Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
MARCO TERICO:
COMENTARIOS ADICIONALES,
BSQUEDA MANUAL Y POR INTERNET
COMENTARIO
Algunos de los elementos del presente captulo se haban incluido en ediciones
anteriores de Metodologa de la investigacin, en la parte impresa, ahora se
localizan a continuacin. Antes, revisaremos ciertas cuestiones referentes al marco
terico que quedaron pendientes en la obra.
Planteamiento del
problema e hiptesis
Paradigma del
investigador
Diseo
Muestra: Tamao,
caractersticas de
participantes, mtodo de
seleccin utilizado.
Estrategia de anlisis y
tipos de anlisis
realizados.
Resultados y
discusin
desconoce sobre ste. Nos tiene que indicar: Cul es el panorama actual respecto
al planteamiento? Si no genera claridad sobre el panorama resulta ineficaz.
El marco terico debe tener direccin y progresin
Direccin para elegir fuentes primarias apropiadas. Esto implica demostrar cmo
otros investigadores han utilizado el conocimiento disponible para refinar sus
problemas de investigacin y cmo sus preguntas, hiptesis y resultados han
evolucionado este conocimiento.
Asimismo, deber resultar evidente en el marco terico, la forma en que tales
investigadores utilizaron la literatura para establecer sus conclusiones y responder
a las preguntas de sus estudios.
El marco terico se desarrolla para documentar cmo nuestra investigacin
agrega valor a la literatura y/o conocimiento existente. Si nuestro estudio
nicamente duplica lo que ya se sabe, no agrega ningn valor.
Recordemos: Sistematizar las referencias por ttulo, autor, temas y subtemas,
palabras clave u otro criterio lgico (o una organizacin cruzada considerando
varios criterios). Buscar fuentes primarias recientes o clsicas, pero relevantes en la
historia del anlisis del problema de nuestra investigacin.
Otro ejemplo de qu hacer cuando no existe literatura
Incluso planteamientos novedosos o que han recibido poca atencin en el
pasado, comparten alguna similitud con aquellos que s han sido estudiados, por lo cual sus referencias pueden sernos tiles (este caso solamente
ocurre cuando verdaderamente existen pocas fuentes primarias vinculadas a
nuestro planteamiento).1
A finales de los aos de 1980, si nuestro planteamiento se hubiera referido a la
indiferencia de los jvenes para evitar tener relaciones sexuales o tomar
precauciones mediante diversas tcnicas novedosas para la poca (desinters que
provoca embarazos no deseados). Al momento de iniciar la investigacin nos
hubiramos percatado de que muchas de esas tcnicas no se conocan (algunas no
se haban inventado o su creacin era reciente) y muy pocos estudios haban sido
efectuados previamente. No se dispone de literatura sobre el planteamiento
concreto, sin embargo, s podramos encontrar referencias abundantes sobre
tpicos vinculados, los cuales proporcionaran direccin a la investigacin. Entre
1
tales temas (con fuentes primarias para la revisin de la literatura) ubicaramos los
siguientes:
- Uso de los anticonceptivos tradicionales.
- Tasas de xito de los anticonceptivos.
- Actitudes respecto a la utilizacin de tales anticonceptivos.
- Temores de los jvenes para utilizarlos.
- Valores que evitan tener relaciones sexuales prematrimoniales.
- Obstculos para utilizar los servicios de salud (pblicos y privados) en la
prevencin de embarazos.
- Recompensas y castigos sociales para las jvenes embarazadas.
- Niveles de informacin sobre las consecuencias del embarazo antes del
matrimonio.
Y otras ms. Respecto a cada problema, casi siempre hay literatura disponible.
De acuerdo con Cornell University Library (2005), el thesaurus es una lista de todos los ttulos o
descriptores usados en cierta base de datos, catlogo o ndice.
Beatles
Universo de
referencias
Figura 3.3
Interseccin de la bsqueda en el ejemplo
SONGS
CONTENT), nuestro listado producto estara constituido por todas las referencias
de The Beatles que tengan que ver con el contenido de sus canciones. Lo mismo
ocurre si los relacionamos con la preposicin AND (BEATLES AND SONGS AND
CONTENT). La figura 3.4 refleja lo anterior.
