved security and the restoration of eective central
control.

The 11th-century monastery of Hosios Loukas in Greece is representative of the Byzantine art during the rule of the Macedonian
dynasty.

indication that prosperity was being generated even in remote areas.

A steady increase in population led to a higher population

density, and there is good evidence that the demographic
increase was accompanied by the revival of towns. According to Alan Harvey in his book Economic expansion
in the Byzantine Empire 9001200, towns expanded
signicantly in the twelfth century. Archaeological evidence shows an increase in the size of urban settlements,
together with a notable upsurge in new towns. Archaeological evidence tells us that many of the medieval towns,
including Athens, Thessaloniki, Thebes and Corinth, experienced a period of rapid and sustained growth, start3.1 Economic prosperity
ing in the 11th century and continuing until the end of the
When the Byzantine Empire was rescued from a period 12th century.
of crisis by the resolute leadership of the three Komnenoi The growth of the towns attracted the Venetians, and this
emperors Alexios, John and Manuel in the 12th century, interest in trade appears to have further increased ecoGreece prospered. Recent research has revealed that this nomic prosperity in Greece. Certainly, the Venetians and
period was a time of signicant growth in the rural econ- others were active traders in the ports of the Holy Land,
omy, with rising population levels and extensive tracts of and they made a living out of shipping goods between the
new agricultural land being brought into production. The Crusader Kingdoms of Outremer and the West while also
widespread construction of new rural churches is a strong trading extensively with Byzantium and Egypt.

3.3

3.2

The Fourth Crusade and after

Artistic revival

period, one of the most remarkable facts in the history of

the empire, did not stop there. From the tenth to the 12th
See also: Macedonian Renaissance and Macedonian art century Byzantium was the main source of inspiration for
the West. By their style, arrangement, and iconography
(Byzantine)
The 11th and 12th centuries are said to be the Golden the mosaics of St. Marks at Venice and of the cathedral
at Torcello clearly show their Byzantine origin. Similarly
those of the Palatine Chapel, the Martorana at Palermo,
and the cathedral of Cefalu, together with the vast decoration of the cathedral at Monreale, prove the inuence
of Byzantium n the Norman Court of Sicily in the 12th
century.
Hispano-Moorish art was unquestionably derived from
the Byzantine. Romanesque art owes much to the East,
from which it borrowed not only its decorative forms
but the plan of some of its buildings, as is proved,
for instance, by the domed churches of south-western
France. Princes of Kiev, Venetian doges, abbots of
Monte Cassino, merchants of Amal, and the Norman
kings of Sicily all looked to Byzantium for artists or works
of art. Such was the inuence of Byzantine art in the 12th
century, that Russia, Venice, southern Italy and Sicily all
virtually became provincial centers dedicated to its production.

3.3 The Fourth Crusade and after

Main articles: Fourth Crusade, Frankokratia and Stato da
Mr
The year 1204 marks the beginning of the late Byzantine
Mosaic of the Theotokos Virgin Mary (11th century).

Age of Byzantine art in Greece. Many of the most important Byzantine churches in and around Athens, for example, were built during these two centuries, and this reects the growth of urbanisation in Greece during this
period. There was also a revival in the mosaic art with
artists showing great interest in depicting natural landscapes with wild animals and scenes from the hunt. Mosaics became more realistic and vivid, with an increased
emphasis on depicting three-dimensional forms. With its
love of luxury and passion for color, the art of this age
delighted in the production of masterpieces that spread
the fame of Byzantium throughout the Christian world.
Beautiful silks from the workshops of Constantinople also
portrayed in dazzling color animalslions, elephants, eagles, and grinsconfronting each other, or representing Emperors gorgeously arrayed on horseback or engaged in the chase. The eyes of many patrons were
attracted and the economy of Greece grew. In the
provinces, regional schools of Architecture began producing many distinctive styles that drew on a range of
cultural inuences. All this suggests that there was an increased demand for art, with more people having access
to the necessary wealth to commission and pay for such
work.

Mystras Palace, remain of the Despotate of the Morea.

period, when probably the most important event for the

Empire occurred. Constantinople was lost for the Greek
people for the rst time, and the empire was conquered
by Latin crusaders and would be replaced by a new Latin
one, for 57 years. In addition, the period of Latin occupation decisively inuenced the empires internal development, as elements of feudality entered aspects of Byzantine life.

