WELDING

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Welding is a process for joining two similar or dissimilar metals by fusion. It

joins different metals/alloys, with or without the application of pressure and
with or without the use of filler metal. The fusion of metal takes place by
means of heat. The heat may be generated either from combustion of
gases, electric arc, electric resistance or by chemical reaction. During some
type of welding processes, pressure may also be employed, but this is not
an essential requirement for all welding processes. Welding provides a
permanent joint but it normally affects the metallurgy of the components.
2.2 BASIC CONCEPT OF WELDING
Welding is a process of joining two similar or dissimilar metals with the help
of heat or pressure or by some other means. The cost of welding is very
less as compared to other processes and forms a strong joint.
For this reason it is largely used in the following fields of engineering:
1. Manufacturing of machine tools, auto parts, cycle parts, etc.
2. Fabrication of farm machinery & equipment.
3. Fabrication of buildings, bridges & ships.
4. Construction of boilers, furnaces, railways, cars, aeroplanes, rockets and
missiles.
5. Manufacturing of television sets, refrigerators, kitchen cabinets, etc.
A weld will inherit the common drawback of brittleness, which is a
disadvantage. The
emphasis in welding technique should, therefore, be preventing this
brittleness to the maximum possible extent.
2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING PROCESSES
Many types of welding processes have been developed depending upon the
field of their applications
(Table 7.1). But the welding is broadly divided into following two groups.
1. Forge or Pressure Welding (Under pressure without additional filler
metal)
(a) Friction welding
(b) Electric resistance welding
(c) Blacksmiths forge welding
(d) Cold pressure welding
2. Fusion or non-pressure welding (With additional filler material)
(a) Gas welding (Heat created by Gas)
(b) Electric arc welding (Heat created by electrically)
(c) Thermite welding (Heat created by chemical Reaction)

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2.4 GAS WELDING PROCESSES

A fusion welding process which joins metals, using the heat of combustion
of an oxygen /air and fuel gas (i.e. acetylene, hydrogen propane or butane)
mixture is usually referred as gas welding. The intense heat (flame) thus
produced melts and fuses together the edges of the parts to be welded,
generally with the addition of a filler metal. Operation of gas welding is
shown in Fig.
. The fuel gas generally employed is acetylene; however
gases other than acetylene can also be used though with lower flame
temperature. Oxy-acetylene flame is the most versatile and hottest of all
the flames produced by the combination of oxygen and other fuel gases.

Fig.

Gas welding operation

3.5.1 Oxy-Acetylene Welding

Oxy-fuel welding, commonly referred to as oxy welding or gas welding is a

process of joining metals by application of heat created by gas flame. The
fuel gas commonly acetylene, when mixed with proper proportion of
oxygen in a mixing chamber of welding torch, produces a very hot flame of
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about 5700-5800F. With this flame it is possible to bring any of the socalled commercial metals, namely: cast iron, steel, copper, and aluminum,
to a molten state and cause a fusion of two pieces of like metals in such a
manner that the point of fusion will very closely approach the strength of
the metal fused. If more metal of like nature is added, the union is made
even stronger than the original. This method is called oxy-acetylene
welding.
3.5.1.2 Gas Welding Equipments
An arrangement of oxy acetylene welding set up is shown in Fig.
. The
basic tools and
equipments used for oxy-acetylene welding are following:
Oxy-fuel apparatus consists of two cylinders (one oxygen and one
acetylene) equipped with two regulators, pressure gauges, two lengths of
hose, and a blow torch. The regulators are attached to cylinders and are
used to reduce and maintain a uniform pressure of gases at the torch. The
gases at reduced pressure are conveyed to the torch by the hoses. The
regulators include high pressure and low pressure gauges to indicate the
contents of the cylinder and the working-pressure on each hose. When the
gases reach the torch they are there mixed and combustion takes place at
the welding tip fitted to the torch.

The basic equipments used to carry out gas welding are:

1. Oxygen gas cylinder (green)
2. Acetylene gas cylinder (maroon/red)
3. Oxygen pressure regulator
4. Acetylene pressure regulator
5. Oxygen gas hose(Blue)
6. Acetylene gas hose(Red)
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7. Welding torch or blow pipe with a set of nozzles and gas lighter
8. Trolleys for the transportation of oxygen and acetylene cylinders
9. Set of keys and spanners
10. Filler rods and fluxes
11. Protective clothing for the welder (e.g., asbestos apron, gloves, goggles, etc.

Acetylene and oxygen gas is stored in compressed gas cylinders.

Oxygen cylinder
Right hand side thread
Black colour
120 Kg/cm2 pressure
40 litres capacity
Acetylene(C2H2) cylinder
Left hand side thread
Maroon colour
15 Kg/cm2 pressure
40 litres capacity
Oxygen gas cylinders are usually equipped with about 40 litres of oxygen at
a pressure of about 154 Kgf/cm2 at 21C. To provide against dangerously
excessive pressure, such as could occur if the cylinders were exposed to
fire, every valve has a safety device to release the oxygen before there is
any danger of rupturing the cylinders. Fragile discs and fusible plugs are
usually provided in the cylinders valves in case it is subjected to danger.
Chemistry of Oxy Acetylene Process
The most common fuel used in welding is acetylene. It has a two stage reaction; the first stage
primary reaction involves the acetylene disassociating in the presence of oxygen to produce
heat, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen gas.
2C2H2 + 2O2 = 4CO + 2H2 + Heat ---------- (1)
A secondary reaction follows where the carbon monoxide and hydrogen combine with more
oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water vapor.
4CO + 2H2 + 3O2 = 4CO2 + 2H2O + Heat--------- (2)
When you combine equations (1) and (2) you will notice that about 5 parts of oxygen is
necessary to consume 2 parts of acetylene
2C2H2 + 5O2 = 4CO2 + 2H2O + Heat ----------- (3)

From above for complete combustion of 1 unit volume of C2H2

requires 2.5 unit of o2
Out of this I unit volume of o2 is obtained from o2 cylender and
remaining from atmosphere.

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Types of flames
Based on amount of o2 flame produced can be divided into 3 types
1. Natural flame

I.

