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Anna Kibort
1. What is 'aspect'
2. Expressions of 'aspect'
3. The status of 'aspect' as a feature
4. The values of 'aspect'
5. Oddly behaving aspect markers
6. Problem cases
7. Key literature
1. What is 'aspect'
The term 'aspect' designates the perspective taken on the internal temporal
organisation of the situation, and so 'aspects' distinguish different ways of viewing the
internal temporal constituency of the same situation (Comrie 1976:3ff, after Holt
1943:6; Bybee 2003:157). The 'situation' is meant here as general term covering
events, processes, states, etc., as expressed by the verb phrase or the construction.
Unlike tense, which is situation-external time, aspect is situation-internal and nondeictic, as it is not concerned with relating the time of the situation to any other time
point.
Aspectual meaning of a clause can be broken up into two independent aspectual
components (Smith 1991/1997):
Aspectual viewpoint - this is the temporal perspective from which the situation
is presented. An aspectual viewpoint can span an entire situation, as in the
perfective, or it can span only part of it, as in the imperfective.
The perfective indicates that the situation is to be viewed as a bounded whole,
looks at the situation from outside, without necessarily distinguishing any of its
internal structure. The imperfective looks at the situation from inside, or looks inside
its temporal boundaries, and it is crucially concerned with its internal temporal
structure. Perfectivity and imperfectivity are not objective properties of situations,
and so the same situation can be presented from either viewpoint. In
the English John read that book yesterday; while he was reading it, the postman
came, the different forms of the verb 'read' refer to the same situation of reading
(which in both cases is located in the past through the use of the appropriate tense),
but the situation is presented in two different ways, with a difference in aspect (see
4 for other possible aspectual viewpoints).
following table, based on Smith (1997:3, 20), provides a summary of situation types,
with typical examples from English (see also Vendler 1957/1967, Comrie 1976):
Situation type
Temporal properties
Examples
state
know the
answer, love Mary
activity
accomplishment
semelfactive
tap, knock
achievement
Aspectual meaning of a clause results from the interaction of aspectual viewpoint and
situation type. Hence, clauses expressing aspect can be referred to as
havingviewpoint aspect and situation aspect.
2. Expressions of 'aspect'
Aspectual characteristics are coded in a wide range of ways: lexical, derivational, or
inflectional; synthetic ('morphological') and analytic ('syntactic').
Verbs tend to have inherent aspectual meaning because the situations described by
them tend to have inherent temporal properties. Three types of lexicalaspectual
oppositions are frequently identified (see e.g. Comrie 1976:41-51; for an example of a
recent discussion of inherent aspect and temporal properties of situations, including an
overview of formal approaches, see Arsenijevi 2006):
Punctual and durative - these refer to situations which are not conceived of as
lasting in time (punctual), versus situations which are conceived of as lasting for a
certain period of time, however short it may be (durative). Inherently punctual
situations can be further interpreted as semelfactive (taking place only once) or
iterative (repeated). Many languages recognise a class of verbs that under normal
circumstances can only refer to punctual situations (or iteration of punctual
situations). However, semelfactive and iterative predicates are frequently
derivational. N.B. In Slavonic linguistics, the term semelfactive is often used to refer
to punctual situations irrespective of whether they are used iteratively or not.
2
Telic and atelic - these refer to situations which have an internal structure
consisting of a process leading up to the terminal point and the terminal point (telic),
versus situations which do not have an inherent endpoint (atelic). In this semantic
distinction, it is particularly clear that situations are not described by verbs alone, but
rather by the verb with its arguments (subject and objects), and it is in fact difficult to
find sentences that are unambiguously telic or atelic. The telic nature of a situation
can often be tested as follows (Comrie 1976:44-45): "if a sentence referring to this
situation in a form with imperfective meaning (such as the English Progressive)
implies the sentence referring to the same situation in a form with perfective
meaning (such as the English Perfect), then the situation is atelic; otherwise it is
telic. Thus from John is singing one can deduce John has sung, but from John is
making a chair one cannot deduce John has made a chair. Thus a telic situation is
one that involves a process that leads up to a well-defined terminal point, beyond
which the process cannot continue." N.B. The term 'telic situation' corresponds most
closely to Vendler's (1967:102) 'accomplishment'.
Stative and dynamic - roughly, these refer to situations which continue and do
not change over time (stative), versus situations which involve necessarily change
(dynamic). More precisely (Comrie 1976:49), with a state, unless something
happens to change that state, the state will continue (e.g. standing, or knowing).