In 1261 the Greek empire was divided between the

former Greek Byzantine Comnenos dynasty members
Yet the marvelous expansion of Byzantine art during this (Despotate of Epirus) and Palaiologos dynasty (the last

10

5 MODERN GREEK STATE (1821)

Map of the Venetian colonies in Greece, part of Stato da Mr.

The Battle of Navarino, on October 1827, marked the eective

end of Ottoman rule in Greece.

dynasty until the fall of Constantinople) ruling the The Ottomans ruled Greece until the early 19th century.
Despotate of the Morea. After the gradual weakening
of the structures of the Byzantine state and the reduction of its land from Turkish invasions, came the fall of 5 Modern Greek state (1821)
the Byzantine Empire at the hands of the Ottomans. The
Fall of Constantinople in 1453 is considered the end of Main article: History of Modern Greece
the Byzantine period.
Even after the Ottoman conquest, various areas remained
under Venetian control, such as the Kingdom of Candia
(until 1669), the Venetian Ionian islands, various Aegean
islands or short-lived occupied lands (Kingdom of the
Morea, Preveza etc.).

In the early months of 1821, the Greeks declared their independence but did not achieve it until 1829. The Great
Powers rst shared the same view concerning the necessity of preserving the status quo of the Ottoman Empire,
but soon changed their stance. Scores of non-Greeks volunteered to ght for the cause, including Lord Byron.

Ottoman rule (15th century

1821)

Main articles: Ottoman Greece and Greek War of

Independence
When the Ottomans arrived, two Greek migrations
occurred.
The rst migration entailed the Greek
intelligentsia migrating to Western Europe and inuencing the advent of the Renaissance. The second migration
entailed Greeks leaving the plains of the Greek peninsula
and resettling in the mountains.[14] The millet system contributed to the ethnic cohesion of Orthodox Greeks by The territorial evolution of the Kingdom of Greece until 1947.
segregating the various peoples within the Ottoman EmOn 20 October 1827, a combined British, French and
pire based on religion.
The Greeks living in the plains during Ottoman domina- Russian naval force destroyed the Ottoman and Egyptian
tion were either Christians who dealt with the burdens of armada. The Russian minister of foreign aairs, Ioannis
foreign rule or crypto-Christians (Greeks who held them- Kapodistrias, himself a Greek, returned home as Presiselves out to the government as Muslims but were se- dent of the new Republic. The rst capital of the indepencret practitioners of the Greek Orthodox faith). Some dent Greece was Aigina (18281829) and the second was
Greeks became crypto-Christians to avoid heavy taxes Nafplio (18281834). After his assassination the Eurowhile at the same time maintaining their identity by keep- pean powers helped turn Greece into a monarchy; the rst
ing their ties to the Greek Orthodox Church. Greeks who King, Otto, came from Bavaria and the second, George I,
pulicly professed conversion to Islam and did not main- from Denmark. King Otto, in 1834 transferred the capitain a crypto-Christian identity were deemed Turks in the tal to Athens.
eyes of Orthodox Greeks even if they did not adopt the During the 19th and early 20th centuries Greece sought
Turkish language.
to enlarge its boundaries to include the ethnic Greek pop-

5.2

World War I and Greco-Turkish War

ulation of the Ottoman Empire. Greece played a peripheral role in the Crimean War. When Russia attacked the
Ottoman Empire in 1853 Greek leaders saw an opportunity to expand North and South into Ottoman areas that
had a Christian majority. However Greece did not coordinate its plans with Russia, did not declare war, and
received no outside military or nancial support. The
French and British seized its major port and eectively
neutralized the Greek army. Greek eorts to cause insurrections were failures that were easily crushed by the
Ottoman army. Greece was not invited to the peace conference and made no gains out of the war. The frustrated
Greek leadership blamed the King for failing to take advantage of the situation; his popularity plunged and he
was later forced to abdicate. The Ionian Islands were returned by Britain upon the arrival of the new King George
I in 1863 and Thessaly was ceded by the Ottomans. As
a result of the Balkan Wars of 191213 Epirus, southern
Macedonia, Crete and the Aegean Islands were annexed
into the Kingdom of Greece. Another enlargement followed in 1947, when Greece annexed the Dodecanese Islands from Italy.