O2 : C2H2 = 1:1

II.

Length of inner cone (N) 10 to 15 cm

III.

Inner cone will be red or yellow

IV.

Maximum temperature 32600C

The neutral flame is commonly used for the welding of

Both ferrous and non ferrous metals

(i) Mild Steel
(ii) Stainless steel
(iii) Cast iron
(iv) Copper
(v) Aluminum

During joining of brass ,the Zinc present in brass will get evaporated

2.Oxydising flame
I.

O2 : C2H2 = 1.15:1.5

II.

Length of inner cone N/2 to N/3

III.

Inner cone will be red or yellow

IV.

Maximum temperature 32600C

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WELDING TORCH & BLOW PIPE

A welding torch mixes oxygen and acetylene in the desired proportions, burns the mixture at
the end of the tip, and provides a means for moving and directing the flame.
There are two types of welding torches, namely:
a) High pressure (or equal pressure) type
b) Low pressure (or injector) type
The high pressure torch also called the equal pressure torch is most commonly used because:
a) It is lighter and simpler;
b) It does not need an injector;
c) In operation, it is less troublesome since it does not suffer from backfires to the same
extent.

Torch tips
It is the portion of the welding apparatus through which the gases pass just
prior to their ignition and burning. A great variety of interchangeable
welding tips differing in size, shape and construction are available
commercially. The tip sizes are identified by the diameter of the opening.
The diameter of the tip opening used for welding depends upon the type of
metal to be welded.
Hose pipes
The hose pipes are used for the supply of gases from the pressure
regulators. The most common method of hose pipe fitting both oxygen and
acetylene gas is the reinforced rubber hose pipe. Green is the standard
color for oxygen hose, red for acetylene, and black hose for other
industrially available welding gases.
Filler Metals:
Filler metals are used to supply additional material to the pool to assist in filling the gap (or
groove) and it forms an integral part of the weld. Filler rods have the same or nearly the same
chemical composition as the base metal and are available in a variety of compositions (for

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welding different materials) and sizes. These consumable filler rods may be bare, or they may
be coated with flux. The purpose of the flux
a. Is to retard oxidation of the surfaces of the parts being welded, by generating gaseous
shield around the weld zone.
b. The flux also helps to dissolve and remove oxides and other substances from the
work piece and so contributes to the formation of a stronger joint.
Characteristics of good flux
a. The melting point of a flux must be lower than that of either the metal or
the oxides formed, so that it will be liquid.
b. The ideal flux has exactly the right fluidity when the welding
temperature has been reached.
c. The flux will protect the molten metal from atmospheric oxidation.
d. Fflux will remain close to the weld area instead of flowing all over the
base metal for some distance from the weld.
Composition of Fluxes
Fluxes differ in their composition according to the metals with which they are to be
used. In cast iron welding, a slag forms on the surface of the puddle. The flux
serves to break this up. Equal parts of a carbonate of soda and bicarbonate of
soda make a good compound for this purpose. Nonferrous metals usually require a
flux. Copper also requires a filler rod containing enough phosphorous to produce a
metal free from oxides. Borax which has been melted and powdered is often used
as a flux with copper alloys. A good flux is required with aluminum, because there
is a tendency for the heavy slag formed to mix with the melted aluminum and
weaken the weld. For sheet aluminum welding, it is customary to dissolve the flux
in water and apply it to the rod. After welding aluminum, all traces of the flux
should be removed.
Characteristics of the oxy-acetylene welding process include:
o The use dual oxygen and acetylene gases stored under pressure in steel cylinders;
o Its ability to switch quickly to a cutting process, by changing the welding tip to a cutting
tip;
o The high temperature the gas mixture attains (~5800F);
o The use of regulators to control gas flow and reduce pressure on both the oxygen and
acetylene tanks;
o The use of double line rubber hoses to conduct the gas from the tanks to the torch;
o Melting the materials to be welded together;
o The ability to regulate temperature by adjusting gas flow

17.5.1.1 Types of Welding Flames

In oxy-acetylene welding, flame is the most important means to control the
welding joint and the welding process. The correct type of flame is essential
for the production of satisfactory welds. The flame must be of the proper
size, shape and condition in order to operate with maximum efficiency.
There are three basic types of oxy-acetylene flames.
1. Neutral welding flame (Acetylene and oxygen in equal proportions).
2. Carburizing welding flame or reducing (excess of acetylene).
3. Oxidizing welding flame (excess of oxygen).
The gas welding flames are shown in Fig
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Neutral Flame - A neutral flame is produced when approximately equal
volumes of oxygen and acetylene are mixed in the welding torch and burnt
at the torch tip. (More accurately the oxygen-to-acetylene ratio is 1.1 to 1).
The temperature of the neutral flame is of the order of about 3260C. The
flame has a nicely defined inner cone which is light blue in colour. It is
surrounded by an outer flame envelope, produced by the combination of
oxygen in the air and superheated carbon monoxide and hydrogen gases
from the inner cone. This envelope is usually a much darker blue than the
inner cone.
A neutral flame is named so because it effects no chemical change in the
molten metal and therefore will not oxidize or carburize the metal. The
neutral flame is commonly used for the welding of: (i) Mild steel (ii)
Stainless steel (iii) Cast Iron (iv) Copper (v) Aluminium

Reducing Flame - If the volume of oxygen supplied to the neutral flame is

reduced, the resulting flame will be a carburising or reducing flame, i.e. rich
in acetylene. A reducing flame can be recognized by
acetylene feather which exists between the inner cone and the outer
envelope. The outer flame envelope is longer than that of the neutral flame
and is usually much brighter in colour. A reducing flame does not
completely, consume the available carbon; therefore, its burning
temperature is lower and the left over carbon is forced into the molten
metal.
With iron and steel it produces very hard, brittle substance known as iron
carbide. This chemical change makes the metal unfit for many applications
in which the weld may need to be bent or stretched. Metals that tend to
absorb carbon should not be welded with reducing flame. A reducing flame
has an approximate temperature of 3038C. A reducing flame may be
distinguished from a carburizing flame by the fact that a carburizing flame
contains more acetylene than a reducing flame. A carburizing flame is used
in the welding of lead and for carburizing (surface hardening) purposes.
A reducing flame, on the other hand, does not carburize the metal, rather it
ensures the absence of the oxidizing condition. It is used for welding with
low alloy steel rods and for welding those metals, (e.g. non ferrous) that do
not tend to absorb carbon. This flame is very well used for welding high
carbon steel