Figura 3.4
Bsqueda del ejemplo con tres descriptores
Figura 3.5
Ampliacin de la bsqueda del ejemplo por el uso de la preposicin or
10
11
descriptor 1
RESULT
525
2: SYSTEMS
descriptor 2
RESULT
3234
3:
(Purchase y Systems)
Hay 77 referencias de inters sobre compras
y sistemas.
RESULT 77
Podramos haber sido directos:
1: PURCHASE AND SYSTEMS
RESULT 77
Y nos enlista los ttulos o los datos completos y resumen. El siguiente es un
ejemplo en ingls (como en la mayora de las bases de datos):
AN 75-02236
AU MACRI-L-G
TI. Post acquisition and the systems executive
SO. Infosystems. VOL: V.22 N 2. PAG: 52-53. FEB. 1975
AB THERE IS A NEW ROLE FOR THE SYSTEMS EXECUTIVE EMERGING IN
COMPANIES THAT HAVE MAJOR ACQUISITIONS PROGRAMS AND A
CENTRALIZED SYSTEMS AD PROCEDURES DEPARTMENT. KEY MANAGEMENT
EXECUTIVES IDENTIFY POTENTIAL ACQUISITIONS, EVALUATE POTENTIALS,
NEGOTIATE THE TERMS OF AND CONSUMMATE THE ACQUISITION. ONCE
CONSUMMATED, MANY ACTIVITIES HAVE TO BE IDENTIFIED: PLANNED AND
IMPLEMENTED. THE SYSTEMS EXECUTIVE CAN HELP THE PARENT COMPANY
BY IDENTIFYING ACTIVITIES AND DEPARTMENT OF FUNCTIONS TO BE
INVOLVED IN THE INTEGRATION PROCESS, PLANNING THE POSTACQUISITION
PROCESS, PROVIDING THE SYSTEMS AND PROCEDURES SUPPORT AND
COORDINATING THE ACTIVITIES.
12
Referencia 2.
Referencia 3.
Etctera.
2) ESTUDIO SOBRE LA EFECTIVIDAD DE LOS MAESTROS (ver en este CD
documento: EFECTIVIDAD DE LOS MAESTROS, en PDF). La bsqueda la incluimos
en un documento aparte para poder ver la pgina de la base de datos (ERIC).
Figura 3.7
Forma de verificacin de la actualizacin de manuales en bases de datos
Si la actualizacin es anual
vol.
vol.
vol.
vol.
del
Volmenes
ltimo ao
2003
2004
2005
Si la actualizacin es mensual
ltimo mes
Volmenes
Meses
rea temtica de la
comunicacin
anual
14
743
Communication Processes.
750
755
758
771
777
Health Communication.
794
Political Communication.
811
821
Organizational Communication.
827
Public Relations.
827
830
Mass Media.
841
853
855
858
Telecommunications.
860
For centuries, diasporic communities have tried to keep their cultural identity close
by. Globalization adds new dimensions to that phenomenon, and as a result of it
new research fields and theoretical proposals are being constructed. One of the
elements that contributes to the new dimension of the phenomenon is the
possibility to access to the media of the place of origin via satellite, internet and in
other ways. In order to observe this phenomenon, the authors observed how
immigrants of Maghreb in Bilbao use satellite television, especially Arabic language
television. The authors found that the use of this medium gives them the
possibility of keeping in touch with their homeland.
1871
Bracken, C. and Lombard, M. Uses and gratifications: a classic methodology
revisited. New Jersey Journal of Communication 9(1): 103-116, Spring 2001.
COLLEGE STUDENTS. MASS MEDIA. RESEARCH TECHNIQUES. USES AND
GRATIFICATIONS.