11

5.2 World War I and Greco-Turkish War

Main articles: Greece during World War I, National
Schism and Greco-Turkish War (19191922)
The outbreak of World War I in 1914 produced a split

A map of Greater Greece after the Treaty of Svres, when the

Megali Idea seemed close to fulllment, featuring Eleftherios
Venizelos.

Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)

Adrianople

Borders and zones of control under the Treaty of Sevres

25 June '20

Greece
Zone
of the Straits (British control)
Zonguldag
Dodecannese (under Italy)
Smyrna Zone (Greek depedency)

Black Sea
Constantinople

Rhaedestos
(Tekirdag)

Izmit

Sea of Marmara
Mudanya
8 July '20

Panormos

5.1

Modernization

(Bandrma)

anakkale

2 July '20

Prousa
(Bursa)

9 July '20

Inonu

ka
ry

Eskisehir

Polatli

19 July '21

Balikesir
Ayvalik

Sa

9-11 Jan. &

26-31 March '21

Kutahya

30 June '20

17 July '21

Sivrihisar

29 May '19

r.

Ankara

Kale Grotto

Afyon Karahisar

In the late 19th century modernization transformed the

social structure of Greece. The population grew rapidly,
putting heavy pressure on the system of small farms with
low productivity. Overall the density of population more
than doubled from 41 persons per square mile in 1829
to 114 in 1912. One response was emigration to the
United States, with a quarter million people leaving between 1906 and the start of the World War in 1914. Entrepreneurs found numerous business opportunitiesin the
retail and restaurant sectors of American cities; some sent
money back to their families, others returned with hundreds of dollars, enough to purchase a farm or a small
business in the old village. The urban population tripled
from 8 percent in 1853 to 24 percent in 1907. Athens
grew from a village of 6000 people in 1834, when it became the capital, to 63,000 in 1879, 111,000 in 1896,
and 167,000 in 1907.[15]
In Athens and other cities men arriving from rural areas set up workshops and stores, creating a middle class.
They joined with bankers, professional men, university students, and military ocers, to demand reform
and modernization of the political and economic system.
Athens became the center of the merchant marine which
quadrupled in size from 250,000 tons in 1875 to more
than 1,000,000 tons in 1915. As the cities modernized,
businessmen adopted the latest styles of West European
architecture.[16]

28 March &
11 July '21

Usak
Smyrna

29 August '20 Dumlupinar

15 May '19

Philadelphia

26-30 August '22

ay

Akehir

(Alaehir)

22 June '20

Aegean
Sea

Aydin
27 June 4 July '21

Isparta

er r.

Maeand

Italia

(until 19

Rhodes

Konya

Military Operations during the War

n Zo
ne
21)

Antalya

Major battles (date) blue Greek/red Turkish Victory

Area controlled by the Greek Army
Pre-war
June 1919 (Smyrna Zone)
June 1920
August 1920 (E. Thrace & Prousa-Usak line)
July 1921 & Sept. 1921 - August 1922
August 1921 (Battle of Sakarya)

Map of the military developments during the Greco-Turkish War

(19191922).

in Greek politics, with King Constantine I, an admirer

of Germany, calling for neutrality, while Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos pushed for Greece to join on
the side of the Allies aiming to the realization of the
Megali Idea.[17] The conict between monarchists and the
Venizelists sometimes resulted into open warfare and became known as the National Schism. In 1916 the Allies forced Constantine to abdicate in favor of his son
Alexander, and Venizelos returned as premier. Following victory the war, the Great Powers agreed that the Ottoman cities of Smyrna (Izmir) and its hinterland, both
of which had large Greek populations, be handed over to
Greece.[17]
Greek troops occupied Smyrna in 1919, and in 1920
the Treaty of Sevres was signed by the Ottoman government, which stipulated that in ve years time a plebiscite
would be held in Smyrna on whether the region would
join Greece.[17] However, the Turkish nationalists, led

12

5 MODERN GREEK STATE (1821)

by Mustafa Kemal Atatrk, overthrew the Ottoman government and organised a military campaign against the
Greek troops, resulting in the Greco-Turkish War (19191922). A major Greek oensive ground to halt in 1921,
and by 1922 the Greek troops were in retreat. The Turkish forces recaptured Smyrna on 9 September 1922, and
4 days afterwards a great re broke out in the city, incinerating the Greek and Armenian quarters.[17]

Union started on 20 May 1941 instead of 22 June 1941,

the Nazi assault against the Soviet Union might have succeeded. The heavy losses of German paratroopers led the
Germans to launch no further large-scale air-invasions.