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Oxidising Flame - If, after the neutral flame has been established, the
supply of oxygen is further increased, the result will be an oxidising flame.
An oxidising flame can be recognized by the small white cone which is
shorter, much bluer in colour and more pointed than that of the neutral
flame. The outer
flame envelope is much shorter and tends to fan out at the end on the
other hand the neutral and carburizing envelopes tend to come to a sharp
point. An oxidising flame burns with a decided loud roar. An oxidising flame
tends to be hotter than the neutral flame. This is because of excess oxygen
and which causes the temperature to rise as high as 3500C. The high
temperature of an oxidizing
flame (O2: C2H2 = 1.5: 1) would be an advantage if it were not for the fact
that the excess oxygen, especially at high temperatures, tends to combine
with many metals to form hard, brittle, low strength
oxides. Moreover, an excess of oxygen causes the weld bead and the
surrounding area to have a scummy or dirty appearance. For these reasons,
an oxidising flame is of limited use in welding. It is not used in the welding
of steel. A slightly oxidising flame is helpful when welding most (i) Copper
base metals (ii) Zinc base metals, and (iii) A few types of ferrous metals,
such as manganese steel and cast iron The oxidizing atmosphere, in these
cases, creates a base metal oxide that protects the base
metal. For example, in welding brass, the zinc has a tendency to separate
and fume away.

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Use of flux:
Flux is employed in the welding of such metal as cast iron. Some alloy steel and non-ferrous metals
to dissolve such as:
1. Remove impurities.
2. Control surface tension.
3. Give protection from atmosphere.
It is usually in the format paste in which the rod is dipped.

Method of welding using oxy-acetylene welding process.

1. Back hand welding: In this method, the torch precedes the welding rod, as shown bellow.

Back hand welding

2. Forehand welding: In this method, the welding rod precedes the torch. The torch is held at
approximately a 45 degree angle from the vertical in the direction of welding, as shown
bellow.

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Forehand welding

3. Fillet welding: The fillet weld is the most popular of all types of welds because there is
normally no preparation required.

4. Horizontal position welding: In horizontal welding, the weld axis is approximately horizontal,
but the weld type dictates the complete definition. For a fillet weld, welding is performed on the
upper side of an approximately horizontal surface and against an approximately vertical surface.
For a groove weld, the face of the weld lies in an approximately vertical plane

5. Flat position welding: This type of welding is performed from the upper side of the joint. The
face of the weld is approximately horizontal.

6. Vertical position welding: In vertical position, the plane of the

workpiece is vertical and the weld is deposited upon a vertical surface. It is
difficult to produce satisfactory welds in this position due to the effect of
the force of gravity on the molten metal. The welder must constantly
control the metal so that it does not run or drop from the weld. Vertical
welding may be of two types viz., vertical-up and vertical-down. Vertical-up
welding is preferred when strength is the major consideration. The verticaldown welding is used for a sealing operation and for welding sheet metal.

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7. Over head position welding: The overhead position is probably even

more difficult to weld than the vertical position. Here the pull of gravity
against the molten metal is much greater. The force of the flame against
the weld serves to counteract the pull of gravity. In overhead position, the
plane of the workpiece is horizontal. But the welding is carried out from the
underside. The electrode is held with its welding end upward. It is a good
practice to use very short arc and basic coated electrodes for overhead
welding.

Advantages of Oxyacetylene Process

1) Does not require electricity;
2) The equipment is portable, easy to transport;

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3) Welder has considerable control over the rate of heat input, the temperature of the weld
zone, and the oxidizing or reducing potential of the welding atmosphere;
4) Oxyacetylene process is ideally suited to the welding of thin sheet, tubes, and small
diameter pipe. It is also used for repair work, maintenance and in body shops;
5) Dissimilar metals can easily be joined;
6) Can also be used for preheating, cutting metal, case hardening, soldering and
annealing.

Limitations
1. Acetylene becomes extremely dangerous if used above 15 pounds
pressure. Pure acetylene is self-explosive if stored in the free state under a
pressure of 29.4 pounds per square inch (psi);
2. The process is typically slower than the electrical arc-welding processes;
3. Heavy sections cannot be joined efficiently.
4. For heavy sections proper penetration may not be achieved.
5. Slower speed of welding compared electric arc welding.
6. Flux used in the filler metal provides fumes which are irritating to the
eyes, nose, throat and lungs.
7. More safety is recommended in gas welding.
8. Acetylene and oxygen are expensive gases.
9. Prolonged heating of the joint may results in large HAZ.
Applications of Gas Welding 1. For joining thin materials.
2. For joining materials in whose case excessively high temperatures or
rapid heating and cooling of the job would produce unwanted or harmful
changes in the metal.
3. For joining materials in whose case extremely high temperatures would
cause certain elements in the metal to escape into the atmosphere.
4. For joining most ferrous and nonferrous metals, e.g., carbon steels, alloy
steels, cast iron, aluminium, copper, nickel, magnesium and its alloys, etc.
5. In automotive and aircraft industries. In sheet metal fabricating
plants,etc.
Gas Cutting: It is possible to rapidly oxidise (burn) iron and steel when it is
heated to a temperature between 800 to 1000 0C. When a high pressure
oxygen jet with a pressure of the order of 300 KPa is directed against a
heated steel plate, the oxygen jet burns the metal and blows it away
causing the cut. This process is used for cutting steel plates of various
thicknesses (can go up to 2 m) mainly because the equipment required is
simple and can be carried anywhere without handling the heavy steel
plates. Oxy-acetylene gas cutting outfit is similar to that of the oxyacetylene welding except for the torch tip. Here
the torch tip has a provision for preheating the plate as well as providing
the oxygen jet. Thus the tip has a central hole for oxygen jet with
surrounding holes for preheating flames. The cutting tip should be chosen
for the intended application. The size is normally dependent on the
thickness of the plate which determines the amount of preheating as well
as the oxygen jet flow required for cutting. After the steel is heated to the
kindling temperature which is about 870 0C, it gets readily combined with
oxygen