With a dynamic situation, the situation will only continue if it is continually subject to
a new input of energy, whether from inside or from outside (e.g. running, or emitting
light). Since punctual situations inherently involve a change of state, they are always
dynamic. N.B. Sometimes the distinction between states and non-states is referred
to as 'states' and 'actions'. However, the term 'action' is also used in a more
restricted sense, for a dynamic situation that requires the involvement of an agent.
Similarly, the term 'event' is used to refer to a dynamic situation viewed perfectively,
and the term 'process' - to a dynamic situation viewed imperfectively.
Lexical aspectual meaning, or inherent meaning, is frequently referred to
as Aktionsart. However, in Slavonic linguistics, the term 'aspect' is often used to refer
to the grammaticalisation of a semantic aspectual distinction, while 'Aktionsart' - to the
lexicalisation of a semantic aspectual distinction by means of derivational morphology
(Comrie 1976:7). Hence, in Slavonic linguistics, Aktionsart (or, nain na dejstvie 'mode
of action') is the category that captures the regularities in the semantics of aspectual
prefixes: "Aktionsarten refer to those common meanings of verbs which are expressed
formally (through prefixes and suffixes) and modify the meaning of the source
unprefixed or unsuffixed verb with respect to the phase, the rate, or quantity of the
eventuality, and are semantically related to it" (Isaenko 1960, translated by and cited
in Popova 2006:12). The most common Aktionsarten are the iterative, the inceptive,
and the inchoative.
As was already mentioned above, perfectivity and imperfectivity obviously interact with
lexical aspectual meaning. The perfective involves lack of reference to the internal
temporal constituency of a situation, but it does not imply the lack of such internal
temporal constituency. Therefore, "it is quite possible for perfective forms to be used for
situations that are internally complex, such as those that last for a considerable period
of time, or include a number of distinct internal phases, provided only that the whole of
the situation is subsumed as a single whole" (Comrie 1976:21). Thus, while
semelfactive situations are necessarily perfective, punctual situations with iterative
interpretation can be imperfective, and perfective forms can refer to non-punctual
situations. As for the telic/atelic distinction, the semantic range of telic verbs is
restricted considerably when it is combined with the perfective/imperfective opposition.
Thus, a perfective form referring to a telic situation implies attainment of the endpoint of
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that situation, while imperfective forms carry no such implication, and imply rather that
the endpoint had not been reached at the time referred to (Comrie 1976:46). Finally, in
many languages all or some stative verbs do not have forms with perfective meaning.
However, since states can begin and end, in some languages states can be referred to
by forms with perfective meaning, in which case the interpretation involves the
inception and/or termination of the state.
Some of the lexical distinctions listed above may also be expressed
as derivational distinctions - for example, the Russian semelfactive formed with nu- (Comrie 1976:43). Bybee (1985:100) argues that the -nu- element should not be
analysed as a suffix, since the stems do not apparently occur without this element.
Rather, semelfactive in this case "has a mode of expression that is half-way between
lexical and derivational". After examining a stratified probability sample of 50 languages
of the world, Bybee concludes that while related aspectual notions may have more than
one expression type, there are some tendencies in the expression of aspectual notions
(the following table has been adapted from Bybee 1985:102):
Lexical
Derivational
telic/atelic
semelfactive
stative/dynamic
inceptive
iterative
Inflectional
perfective/imperfective
habitual/continuous
ngada
waa-n-da
wangarr-inja
1SG.NOM
sing-NMLZ-NOM
song-A_OBL
ngijin-maru-n-da
thabuju-maru-n-d
my-V_DAT-NMLZ-NOM
brother-V_DAT-NMLZ-NOM
The minimal set of aspectual values is two, with the most frequent opposition being
perfective versus imperfective. Many languages have a single category to express
imperfectivity, in some languages an aspectual category may correspond only to a part
of the meaning of imperfectivity, and in others imperfectivity may be subdivided into a
number of distinct categories. Comrie (1976:25) offers the following diagrammatic
representation of the most typical divisions within the set of aspectual values:
And English has a separate though optional habitual aspect, only in the past tense,
and a separate progressive. So, there is evidence for an aspectual opposition between
progressive and the class non-progressives, and a further opposition within the class of
non-progressives between habitual and non-habitual:
Finally, the category of aspect itself may be optional in some languages which have
grammaticalised aspectual distinctions. Specifically, there are aspectual systems which
allow sentences with no realisation of an aspect value (as in the French Future
tense; Navajo; and Chinese; Smith 1997:77-81). Such sentences are aspectually
vague, i.e. neither perfective nor imperfective, and "more flexible than either viewpoint
in that they allow both open and closed readings", though "the context often indicates
the favoured interpretation" (Smith 1997:78). Note that Smith suggests that, instead of
being analysed as lacking aspectual viewpoint, they should be analysed as having the
'neutral' viewpoint - a positive semantic value on a par with the perfective and the
imperfective, expressing flexibility and the inclusion of the initial endpoint of a situation
together with at least one internal stage (where applicable) (Smith 1997:3, 77-78).