During the years of Occupation of Greece by Nazi Germany, thousands of Greeks died in direct combat, in concentration camps, or of starvation. The occupiers murdered the greater part of the Jewish community despite
The war was concluded by the Treaty of Lausanne, ac- eorts by Christian Greeks to shelter the Jews. The econcording to which there was to be a population exchange omy of Greece was devastated.
between Greece and Turkey on the basis of religion. When the Soviet Army began its drive across Romania in
Over one million Orthodox Christians left Turkey in ex- August 1944, the German Army in Greece began withchange for 400,000 Muslims from Greece.[17] The events drawing north and northwestward from Greece to avoid
of 19191922 are regarded in Greece as a particularly being cut o in Greece. Hence, the German occupation
calamitous period of history. Between 1914 and 1923, of Greece ended in October 1944. The Resistance group
and estimated 750,000[18] to 900,000[19] Greeks died at ELAS seized control of Athens on 12 October 1944. The
the hands of the Ottoman Turks, in what many scholars insurrection was defeated by British troops who entered
have termed a genocide.[20][21][22][23][24]
Athens at 14 October 1944.[25]

5.3

World War II

Main article: Greece during World War II

Despite the countrys numerically small and ill-equipped

Goulter (2014) summarizes the devastation done to

Greece during the war:
Between 1941 in 1945, over 8% of the Greek
population had died; some 2000 villages and
small towns had been razed to the ground; starvation was widespread due to the destruction
of crops and worsened in many parts of Greece
after liberation when agricultural labourers migrated to urban centres to escape politically inspired violence in the countryside; trade either
internally or externally had all but ceased; most
of Greeces merchant marine lay at the bottom
of the sea; and motorized transport had been
conscated by the axis occupiers.[26]

5.4 Greek Civil War (194449)

German artillery shelling the Metaxas Line.

armed forces, Greece made a decisive contribution to the

Allied eorts in World War II. At the start of the war
Greece sided with the Allies and refused to give in to
Italian demands. Italy invaded Greece by way of Albania
on 28 October 1940, but Greek troops repelled the invaders after a bitter struggle (see Greco-Italian War).
This marked the rst Allied victory in the war.
Primarily to secure his strategic southern ank, German
dictator Adolf Hitler reluctantly stepped in and launched
the Battle of Greece. Axis units from Germany, Bulgaria, and Italy successfully invaded Greece, through Yugoslavia, forcing out the Greek and defenders. On 20
May 1941, the Germans attempted to seize Crete with a
large attack by paratroopswith the aim of reducing the
threat of a counter-oensive by Allied forces in Egypt
but faced heavy resistance. The Greek campaign might
have delayed German military plans against Soviet Union,
and it is argued that had the German invasion of the Soviet

Main article: Greek Civil War

The Greek Civil War (Greek: E
()

( 1949)

-'

Organization and military bases of the "Demogratic Army", as

well as entry routes to Greece.

Emflios plemos), was fought between 1944 and 1949

in Greece between the Greek governmental and British

5.6

Restoration of democracy

forces. Funding for the government came from Britain

and the U.S.[27] The insurgents the military branch of
the Greek communist party. According to some analysts on the left, it represented the rst example of a
post-war West interference in the political situation of a
foreign country.[28] The victory of the Britishand later
US-supported government forces led to American funding through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan]]
and to Greeces membership in NATO and helped to dene the ideological balance of power in the Aegean for
the entire Cold War.
The civil war consisted on one side of the armed forces of
the postwar non-Marxist Greek administrations, and on
the other, communist-led forces, and key members of the
former resistance organization (ELAS), the leadership of
which was controlled by the Communist Party of Greece
(KKE).
The rst phase of the civil war occurred in 19421944.
Marxist and non-Marxist resistance groups fought each
other in a fratricidal conict to establish the leadership of the Greek resistance movement. In the second
phase (1944) the ascendant communists, in military control of most of Greece, confronted the returning Greek
government in exile, which had been formed under Western Allied auspices in Cairo and originally included six
KKE-aliated ministers. In the third phase (commonly
called the Third Round by the Communists) (1946
1949), guerrilla forces controlled by KKE fought against
the internationally recognized Greek Government which
was formed after elections boycotted by KKE. Although
the involvement of KKE in the uprisings was universally known, the party remained legal until 1948, continuing to coordinate attacks from its Athens oces until
proscription.
The civil war left Greece with a legacy of political polarization; as a result, Greece also entered into alliance with
the United States and joined NATO, while relationships
with its Communist northern neighbours, both pro-Soviet
and neutral, became strained.