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giving iron oxide with the following reactions:
3 Fe + 2 O2 -- Fe3O4 + 6.67 MJ/Kg of iron
2Fe + O2 -- 2FeO + 3.18 MJ/Kg of iron
4 Fe + 3 O2 -- 2Fe2O3 + 4.90 MJ/Kg of iron
All the above reactions are exothermic in nature and as such would provide
a good amount of heat to preheat the steel. But this energy may not be
sufficient to bring the steel to its kindling temperature, and hence
preheating flames may have to be continued as somewhat lower rate. The
heat generated causes the metal to melt and get blown away by the
oxygen pressure. About 30 to 40 % of metal is simply blown away, while
the rest is oxidised.
The cutting can start at the edge or in the middle of the plate. After the
plate has reached the kindling temperature, the operator should release
the oxygen jet to start the cutting, moving the torch in the forehand
direction to achieve the desired cut. Drag is the amount by which the lower
edge of the drag line trails from the top edge.

A good cut is characterised by very small or negligible drag. When the torch
is moved too rapidly, the metal at the bottom does not get sufficient heat
to get oxidized and cut and hence there is a large drag. When the torch is
moved slowly, all the preheated metal is burnt away by the oxygen jet and
a large amount of slag is generated.

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Though the gas cutting is more useful with thick plates, thin sheets (less
than 3 mm) can also be cut by this process taking special precautions. Tip
size chosen should be as small as possible. If small tips are not available,
then the tip is inclined at an angle of 15 to 20 degrees. Gas cutting can be
done manually or by a machine. The manual cutting is used for general
purpose work and for straight line cutting. In machine cutting the torch is
mounted on a rail and both rail and the torch can move simultaneously
along the two mutually perpendicular axes in the horizontal plane with the
help of servo motors. There
is provision in the machine to hold more than one torch so that large
number of identical pieces can be cut at the same time.
Arc-Welding
Introduction
Arc welding is the fusion of two pieces of metal by an electric arc between
the pieces being joined the work pieces and an electrode that is guided
along the joint between the pieces. The electrode is either a rod that simply
carries current between the tip and the work, or a rod or wire that melts
and supplies filler metal to the joint.
Principle of Arc
The basic arc welding circuit is an alternating current (AC) or direct current
(DC) power source connected by a work cable to the work piece and by a
hot cable to an electrode. When the electrode is positioned close to the
work piece, an arc is created across the gap between the metal and the hot
cable electrode. An ionized column of gas develops to complete the circuit.

Figure Arc welding setup

The arc produces a temperature of about 6000C to 7000C at the tip and
melts part of the metal being welded and part of the electrode. This
produces a pool of molten metal that cools and solidifies behind the
electrode as it is moved along the joint.
There are two types of electrodes. Consumable electrode tips melt, and
molten metal droplets detach and mix into the weld pool. Non-consumable
electrodes do not melt. Instead, filler metal is melted into the joint from a
separate rod or wire.

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The strength of the weld is reduced when metals at high temperatures
react with oxygen and nitrogen in the air to form oxides and nitrides. Most
arc welding processes minimize contact between the molten metal and the
air with a shield of gas, vapour or slag. Granular flux, for example, adds
deoxidizers that create a shield to protect the molten pool, thus improving
the weld.
Arc Welding Equipment
The main requirement in an arc welding setup is the source of electric
power. They are essentially
of two types:
a) Alternating Current Machines
1. Transformer
2. Motor or engine driven alternator
b) Direct Current Machines
1. Transformer with DC rectifier
2. Motor or engine driven generator
In AC welding normally transformer is used. It has following operational
characteristics.
1. No moving parts and less noise;
2. Less maintenance;
3. Higher efficiency;
4. Cheaper power source.
In DC arc welding a rectifier or a generator can be used to supply the
required DC power. At first input voltage is stepped down to required
voltage and then through silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) is converted
from AC to DC. Its characteristics are
1. Compact setup
2. Highly reliable and efficient
3. Less noise
4. Costly setup
The welding machine can be of two types.
1. Constant current welding machines or droopers
2. Constant voltage welding machines
In constant current welding machine the change in arc current magnitude
due to change in voltage across the electrodes is very small. This machine
is very essential for manual arc welding processes since the maintenance
of constant arc is nearly impossible by a human welder. With the variation
of electrode distance from the base plate in manual arc welding the voltage
across the arc gap changes continuously but the magnitude of current
remains almost constant due to which good quality of weld can be made.
In constant voltage welding machines small change in voltage makes for an
extremely large change in the output currents. Theses machines are
generally preferred in the automatic machines since they become self
corrective. When the electrode comes a bit closer to the work, the arc
voltage drops raising the output current to very high value. This current
instantly melts the electrode and thus maintains the arc gap.

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Figure

: Constant current characteristics

Figure : Constant voltage characteristics

Though DC arc welding is more expensive than AC welding, it is generally
preferred because of the control of the heat input offered by it. If more heat
is required at the workpiece side, such as for thicker sheets or for the work
materials which have higher thermal conductivity such as aluminium and
copper, the workpiece can be made as anode, liberating large heat near it.
This is termed as straight polarity or direct current electrode
negative (DCEN). This gives rise to higher penetration of weld metal. For
thinner materials where less heat input is required in the weld zone, the
polarity could be reversed by making the workpiece as negative. This is
termed as reversed polarity or direct current electrode positive
(DCEP).In this case weld metal penetration is small. In case of AC welding
the bead obtained is somewhere in between the above two types. DC arc
welding is preferred for difficult tasks such as overhead welding, since it
can maintain a stable arc.