Although, in general, aspects and tenses cross-classify, aspect and tense do
sometimes impinge on one another. For example, it is common for the perfective to be
restricted to past tense. For detailed discussion of some of the relationships between
aspect and tense in various languages, see Comrie (1976:66-78), Dahl (1985), and
Dahl & Velupillai (2005). For an account of aspect and time reference in tenseless
languages, see Comrie (1976:82-84) and Smith (2005). Examples of such languages
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include Yoruba and Igbo, spoken in Nigeria; Salishan languages of Northern America e.g. Lillooet; see also Mandarin Chinese, Thai and someMayan languages - none of
which have strictly temporal inflections of particles; and Navajo and other Athabaskan
languages - which have optional tense markers.
It is common to find in traditional grammars of many languages aspects and tenses not
distinguished from each other, labels for tenses indicating that they capture aspectual
distinctions, and the various types of imperfectivity mislabelled or misgrouped.
However, in some languages, grouping tenses and aspects into combined categories is
justified. Some tense/aspect combinations are found in familiar languages such
as Romance or Slavonic. In Arabic there are two sets of forms, referred to variously
as aspects, tenses, or states, and distinguished either as Perfect and Imperfect, or as
Perfective and Imperfective (Comrie 1976:78-81); andMandarin Chinese has a similar
opposition to that in Arabic, with one set of forms bearing the past perfective aspectual
suffix -le (Comrie 1976:81-82; but see also 5 below). In Kartvelian languages
(e.g. Georgian, Svan, Laz), where tense and aspect meanings combine with mood to
form complex paradigms, the combinations of tense, aspect and mood values have
traditionally been referred to as 'screeves' (see the 'Screeve' entry of this Inventory).
ngada
warra-ja
1.SG.NOM (5)
ngadago-ACT
'I am going/have gone
to the beach.'
1.SG.NOM
(6)
ngada
ngarn-kir
warra-ju
beach-ALL ngarn-kiring-ku
go-POT
beach-ALL-MPROP
1.SG.NOM (7)
goPST
ngada
'I went to the beach.'
1.SG.NOM
beach-ALL-MABL
warra-da
ngarn-kiring-inj
go-DES
beach-ALL-MOBL
'past' verb inflection express 'prior occurrence'; and the oblique and the 'desiderative'
verb inflection express strong emotion (in this instance desire) towards the event. The
allative may also be used modally, as in (5), to express 'that the event is spatially
oriented towards the speaker, or that it is just beginning, or just coming into the
speaker's awareness' (Evans 1995:108). Butt (2006:10) notes that "this phenomenon is
not confined to Australian languages, but that languages like Finnish have also been
implicated in this type of case usage" (see e.g. Comrie 1976:8 on the use of accusative
versus partitive case of the direct object in Finnish that corresponds to an aspectual
difference).
6. Problem cases
Non-aspectual derivational morphemes misclassified as aspects. It is common to
find in grammars a variety of derivational morphemes listed as aspects. However,
Bybee (1985:151-152) argues that frequently they do not qualify as aspects, since they
do not modify the temporal contour of a situation. The suffix in Tiwi(Australian) which
means 'to do something while moving about' is classified as an aspect (Osborne 1974),
but conceptually it does not fit in with aspect, and indeed, it co-occurs rather than
contrasts with the other aspects of Tiwi. Similarly, Quileute (a Chimakuan language of
Northern America) has a morpheme that indicates a 'sudden jerking action',
and Nicobarese (an Austro-Asiatic, Mon-Khmer language spoken in the region of
Nicobar Islands in India) has a morpheme that signals 'completed action, with the goal
destroyed, and the action taking place in the direction of the jungle', and many
languages (e.g. Yukaghir spoken in Yakutia and the Kamchatka Peninsula) have a
'diminutivising' morpheme that means 'do something a little'. None of these, argues
Bybee, are aspectual, as these meanings do not express the temporal contour of the
situation. Furthermore, in Songhai (a Nilo-Saharan language spoken in
Mali), Maasai (a
Nilo-Saharan
language
spoken
in
Kenya), Vietnamese and Tongan (Malayo-Polynesian) 'diminutive' meaning can be
expressed by reduplication. However, in none of these languages is it the only meaning
signalled by reduplication.