5.5

Postwar recovery and military junta

Main articles: Greek economic miracle, Greek military

junta of 196774 and 1974 Cypriot coup d'tat
In the 1950s and 1960s, Greece developed rapidly, initially with the help of the U.S. Marshall Plan's grants
and loans, and later through growth in the tourism sector, leading to the Greek economic miracle. New attention was given to womens rights, and in 1952 surage for
women was guaranteed in the Constitution, full Constitutional equality following, and Lina Tsaldari becoming the
rst female minister that decade.

13
Kanellopoulos.[29] It established the Greek military junta
of 1967-1974 which became known as the Rgime of
the Colonels. In 1973, the rgime abolished the Greek
monarchy. In 1974, dictator Papadopoulos denied help to
the U.S. After a second coup that year, Colonel Ioannides
was appointed as the new head-of-state.
Ioannides was responsible for the 1974 coup against President Makarios of Cyprus.[30] The coup became the pretext for the rst wave of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in
1974 (see Greco-Turkish relations). The Cyprus events
and the outcry following a bloody suppression of Athens
Polytechnic uprising in Athens led to the implosion of the
military rgime. An exiled politician, Konstantinos Karamanlis, returned and became interim prime minister on
July 23, 1974[31] and later gained re-election for two further terms at the head of the conservative New Democracy party. In August 1974, Greek forces withdrew from
the integrated military structure of NATO in protest at
the Turkish occupation of northern Cyprus.[32]

5.6 Restoration of democracy

In 1974, a referendum voted 69%31% to conrm the
deposition of King Constantine II. A democratic republican constitution came into force.[33] Another previously exiled politician, Andreas Papandreou also returned
and founded the socialist Panhellenic Socialist Movement
(PASOK) party, which won the elections in 1981 and
dominated the countrys political course for almost two
decades.[34]
Since the restoration of democracy, the stability and
economic prosperity of Greece have grown remarkably.
Greece rejoined NATO in 1980. Greece joined the
European Union in 1981 and adopted the euro as its
currency in 2001. New infrastructure, funds from the
EU and growing revenues from tourism, shipping, services, light industry and the telecommunications industry have brought Greeks an unprecedented standard of
living. Tensions continue to exist between Greece and
Turkey over Cyprus and the delimitation of borders in the
Aegean Sea but relations have considerably thawed following successive earthquakesrst in Turkey and then
in Greeceand an outpouring of sympathy and generous
assistance by ordinary Greeks and Turks (see Earthquake
Diplomacy).

5.7 Economic crisis of 20092014

Main article: Greek government-debt crisis

From late 2009, fears of a sovereign debt crisis developed among investors concerning Greeces ability to meet
its debt obligations due to strong increase in government
In 1967, the Greek military seized power in a coup d'tat, debt levels.[35][36] This led to a crisis of condence, inoverthrew the centre right government of Panagiotis dicated by a widening of bond yield spreads and risk in-

14

surance on credit default swaps compared to other countries, most importantly Germany.[37][38] Downgrading of
Greek government debt to junk bonds created alarm in nancial markets. On 2 May 2010, the Eurozone countries
and the International Monetary Fund agreed on a 110
billion loan for Greece, conditional on the implementation of harsh austerity measures.
In October 2011, Eurozone leaders also agreed on a proposal to write o 50% of Greek debt owed to private
creditors, increasing the EFSF to about 1 trillion and
requiring European banks to achieve 9% capitalization
to reduce the risk of contagion to other countries. These
austerity measures have proved extremely unpopular with
the Greek public, precipitating demonstrations and civil
unrest.

REFERENCES

7 Further reading
Boardman, John et al. (2002). The Oxford History
of Greece & the Hellenistic World.
Brewer, David (2010). Greece: The Hidden Centuries: Turkish Rule from the Fall of Constantinople
to Greek Independence. I.B. Tauris. p. 308.
Burn, A.R. (1966). The Penguin History of Greece.
Cartledge, Paul (2002). The Cambridge Illustrated
History of Ancient Greece.
Chadwick, John (1976). The Mycenaean World.
Cambridge UP. ISBN 0-521-29037-6.
Demand, Nancy H. (2006). A History of Ancient
Greece in Its Mediterranean Context.