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Figure

: Weld penetration

A voltage of the order of 40 to 50 V should be enough for starting an arc,

whereas for continuous welding 20 to 30 V is sufficient. The minimum
voltage Vm can be calculated as
Vm = 20 + 0.04 I ,
where I is the load current in amperes.
The rated current specifies the maximum current in amperes that a welding
machine is capable of supplying at a given voltage. The preferred current
ratings as per Indian standard are 150, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600 and 900 A.
Duty Cycle:
Duty cycle is the ratio of arcing time to the weld cycle time multiplied by
100. Welding cycle time is either 5 minutes as per European standards or
10 minutes as per American standard and accordingly power sources are
designed. It arcing time is continuously 5 minutes then as per European
standard it is 100% duty cycle and 50% as per American standard. At 100%
duty cycle minimum current is to be drawn i.e. with the reduction of duty
cycle current drawn can be of higher level. The welding current which can
be drawn at a duty cycle can be evaluated from the following equation;

Duty cycle and associated currents are important as it ensures that power
source remains

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safe and its windings are not getting damaged due to increase in
temperature beyond
specified limit. The maximum current which can be drawn from a power
source depends
upon its size of winding wire, type of insulation and cooling system of the
power source.

Power sources produce DC with the electrode either positive or negative, or

AC. The choice of current and polarity depends on the process, the type of
electrode, the arc atmosphere and the metal being welded.
Some Important Definitions
Arc-on time: When the welder holds an arc between the electrode and the
work piece
Idling time: When welding equipment is ready for use but is not generating
an arc
Operating factor: The ratio of arc-on time to the total time worked, often
expressed as a percentage:

Work time: Convention is to assume total annual work time of 4000 hours
(two shifts).
Electrode Efficiency
The efficiency of an electrode is the mass of metal actually deposited
compared with the mass of that portion of the electrode consumed. It can
be expressed as:
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efficiency % =mass of metal deposited/mass of metal of the electrode
consumedx 100
With ordinary electrodes the efficiency varies from 75 to 95 % but with
electrodes containing metallic components in the covering the efficiency
can approach 200 %(e.g. electrodes containing iron powder).The electrodes
are marked with a 6 digit numeral associated by a prefix and a suffix. The
meaning of these and the various values are shown in figure .

Electrode specification-page 81 weld tech

Fig. Example of electrode designation according to ISO-2560

Figure Designation of manual metal arc welding electrode for mild steel
Arc Blow
When current flows through a conductor, it produces a magnetic flux that
circles around the conductor in perpendicular planes. The centres of the
flux circles are located at the centre of the conductor. The magnetic flux is
produced in the steel and across the arc gap. The arc column is mainly

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influenced by the lines of forces crossing the arc gap. As the weld joins the
pieces together, there is less and less chance that the magnetic field will
concentrate in the arc gap. As the weld is filling the gap of the joint, it
pushes the magnetic flux ahead of the arc. As long as the flux can travel,
no serious arc blow will interrupt the weld. When flux ceases to move, it
piles up and a magnetic field of considerable strength develops. The
buildup of the flux causes a deflection of arc column as it pills away from
this heavy concentration of magnetic forces. Ionized gases that carry the
arc from the end of electrode to the workpiece are acting as flexible
conductors. This concentration of flux that pulls the arc from its intended
path is called Arc Blow.

Spatter
At the conclusion of a weld small particles or globules of metal may
sometimes be observed
scattered around the vicinity of the weld along its length. This is known as
spatter and may occur through:
1. Arc blow making the arc uncontrollable.
2. The use of too long an arc or too high an arc voltage.
3. The use of excessive current.

Figure : Spatter
Duty cycle=
Power Efficiency
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Welding power sources draw power when idling. Efficiency is greater when
idling is reduced and the operating factor is close to 100 percent. The
higher the operating factor, the more efficient the process. The following
are ways to improve efficiency:
Use the most efficient welding process. Use gas metal arc welding
(GMAW) instead of shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). Typically, operating
factors for SMAW fall between 10 to 30 percent; operating factors for GMAW
fall between 30 to 50 percent.
Use multi-process inverter power sources. Modern inverter power sources
can be used for several welding processes and save time and effort when
switching processes. For example, the Miller XTM 304 can be used for
GMAW, FCAW, SMAW and GTAW.
Automate when possible. Manage repetitive operations by applying
advances in automation and computer programming.
Reduce idling time. Cut the time spent on pre-welding tasks such as
assembly, positioning, tacking and cleaning, and on follow-up operations,
such as slag removal and defect repair.
Power Source Performance
Certain characteristics determine the energy efficiency of power sources:
Power factor: Power factor is the ratio of real electrical power made
available by the welding power source for producing a welding arc (the
power you can use) to the "apparent" electrical power supplied by the
utility (the power you pay for). The older technology of transformer-rectifier
power sources can have power factors in the order of 75 percent; modern
inverter power sources have power factors close to 100 percent.
Arc-on power and idling power: Transformer-rectifier power sources use
more power in arc-on and idling modes than modern inverter power sources
do with the same output.
To compare the performance of power sources use the following formula:

COMMON ELECTRIC ARC WELDING PROCESSES

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

SMAW is a manual arc welding process in which the heat for welding is
generated by an electric arc between a flux-covered consumable electrode
and the work. Figure
shows a typical welding circuit for SMAW. The
electrode tip, arc, molten weld metal and the adjacent areas of the work
are protected from atmospheric contamination by the gaseous shield
produced by the combustion and decomposition of the electrode covering.
Additional shielding is provided for the molten weld metal by the molten
flux (or slag) that forms. Filler metal is supplied by the core wire of the
consumable electrode, or for certain electrode types, from metal powder
mixed with the electrode covering. Figure shows the operating principles
for the SMAW process.

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Advantages
1. SMAW is the simplest and most versatile of the arc welding
processes.
2. Thesimplicity and portability of SMAW equipment allow use of this
process in a wide variety of applications from refinery piping to cross
country pipelines, and even underwater to repair offshore structures.
3. SMAW can be used in any position or location that can be reached
with an electrode. Joints in blind areas can be welded, including the
back sides of pipes in restricted areas that are inaccessible for most
other welding processes, by using bent electrodes.
4. SMAW is used to join a wide variety of ferrous and nonferrous
materials including carbon and low alloy steels, stainless steels,
nickel based alloys, cast iron, and some copper alloys
5. SMAW is used to join a wide variety of ferrous and nonferrous
materials including carbon and low alloy steels, stainless steels,
nickel based alloys, cast iron, and some copper alloys.