This paper describes the results of a uses and gratifications survey, based on the
methodology of Katz, Gurevitch, and Haas (1973) that examined the extent to
which different media fulfill a variety of human needs. The authors suggest that
the Katz, et al. (1973) method should be revisited when investigating uses and
gratifications across several media. The paper outlines the uses and gratifications
approach, describes the adapted survey, and presents the results of data collected
over four years from 241 respondents at a large urban American university. The
authors conclude that this study provides evidence of the uses and gratifications of
college-age respondents regarding their media use. Overall, the respondents
reported that they rely on uses and gratifications to fulfill basic human needs but
that the media are only moderately helpful in accomplishing this. Particularly, they
reported that although they are dependent on the media (especially television and
newspapers) for information regarding state and society, they do not always trust
what they see/hear/read in the media. The results indicate that, contrary to popular
belief, young adults have not abandoned the newspapers, at least for the
surveillance function.
16
1872
Bruce, D. R. Notes toward a rhetoric of animation: The Road Runner as cultural
critique. Critical Studies in Media Communication 18(2):229-245, June 2001.
CARTOONS. MYTHOLOGY. RHETORICAL ANALYSIS. ROAD RUNNER. TELEVISION
PROGRAMMING. TELEVISION VIOLENCE.
Recent studies have suggested the need to broaden our approaches to violence in
childrens programming. This paper uses the violence of The Road Runner cartoon
series as a starting point for a mythic-rhetorical analysis of the message system
contained in the cartoon. It explores how the animated short re-enacts the myth of
Sisyphus in the context of the post-WorldWar II technological boom in the United
States.
Technology is the source of most of the violence in the cartoon, and the violence is
created by failures of technology. The use of a childrens medium to critique our
reliance on technology offers substantial freedom to the animator, and, in turn to
the viewer and the critic. Examination of the cartoon yields insights into the
meanings of cartoon violence, into how media reproduce mythic structures, and
into the potentially rich message systems of childrens media.
1873
Bryant, J., and Bryant, J. A., eds. Television and the American family, 2nd ed.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2001, 467 pp. $99.95/$49.95
FAMILIES. FAMILY RELATIONS. TELEVISION PROGRAMMING. TELEVISION
VIEWING.
The dynamic changes in television technologies and programming since 1990 are
paralleled by the dramatic transformation in the form of the American family. This
second edition of this volume considers these significant developments and
examines the effects of such extraordinary changes. This edition serves as a current
and comprehensive representation of programmatic research into family and
television. This update provides an extensive consideration of televisions role in
the American family, from the uses families make of television and how extensions
of television (such as remote control devices and VCRs) affect usage, to the
meanings families have for television, families evolving attitudes toward television,
17
and the portrayal of families on television. Contributors also examine the effects
television has on families and discuss the ways in which families can mediate
televisions impact on their lives.
1874
Bull, M. The world according to sound: investigating the world of Walkman users.
New Media & Society 3(2):179-197, June 2001.
AUDITORY EXPERIENCE. MASS MEDIA. MEDIA USE. WALKMAN RADIOS.
Through the analysis of Walkman use, the author proposes a reevaluation of the
significance of the auditory in everyday experience. The author argues that the role
of sound has been largely ignored in the literature on media and everyday life,
resulting in systematic distortions of the meanings attached to much everyday
behavior. Sound as opposed to vision becomes the site of investigation of everyday
life in this article. In focusing thus, the author draws on a range of neglected texts
in order to provide a dialectical account of auditory and technologically mediated
experience that avoids reductive and dichotomous categories of explanation. The
author proposes a new evaluation of the relational nature of auditory experience
whereby users manage their cognition, interpersonal behavior, and social space.
The Walkman is perceived as a tool whereby users manage space, time, and the
boundaries around the self.
1876
Carpentier, N. Managing audience participation: the construction of participation
in an audience discussion programme. European Journal of Communication
16(2):209-232, June 2001.
AUDIENCES. BELGIUM. PUBLIC SERVICE TELEVISION. TELEVISION AUDIENCES.
In this article, the theoretical notions of power developed by Giddens and Foucault
are combined to serve as a framework for the analysis of the participation of 20
ordinary people in (Jan Publick, an audience discussion program on north Belgian
public service television. In this analysis, the positive/generative and
negative/repressive aspects of power united in the Giddean dialectics of control
and especially the management of the participants in the pre-broadcast,
broadcast, and post-broadcasting phase and the resistance this management
18
provokes, are brought into focus. The conclusion returns to the Foucauldian
question of the (local) overall effect and the production of discourses on
participation and ordinary people. Although the ordinary people actually deliver a
major contribution to the realization of the program, they are also confronted with
the management of the production team, putting their participation into
perspective.