See also

Grant, Michael (1993). A Social History of Greece

and Rome.

History of Crete

Koliopoulos, John S.; Veremis, Thanos M. (2009).

Modern Greece: A History since 1821.

History of the Cyclades

Pomeroy, Sarah B. et al. (2009). A Brief History of

Ancient Greece: Politics, Society and Culture.

History of Thessaly

Woodhouse, C. M. (2000). Modern Greece: A Short

History.

History of Athens

[39]

History of Thessaloniki
History of the Greek language

8 References

Timeline of Ancient Greece

Chadwick, John (1976). The Mycenaean World.

Cambridge UP. ISBN 0-521-29037-6.

Timeline of modern Greek history

Mountjoy, P.A. (1986). Mycenaean Decorated Pottery: A Guide to Identication. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 73. Gteborg: Paul strms
Forlag. ISBN 91-86098-32-2.

Lists:
List of ancient Greeks

Mylonas, George E. (1966). Mycenae and the Mycenaean Age. Princeton UP. ISBN 0-691-03523-7.

List of ancient Greek cities

Podzuweit, Christian (1982). Die mykenische Welt

und Troja". In Hnsel, B. Sdosteuropa zwischen
1600 und 1000 v. Chr. pp. 6588.

List of Kings of Greece

List of Presidents of Greece

Roebuck, Carl (1966). The World of Ancient Times.

New York: Charles Scribners Sons.

List of Prime Ministers of Greece

Taylour, Lord William (1964). The Mycenaeans.

Revised edition (1990). London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27586-6.

General:
History of the Balkans
Intermediate Region
History of Europe

Latacz, Joachim (1994). Between Troy and

Homer. The so-called Dark Ages in Greece. Storia, Poesia e Pensiero nel Mondo antico. Studi in
Onore di M. Gigante. Rome.
Vacalopoulos, Apostolis (1976). The Greek Nation,
14531669. Rutgers University Press.

15

Footnotes

[1] Roebuck 1966, p. 77 & 113.

[2] Roebuck 1966, p. 13.
[3] Roebuck 1966, p. 77.
[4] Roebuck 1966, p. 101.
[5] Roebuck 1966, p. 108.
[6] Roebuck 1966, p. 107.
[7] Bryce 2006, p. 91; Cadogan & Langdon Caskey 1986, p.
125
[8] The Greeks. Encyclopdia Britannica. US: Encyclopdia Britannica Inc. 2008. Online Edition.
[9] Chadwick, John (1976). The Mycenaean world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 13. ISBN 0521-29037-6.
[10] Runnels, Curtis Neil; Murray, Priscilla (2001). Greece
before history: an archaeological companion and guide.
Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press. p. 64. ISBN
0-8047-4050-X.
[11] Hall Jonathan M. (2007). A history of the archaic Greek
world, ca. 1200479 BCE. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 9780-631-22667-3.
[12] Sealey, Raphael (1976). A history of the Greek city states,
ca. 700338 B.C. University of California Press. pp. 10
11. ISBN 978-0-631-22667-3.
[13] Winnifrith, Tom; Murray, Penelope (1983). Greece Old
and New. Macmillan. p. 113. ISBN 0-333-27836-4..
For August Heisenberg the Byzantine empire was 'the
Christianised Roman empire of the Greek nation'.
[14] Vacalopoulos, p. 45. The Greeks never lost their desire
to escape from the heavy hand of the Turks, bad government, the impressment of their children, the increasingly
heavy taxation, and the sundry caprices of the conqueror.
Indeed, anyone studying the last two centuries of Byzantine
rule cannot help being struck by the propensity of the Greeks
to ee misfortune. The routes they chiey took were: rst,
to the predominantly Greek territories, which were either
still free or Frankish-controlled (that is to say, the Venetian fortresses in the Despotate of Morea, as well as in the
Aegean and Ionian Islands) or else to Italy and the West
generally; second, to remote mountain districts in the interior where the conquerors yoke was not yet felt.
[15] Myrsiades, Linda S.; Myrsiades, Kostas (1992).
Karagiozis: Culture & Comedy in Greek Puppet Theater.
University Press of Kentucky. pp. 3233.
[16] Birs, Manos G.; Kardamits-Adam, Mar (2004).
Neoclassical Architecture in Greece. Getty Publications.
p. 173.
[17] Clogg, Richard, A Concise History of Greece, (Cambridge
University Press, 1992) pages 8698.