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Disadvantages
1. Even though SMAW is a highly versatile process, it has several
characteristics that make the deposition rate lower than with semiautomatic or automatic processes
2.
Electrodes are of fixed length and welding must be stopped after each
electrode has
been consumed.
3. The stub of the electrode is lost, and time is lost for changing
electrodes.
4. The slag must be removed from the weld after each pass before
subsequent passes can be deposited. These steps lower welding
efficiency by about 50%.
5. Smoke and fumes present a problem with SMAW, and ventilation is
required in confined spaces.
6.
The view of the weld puddle is somewhat obscured by the protective
slag that covers the freezing weld metal and by the smoke.
7.
Extra welder skill is needed to make radiograph-quality welds in pipe
or plate when welded from one side.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
In gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), heat is generated by creating an arc,
in an inert shielding gas, between a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and
the work. GTAW melts the area of the work under the arc without melting
the tungsten electrode. Figure shows the equipment for GTAW. The GTAW
process can be used either manually or automatically. Filler metal can be
added to the weld by introducing a bare rod into the zone of the arc.
Welding techniques are similar to those for oxyfuel gas welding, but the arc
and molten puddle are shielded from the atmosphere by a blanket of inert
gas, usually argon, helium, or mixtures of these. Inert gas is fed through
the torch and around the tungsten. Welds produced with the GTAW process
have a smooth surface that is free of slag and low in hydrogen content. One
variation of the GTAW process (pulsed GTAW) uses a power source that
pulses the welding current. This permits a higher average current for better
penetration and weld puddle control, particularly on root passes. Pulsed
GTAW is especially useful for out-of-position pipe welding on stainless steel
and nonferrous materials such as nickel based alloys.

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GTAW has been adapted to automatic welding. Automation of the process

requires a programmed power source and controls, a wire feeder, and
machine guided travel. It has been used to make high quality tube-totubesheet seal welds and heat exchanger tube butt welds. Butt welding of
large diameter thick walled pipe at utility power plants is another
successful application of automatic GTAW. When GTAW uses automatic wire
feed it is also referred to as cold wire TIG. Another automatic version of
GTAW welding is called hot wire TIG, which has been developed to
compete with other, higher deposition rate, welding processes. With hot
wire TIG, the wire is resistance heated with low voltage AC current to
increase the deposition rate.
Advantages
1. The GTAW process produces high quality welds without slag in a
variety of ferrous and nonferrous materials.
2. With proper welding technique, all atmospheric contaminants are
excluded.
3. A major advantage of the process is that it can be used to make high
quality root passes from one side on a wide range of materials.
4. Consequently, GTAW is used extensively for pipe welding.
5. Welding current can be controlled over a wide range, from about 5 to
300 amps, providing greater ability to compensate for changing joint
conditions such as root gap. For example, on thin walled (below 0.20inch) pipe and sheet metal, the current can be adjusted low enough
to control penetration and prevent burn-through more easily than can
be done with processes that use coated electrodes. The lower speed
of travel as compared to SMAW provides better visibility and makes it
easier to control the weld metal during deposition and fusion.
Disadvantages
1. The main disadvantage of GTAW is its lower deposition rate compared
with other processes such as SMAW.

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2.

In addition, GTAW requires closer control of joint fit-up to produce

high quality welds from one side. GTAW also needs better joint
cleaning to remove oil, grease, rust, and other contaminants in order
to avoid porosity and other weld defects.
3.
GTAW must be carefully shielded from air movements above about
5 mph in order
to maintain the inert gas shield over the molten puddle.
Applications
1. GTAW is excellent for thin wall pipe and small diameter tubing of
stainless steel, nickel alloys, copper alloys, and aluminum.
2. On heavier wall piping, it is frequently used for the root pass on welds
requiring high quality, such as for high pressure, high temperature
hydrogen piping and return bends in furnace coils. It is also used for
root passes where a smooth inside diameter surface is required, such
as on
piping in acid service. Because of the inert gas protection of the weld and
excellent process control, GTAW is frequently used on reactive metals such
as titanium and magnesium.
GAS METAL ARC WELDING
MIG(GMAW)
Gas Metal Arc Welding is an arc welding process that uses the heat of an electric
arc established between a consumable metal electrode and the work to be welded.
The electrode is a bare metal wire that is transferred across the arc and into the
molten weld puddle. The wire, the weld puddle, and the area in the arc zone are
protected from the atmosphere by a gaseous shield. Inert gases, reactive gases, and
gas mixtures are used for shielding. The metal transfer mode is dependent on
shielding gas choice and welding current level. Figure 9 is a sketch of the process
showing the basic features
Gas metal arc welding is a versatile process that may be used to weld a wide
variety of metals including carbon steels, low alloy steels, stainless steels,
aluminum alloys, magnesium, copper and copper alloys, and nickel alloys. It can
be used to weld sheet metal or relatively heavy sections. Welds may be made in
all positions, and the process may be used for semiautomatic welding or
automatic welding. In semiautomatic welding, the wire feed speed, voltage,
amperage, and gas flow are all preset on the control equipment. The operator
needs merely to guide the welding gun along the joint at a uniform speed and
hold a relatively constant arc length. In automatic welding, the gun is mounted
on a travel carriage that moves along the joint, or the gun may be stationary with
the work moving or revolving beneath it.
Practically all GMAW is done using DCEP (Electrode positive). This polarity
provides deep penetration, a stable arc and low spatter levels. A small amount
of GMAW welding is done with DCEN and although the melting rate of the
electrode is high, the arc is erratic. Alternating current is not used for gas metal
arc welding.

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Current Density - To understand why gas metal arc welding can deposit weld metal
at a rapid rate, it is necessary that the term "current density" be understood.
Figure shows a 1/4" coated electrode and a 1/16" solid wire drawn to scale. Both
are capable of carrying 400 amperes. Notice that the area of the 1/16" wire is only
1/16 that of the core wire of the coated electrode. We can say that the current
density of the 1/16" wire is 16 times.