1878
Grimes, T. and Bergen, L. The notion of convergence as an epistemological base
for evaluating the effect of violent TV programming on psychologically normal
children.
Mass Communication & Society 4(2): 183-198, Spring 2001.
CHILDREN AND TELEVISION. PSYCHOLOGICAL ADJUSTMENT. TELEVISION
PROGRAMMING. TELEVISION VIOLENCE.
Empirical evidence, which is convincing, that violent television programming can
cause psychological abnormality among previously psychologically normal children
has yet to surface. However, there is a sizable fraternity of scholars, public policy
experts, and lay people who believe that causal evidence is abundant and, in fact,
overwhelmingly makes the case. There are four reasons. First, there is much
correlational evidence to support the idea that television might have such an
effect. Second, there is
834 Communication Abstracts causal evidence that violent TV makes children
behave antisocially. However, much of the evidence is produced in hot house
environments, and definitions of antisocial behaviour are invariably at the
discretion of the investigator and not a trained clinician.
Third, there is an unstated belief that, with such a preponderance of correlational
and causal evidence, a cause and effect relation has been established. This
preponderance of evidence forms the basis of the convergence argument. Fourth,
most television is, prima facie, offensive. Therefore, there is a natural inclination to
believe that it must have some harmful psychological effects. In this article, the
authors argue that none of these four reasons warrants confidence in a cause and
effect relation between violent television and psychological illness among normal
children.
19
1879
Halper, D. L. Invisible stars: a social history of women in American broadcasting.
Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2001, 344 pp. $39.95
BROADCASTING HISTORY. RADIO. WOMEN.
The early years of American broadcasting seem to be an exclusively white male
preserve, but the author, a broadcast historian, documents the countless
contributions made by women in this field since its earliest days. This artful social
history considers our cultures expectations of women and how those expectations
changed throughout the 20th century, how the advent of television changed the
landscape of employment opportunities for women in broadcasting, and how both
television and radio communicate about gender roles. The book brings to the
forefront the stories of key people like Bertha Brainard (one of the first women on
the air in New York and the first woman executive at NBC), Dorothy Thompson
(the first woman in radio to make the cover of Time, influential talk-show host
Mary Margaret McBride, and many others.
1885
Keane, M. Feng Xiaogangs disturbing television dramas. Continuum: Journal of
Media & Cultural Studies 15(1):57-66, April 2001.
CHINA. TELEVISION PROGRAMMING. TELEVISION VIOLENCE. TEXTUAL ANALYSIS.
The authors paper is interested in academic interpretations that are too quick to
identify nationalistic discourses, and which close down the ambivalences and
contradictions of a text too firmly. Analyzing a group of recent Chinese television
dramas, which he sees to be indicative of new modalities of freedom in Chinese
public life, he challenges the academics who dismissed these programs as overtly
nationalistic, sexist, and entrepreneurialistic. Once again, the author suggests
alternative possibilities for interpreting these texts for it seems to him that these
programs are much more open texts that the critics have allowed. He suggests
that in the spirit of the Marxist dialectic, contradictions abound in these television
programs. The author uses survey material from students to suggest that the
possibilities for identification in the programs are more open than academic critics
suggest less nationalistic (allowing identification with American characters); less
20
21
Tabla 3.1
Ventajas y desventajas de utilizar internet como fuente para localizar
bibliografa apropiada para el planteamiento
Ventajas
Acceso fcil las 24 horas del da.
Desventajas
Con frecuencia las investigaciones
colocadas en sitios web no son revisadas
por expertos.
22
Informacin en espaol.
Informacin reciente.
El acceso a los sitios web es inmediato a Para tener acceso a la mayora de los
travs de buscadores.
23
clave
fueron:
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l climate instrument(s)
Clima organizacional
Definiciones
Instrumentos
para medirlo
Dimensiones
Modelos
24
Figura 3.9
Mapa de la literatura desplegado
Clima organizacional
Concepciones y
definiciones:
Debates:
1) Esencia.