[18] Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Taylor & Francis. pp. 150151. ISBN
0415486181. By the beginning of the First World War,
a majority of the regions ethnic Greeks still lived in
present-day Turkey, mostly in Thrace (the only remaining Ottoman territory in Europe, abutting the Greek
border), and along the Aegean and Black Sea coasts.
They would be targeted both prior to and alongside
the Armenians of Anatolia and Assyrians of Anatolia
and Mesopotamia...The major populations of Anatolian
Greeks include those along the Aegean coast and in Cappadocia (central Anatolia), but not the Greeks of the
Thrace region west of the Bosphorus...A Christian genocide framing acknowledges the historic claims of Assyrian and Greek peoples, and the movements now stirring for recognition and restitution among Greek and Assyrian diasporas. It also brings to light the quite staggering cumulative death toll among the various Christian
groups targeted...of the 1.5 million Greeks of Asia minor
Ionians, Pontians, and Cappadocians approximately
750,000 were massacred and 750,000 exiled. Pontian
deaths alone totaled 353,000.
[19] Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Taylor & Francis. p. 166. ISBN
9780415486187. An estimate of the Pontian Greek death
toll at all stages of the anti-Christian genocide is about
350,000; for all the Greeks of the Ottoman realm taken
together, the toll surely exceeded half a million, and may
approach the 900,000 killed that a team of US researchers
found in the early postwar period. Most surviving Greeks
were expelled to Greece as part of the tumultuous population exchanges that set the seal on a heavily Turkied
state.
[20] Adam Jones (26 October 2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Taylor & Francis. pp. 171172. ISBN
978-0-415-48618-7. Retrieved 27 September 2012. A
resolution was placed before the IAGS membership to
recognize the Greek and Assyrian components of the Ottoman genocide against Christians, alongside the Armenian strand of the genocide (which the IAGS has already
formally acknowledged). The result, passed emphatically
in December 2007 despite not inconsiderable opposition,
was a resolution which I co-drafted, reading as follows:...
(IAGS resolution is on page 172)
[21] IAGS Resolution on Genocides committed by the Ottoman
Empire retrieved via the Internet Archive (PDF), International Association of Genocide Scholars
[22] Genocide Resolution approved by Swedish Parliament
full text containing the IAGS resolution and the Swedish
Parliament resolution from news.am
[23] Gaunt, David. Massacres, Resistance, Protectors: MuslimChristian Relations in Eastern Anatolia during World War
I. Piscataway, New Jersey: Gorgias Press, 2006.
[24] Schaller, Dominik J; Zimmerer, Jrgen (2008). Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire
and Young Turkish population and extermination policies
introduction. Journal of Genocide Research 10 (1): 7
14. doi:10.1080/14623520801950820.

16

10

[25] Churchill, S.W. (1953). The Second World War (Volume

6). p. 285.
[26] Christina J. M. Goulter, The Greek Civil War: A National Armys Counter-insurgency Triumph, The Journal
of Military History (July 2014) 78#3 pp: 1017-55, quote
pp 10234-25
[27] Nikos Marantzidis, and Giorgos Antoniou. The axis occupation and civil war: Changing trends in Greek historiography, 19412002. Journal of Peace Research (2004)
41#2 pp: 223-231.
[28] Chomsky, Noam (1994). World Orders, Old And New.
Pluto Press London.
[29] Richard Clogg (2002). A Concise History of Greece. Cambridge University Press. p. 159.
[30] Barry Bartmann (2003). De Facto States: The Quest For
Sovereignty. Psychology Press. p. 167.
[31] NATO Update 1974. NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization. 26 October 2001.
[32] Dr Fo Moustakis (2003). The Greek-Turkish Relationship
and NATO. Taylor & Francis. p. 33.
[33] Georey Pridham (1990). Securing Democracy: Political
Parties and Democratic Consolidation in Southern Europe.
Psychology Press. p. 182.
[34] Harry Coccossis; Yannis Psycharis (2008). Regional
Analysis and Policy: The Greek Experience. Springer. p.
45.
[35] George Matlock (16 February 2010). Peripheral euro
zone government bond spreads widen. Reuters. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
[36] Acropolis now. The Economist. 29 April 2010. Retrieved 22 June 2011.
[37] Greek/German bond yield spread more than 1,000 bps.
Financialmirror.com. 28 April 2010. Retrieved 5 May
2010.
[38] Gilt yields rise amid UK debt concerns. Financial
Times. 18 February 2010. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
[39] The Oxford illustrated history of Greece and the Hellenistic
world. Oxford. 2001. |rst1= missing |last1= in Authors
list (help)