EQUIPMENT AND OPERATION - The equipment used for gas metal arc welding is
more complicated than that required for shielded metal arc welding. Initial cost is
relatively high, but the cost is rapidly amortized due to the savings in labor and
overhead achieved by the rapid weld metal deposition.

The equipment necessary for gas metal arc welding is listed below:
1) Power source
2) Wire feeder
3) Welding gun
4) Shielding gas supply
5) Solid electrode wire
6) Protective equipment

The
basic
equipment
necessary for semiautomatic
gas metal arc welding is shown in Figure .

SHIELDING GASES - In gas metal arc welding, there are a variety of

shielding gases that can be used, either alone or in combinations of varying
degrees. The choice is dependent on the type of metal transfer employed,
the type and thickness of metal.
carbon dioxide (CO2) is often used for short circuiting arc welding because
of its low cost.

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Mixing argon in proportions of 50-75% with carbon dioxide will produce a

smoother arc and reduce spatter levels
The 75% Argon/25 CO2 mixture is often chosen for short circuit welding of
thin sections, whereas the 50-50 combination works well on thicker section
Electrodes - The solid electrodes used in GMAW are of high purity when they
come from the mill. Their chemistry must be closely controlled and some types
purposely contain high levels of deoxidizers for use with CO 2 shielding.
The electrode manufacturer draws down the electrode to a finished
diameter that, with GMAW, is usually quite small. Diameters from .030"
thru 1/16" are common.
Most steel GMAW electrodes are copper plated as a means of protecting
the surface. The copper inhibits rusting, provides smooth feeding, and
helps electrical conductivity.

Advantages
o Faster than TIG
o Deeper penetration
o Both thick & thin jobs possible
o Easy to mechanize
o No flux
Disadvantages
o Complex
o Air drafts may disrupt the gas shielding
o Higher base metal cooling rates
o Not for outdoors
Applications
o Welding tool steels & dies
o Manufacturing refrigerator parts
o Aircraft, civil, automotive industry
o Non ferrous metals & their alloys

RESISTANCE WELDING
In resistance welding the metal parts to be joined are heated by their
resistance to the flow of an electrical current. Usually this is the only source
of heat, but a few of the welding operations combine resistance heating
with arc heating, and possibly with combustion of metal in the arc. The
process applies to practically all metals and most combinations of pure
metals and those alloys, which have only a limited plastic range, are
welded by heating the parts to fusion (melting). Some alloys, however, may
welded without fusion; instead, the parts are heated to a plastic state at
which the applied pressure causes their crystalline structures to grow
together. The welding of dissimilar metals may be accomplished by melting
both metals frequently only the metal with the lower melting point is
melted, and an alloy bond is formed at the surface of the un melted metal.
In resistance welding processes no fluxes are employed, the filler metal is
rarely used and the joints are usually of the lap type. The amount of heat
generated in the workpiece depend on the following factors:
(1) Magnitude of the current,
(2) Resistance of the current conducting path, and
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Mathematically, H = IVt
= I(IR)t
= I2Rt
Where H = heat generated in joules
I = current in Amp.
R = resistance in ohms
t = time of current flow in seconds.
17.7.1 Types of Resistance welding
The major types of resistance welding are given as under:
(1) Spot Welding
(2) Seam Welding
(3) Projection Welding
(4) Resistance Butt Welding
(5) Flash Butt Welding
(6) Percussion Welding
(7) High Frequency Resistance Welding
(8) High Frequency Induction Welding
Some of the above important welding processes are discussed as under,
17.7.1.1 Spot Welding
In this process overlapping sheets are joined by local fusion at one or more
spots, by the concentration of current flowing between two electrodes. This
is the most widely used resistance welding process. A typical resistance
spot welding machine is shown in Fig. 17.23. It essentially consists of two
electrodes, out of which one is fixed. The other electrode is fixed to a rocker
arm (to provide mechanical advantage) for transmitting the mechanical
force from a pneumatic cylinder. This is the simplest type of arrangement.
The other possibility is that of a pneumatic or hydraulic cylinder being
directly connected to the electrode without any rocker arm. For welding
large assemblies such as car bodies, portable spot welding machines are
used. Here the electrode holders and the pneumatic pressurizing system
are present in the form of a portable assembly which is taken to the place,
where the spot is to be made. The electric current, compressed air and the
cooling water needed for the electrodes is supplied through cables and
hoses from the main welding machine to the portable unit. In spot welding,
a satisfactory weld is obtained when a proper current density is maintained.
The current
density depends on the contact area between the electrode and the workpiece. With the continuous use, if the tip becomes upset and- the contact
area increases, the current density will be lowered and consequently the
weld is obtained over a large area. This would not be able to melt the metal
and hence there would be no proper fusion. A resistance welding schedule
is the sequence of events that normally take place in each of the welds.
The events are:
1. The squeeze time is the time required for the electrodes to align and
clamp the two
work-pieces together under them and provide the necessary electrical
contact.
2. The weld time is the time of the current flow through the work-pieces till
they are

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heated to the melting temperature.
3. The hold time is the time when the pressure is to be maintained on the
molten
metal without the electric current. During this time, the pieces are expected
to be
forged welded.
4. The off time is time during which, the pressure on the electrode is taken
off so that
the plates can be positioned for the next spot.

Spot welding electrodes

Spot welding electrodes are made of materials which have
(1) Higher electrical and thermal resistivities, and
(2) Sufficient strength to withstand high pressure at elevated temperatures.
Copper base alloys such as copper beryllium and copper tungsten are
commonly used
materials for spot welding electrodes. For achieving the desired current
density, It is important
to have proper electrode shape for which three main types of spot welding
electrodes are used
which are pointed, domed and flat electrodes.
Applications of Spot Welding
(i) It has applications in automobile and aircraft industries
(ii) The attachment of braces, brackets, pads or clips to formed sheet-metal
parts such
as cases, covers or trays is another application of spot welding.
(iii) Spot welding of two 12.5 mm thick steel plates has been done
satisfactorily as a
replacement for riveting.
(iv) Many assemblies of two or more sheet metal stampings that do not
require gas tight
or liquid tight joints can be more economically joined by spot welding than
by
mechanical methods.
(v) Containers and boxes frequently are spot welded.