- Medida mltiple de los
atributos organizacionales.
- Medida perceptiva de los
atributos individuales.
- Medida perceptiva de los
atributos organizacionales.
2) Individual o colectivo.
3) Objetivo o subjetivo.
Dimensiones:
- Diversas, ms de 85 distintas.
Las que se encuentran con mayor
frecuencia en la literatura: Moral,
apoyo de la direccin, innovacin,
percepcin de la empresa o
identificacin, comunicacin,
percepcin del desempeo,
motivacin intrnseca, autonoma,
satisfaccin general, liderazgo,
visin y recompensas.
Modelos:
Con mayor abundancia emprica y ms
recientes:
- J. L. Gibson, J. M. Ivancevich y J. H.
Donnelly.
- Modelo de la diversidad de la
efectividad gerencial (W. Wilborn).
- Modelo mediatizador del clima
organizacional (C. P. Parker y colegas).
- Modelo del proceso de juicio comn
(L. R. James y L. A. James).
25
Figura 3.10
Mapa de la literatura con autores4
Clima organizacional
Concepciones y definiciones:
El clima es perceptual,
subjetivo y producto de la
interaccin entre los
miembros de la organizacin.
Litwin y Stringer (1968);
Brunet (2002); McKnight y
Webster (2001); Gonalves
(2004); Sparrow (2001);
James y Sells (1981); Parker
et al. (2003)
Dimensiones:
Litwin y Stringer (1968); Clarke,
Sloane y Aiken (2002);
Patterson et al. (2005); Brunet
(2002); Parker et al. (2003);
Ochitwa (2004); Arvidsson et al.
(2004); Anderson y West
(1998)
Modelos:
James et al. (1990); James y James
(1992); James y McIntyre (1996);
Gibson y Donnelly (1979); Parker et al.
(2003)
26
27
Figura 3.11
Proceso de vertebracin del ndice del
marco terico y ubicacin de referencias
Subtema 1.1
Tema 1
Referencia 1
Referencia 2
Subtema 1.2
Referencia 3
Subtema 2.1
Referencia 4
Tema 2
Subtema 2.2
Referencia 5
Referencia 6
Subtema 3.1
Temas
general
es
Referencia 7
Tema 3
Subtema 3.2
Referencia 8
Subtema 3.3
Referencia 9
Referencia 10
Subtema k.1
Referencia 11
Tema k
Subtema k.2
Referencia k
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
2.
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
3.
Estructura partidista.
3.1
Nmero de afiliados.
3.2.
Cobertura en elecciones.
3.3
Lealtad partidista.
3.4
3.5
Productividad de la estructura.
4.
Mercadotecnia partidista.
4.1
4.2
5.
Mercadotecnia electoral.
5.1
5.2
6.
Accin electoral.
6.1
6.2
Recomendaciones:
- Utilice palabras que los
autores suelan utilizar.
- Busque trminos en los
thesaurus o catlogos de
palabras de las bases de
datos.
En
(Bsqueda),
introducir los trminos y las
preposiciones booleanas, de
acuerdo con el propsito de
bsqueda.
Obtener un listado de
referencias vinculadas con el
planteamiento.
Revisarlas.
Elegir las ms adecuadas
(primero unas cuantas para
elaborar el mapa o ndice del
marco terico, una vez
desarrollado el bosquejo,
seleccionar las dems
referencias).
Recomendaciones:
- Localice artculos,
libros, anuarios y
guas (
).
- Para la seleccin
de referencias tome
en cuenta
actualidad, calidad
y similitud con el
propio
planteamiento.
Si fotocopia,
por favor
respete las
leyes de
derechos de
autor.
Internet
Para ampliar la bsqueda por medio de internet, hemos elegido un documento
que presenta la forma ms actualizada de hacerlo. Cabe sealar que muchas de las
direcciones electrnicas contenidas en l pueden cambiar, lo importante es que se
comprenda el proceso.
Ms all de la bsqueda general en la web. UC BERKELEY Taller de la biblioteca
de enseanza de internet:
http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/TeachingLib/Guides/Internet/FindInfo.html
31