10

External links

A visual illustrated timeline of the history of Greece

Jeremy B. Rutter, The Prehistoric Archaeology of
the Aegean: chronology, history, bibliography
History of Greece: Primary Documents
A short history of Greece

EXTERNAL LINKS

17

11
11.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

History of Greece Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Greece?oldid=664445018 Contributors: The Anome, SimonP, Heron,

Edward, Infrogmation, D, Paul Barlow, Ixfd64, Bcrowell, Ahoerstemeier, Angela, Jebba, Adam Bishop, Reddi, Andrewman327, SEWilco,
Paul-L~enwiki, Adia~enwiki, Gakrivas, Adam Carr, Phil Boswell, Robbot, Chris 73, Benwing, Moondyne, Romanm, HaeB, Mattaschen,
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Guy355, Sexydraghn, Filedelinkerbot, Lrt123, Frasiernator, Epimachos, Coglio15, Leire.val and Anonymous: 764

11.2

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File:20090803_hosiosloukas36.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/20090803_hosiosloukas36.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jean Housen
File:Ambox_important.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based o of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat (talk contribs)
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File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-163-0319-07A,_Griechenland,_Artilleriestellung_auf_freiem_Feld.jpg
Source:
http:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-163-0319-07A%2C_Griechenland%2C_Artilleriestellung_
auf_freiem_Feld.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal

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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation
only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive.
Original artist: Bauer
File:Coat_of_arms_of_Greece.svg Source:
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License: Public domain Contributors: Law 48, 108, 7 June 1975, [1] and [2]
Article 2
Original artist: File:Coat of Arms of Greece (Ministries).svg: Tonyje, based on national symbol.
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
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File:Edit-clear.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The
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minimally).
File:Flag_of_Greece.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: own code Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi- (talk)
File:Gde.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Gde.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work,
data taken from: The Withered Vine: Logistics and the Communist Insurgency in Greece, 1945-1949, ABC-Clio ebook Praeger Security
International, Charles R. Shrader, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999, ISBN 0275965449, 9780275965440. 182, 191, 197.
Original artist: Alexikoua
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Smyrna Zone, 1920, 1921 and 1922 lines of control taken from aixmi.gr (original copies from works printed by the Greek Ministry of
Education) Original artist: Alexikoua
File:Greece_in_the_Treaty_of_Svres.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Greece_in_the_Treaty_of_
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License: Public domain Contributors: Codex Skylitzes Matritensis, Bibliteca Nacional de Madrid, Vitr. 26-2, Bild-Nr. 77, f 34 v. b.
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File:Jug_bird_Late_Cyclades_1600_BC_NAMA_080713.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Jug_
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File:Madonna_costantinopolitana,_fine_XI,_inizio_XII_secolo_02.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
4/49/Madonna_costantinopolitana%2C_fine_XI%2C_inizio_XII_secolo_02.JPG License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original
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File:Plato_Pio-Clementino_Inv305_n2.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Plato_Pio-Clementino_
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File:Proto_Greek_Area_reconstruction.png Source:
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reconstruction.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Georgiev V.I. The arrival of the Greeks in Greece: the linguistic evidence.
Noyes Press. pp. 243-253. British Association for Mycenaean Studies, 1974. ISBN 9780815550228. Original artist: self
File:Question_book-new.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
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Tkgd2007

11.3

Content license

19

File:Ravenna,_san_vitale,_teodora_e_il_suo_seguito_(prima_met_del_VI_secolo).jpg Source:
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wikipedia/commons/5/59/Ravenna%2C_san_vitale%2C_teodora_e_il_suo_seguito_%28prima_met%C3%A0_del_VI_secolo%29.jpg
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Background map Original artist: Maximilian Drrbecker (Chumwa)

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