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17.7.1.2 Resistance Seam Welding
It is a continuous type of spot welding wherein spot welds overlap each
other to the desired
extent. In this process coalescence at the faying surfaces is produced by
the heat obtained from
the resistance to electric current (flow) through the work pieces held
together under pressure
by circular electrodes. The resulting weld is a series of overlapping
resistance-spots welds made
progressively along a joint by rotating the circular electrodes. The principle
of seam welding is
shown in Fig. 17.24(a) and resistance seam welding process set up is shown
in Fig. . The
seam welding is similar to spot welding, except that circular rolling
electrodes are used to
produce a continuous air-tight seam of overlapping welds. Overlapping
continuous spot welds
seams are produced by the rotating electrodes and a regularly interrupted
current.

Applications
1. It is used for making leak proof joints in fuel tanks of automobiles.
2. Except for copper and high copper alloys, most other metals can be
seam welded.
3. It is also used for making flange welds for use in watertight tanks.
17.7.1.3 Resistance Projection Welding
Fig. shows the projection welding. This process is a resistance welding
process in which two or more than two spot welds are made simultaneously
by making raised portions or projections on predetermined locations on one
of the workpiece. These projections act to localize the heat of the welding
circuit. The pieces to be welded are held in position under pressure being
maintained by electrodes. The projected contact spot for welding should be
approximately equal to the weld metal
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thickness. The welding of a nut on the automotive chasis is an example of
projection welding.
Advantages and disadvantages of resistance welding
Advantages
Simple, low power requirements
High speed & low cost
Not hazardous, no extra material cost
Disadvantages
Only butt joint is possible
Molten metal expulsion i.e. flash needs to be removed
Very rigid machine is required
Applications
Combinations of metals can be welded
Production of shafts, gears & valves
Production of cutting tools & their bodies
Welding together the small forgings
17.8.2 Friction Welding
In this process, the heat for welding is obtained from mechanically induced
sliding motion between rubbing surfaces of work-pieces as shown in Fig.
17.27. In friction welding, one part is firmly held while the other (usually
cylindrical) is rotated under simultaneous application of axial pressure. As
these parts are brought to rub against each other under pressure, they get
heated due to friction. When the desired forging temperature is attained,
the rotation is stopped and the axial pressure is increased to obtain forging
action and hence welded joint. Most of the metals and their dissimilar
combinations such as aluminium and titanium, copper and steel, aluminium
and steel etc. can be welded using friction welding.

Friction welding process

Advantages

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Simple, low power requirements
High speed & low cost
Not hazardous, no extra material cost
Disadvantages
Only butt joint is possible
Molten metal expulsion i.e. flash needs to be removed
Very rigid machine is required
Applications
Combinations of metals can be welded
Production of shafts, gears & valves
Production of cutting tools & their bodies
Welding together the small forgings
Thermite Welding
Thermite welding (TW) (sometimes called thermit welding) is a process
which joins metals by heating them with super heated liquid metal from a
chemical reaction between a metal oxide and aluminum or other reducing
agent, with or without the application of pressure. Filler metal is obtained
from the liquid metal. The heat for welding is obtained from an exothermic
reaction or chemical change between iron oxide and aluminum. This
reaction is shown by the following formula:
8A1 + 3fe304 = 9Fe + 4A1203 + Heat
The temperature resulting from this reaction is approximately 2482C. The
super heated steel is contained in a crucible located immediately above the
weld joint. The exothermic reaction is relatively slow and requires 20 to 30
seconds, regardless of the amount of chemicals involved. The parts to be
welded are aligned with a gap between them. The super heated steel runs
into a mold which is built around the parts to be welded. Since it is almost
twice as hot as the melting temperature of the base metal, melting occurs
at the edges of the joint and alloys with the molten steel from the
crucible.Normal heat losses cause the mass of molten metal to solidify,
coalescence occurs, and the weld is completed. If the parts to be welded
are large, preheating within the mold cavity may be necessary to bring the
pats to welding temperature and to dry out the mold. If the parts are small,
preheating is often eliminated. The thermit welding process is applied only
in the automatic mode. Once the reaction is started, it continues until
completion.
Themite welding utilizes gravity, which causes the molten metal to fill the
cavity between the parts being welded. It is very similar to the foundry
practice of pouring a casting. The difference is the extremely high
temperature of the molten metal. The making of a thermit weld is shown in
figure . When the filler metal has cooled, all unwanted excess metal may
be removed by oxygen cutting, machining, or grinding. The surface of the
completed weld is usually sufficiently smooth and contoured so that it does
not require additional metal finishing.

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Thermite Welding Equipment (Tw)

Thermite material is a mechanical mixture of metallic aluminum and
processed iron oxide. Molten steel is produced by the thermite reaction in a
magnesite-lined crucible. At the bottom of the crucible, a magnesite stone
is burned, into which a magnesite stone thimble is fitted. This thimble
provides a passage through which the molten steel is discharged into the
mold. The hole through the thimble is plugged with a tapping pin, which is
covered with a fire-resistant washer and refractory sand. The crucible is
charged by placing the correct quantity of thoroughly mixed thermit
material in it. In preparing the joint for thermite welding, the parts to be
welded must be cleaned, alined, and held
firmly in place. If necessary, metal is removed from the joint to permit a
free flow of the thermite metal into the joint. A wax pattern is then made
around the joint in the size and shape of the intended weld. A mold made of
refractory sand is built around the wax pattern and joint to hold the molten
metal after it is poured. The sand mold is then heated to melt out the wax
and dry the mold. The mold should be properly vented to permit the escape
of gases and to allow the proper distribution of the thermite metal at the
joint. A thermite welding crucible and mold is shown in figure.

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Advantages
No costly power supply, on site repairs/welding is possible
Disadvantages
Economical for heavier sections & that too for ferrous
metals only.
Applications
Rail-road repairs
Repairing or welding of large crankshafts, machine
frames
Welding for cast pieces together
For replacing broken teeth on large gears

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