Is English Progressive an expression of progressive aspect? The English
Progressive form has a number of specific uses that do not seem to fit under the
general definition of progressiveness given in 4 above. That is, it can be used to refer
to a temporary state or to a habitual situation that holds for a relatively limited period,
and it can also have some purely idiosyncratic uses. For argumentation that English
may be developing from a restricted use of the Progressive, always with progressive
meaning, to a more extended meaning range of the Progressive indicating a contingent
situation, see Comrie (1976:32-40).
What is the difference between the perfective and the perfect? The perfective is a
type of aspect and it is concerned with a particular way of representing the internal
temporal constitution of a situation. The perfect tells us nothing directly about the
situation itself, but is typically understood as relating some state to a preceding
situation (e.g. Comrie 1976:52), which makes it closer in meaning to tense than to
aspect.
In the analysis of tense offered in this Inventory (see the 'Tense' entry), tense
dinstinctions result from the different possibilities of arranging three points in time on
the time line: the time of speech (S), the time of the event (E), and the reference point
(R). The maximum number of absolute tense meanings created by the different
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arrangements of these points (i.e. tenses that involve only one set of points {S,E,R}) is
13. These include three simple tenses (where R=E), five anterior tenses (where E < R),
and five posterior tenses (where R < E). The anterior tense meanings and the posterior
tense meanings share the characteristic of R E, which can be seen as the
conceptualisation of the category of the 'perfect'. The perfect is typically used "to
express events that took place before the temporal reference point but which have an
effect on or are in some way still relevant at that point" (Dahl & Velupillai 2005:271), so
it is E < R ('anterior'), as in the English I have seen John. The meaning represented as
R < E ('posterior') describes a present situation which is looked at from the reference
point located in the past. This meaning is compatible with situations that started in the
past but continue (persist) into the present, as in the English I have known him since
1996, or I have lived here for ten years. Many languages group the latter ('posterior')
meaning together with the present tense, but English groups it together with the
'anterior' meaning, with the resulting Perfect tense in English covering both. For other
languages using Perfect to mean 'present plus past', see Comrie (1976:106-108). For
discussion of the different uses of the 'anterior' perfect (i.e. perfect of result,
experiential perfect, and perfect of recent past), see Comrie (1976:56-61).
Although the 'perfect' can be analysed as a tense, it may also be understood as a
category intermediate between tense and aspect, overlapping both.
7. Key literature
Smith, Carlota. 2005. Time with and without tense. Paper presented at the
International Round Table on Tense and Modality, Paris, December 2005. Available
at: http://uts.cc.utexas.edu/~carlota/papers/Paris%20article%208-18-06.pdf
REFERENCES
Arsenijevi, Boban. 2006. Inner Aspect and Telicity. The Decompositional and
the Quantificational Nature of Eventualities at the Syntax-Semantics Interface.PhD
thesis,
Leiden
University.
Available
at: http://www.lotpublications.nl/publish/articles/002013/bookpart.pdf
Butt, Miriam. 2006. Theories of Case. Cambridge: CUP.
Bybee, Joan L. 1985. Morphology. A Study of the Relation between Meaning
and Form. (Typological Studies in Language 9). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. (5.1
The expression of aspect - pp. 100-102; Ch.6 Aspect - pp. 141-153)
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Bybee, Joan L. 2003. Aspect. In: Frawley, W.J. (ed.) International Encyclopedia
of Linguistics. Second Edition. Oxford: OUP. 157-158.
Dahl, Osten & Viveka Velupillai. 2005. Tense and aspect. In: Haspelmath,
Martin, Matthew S. Dryer, David Gil & Bernard Comrie (eds) The World Atlas of
Language Structures (WALS). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 266-272.
Constituency
in
Mandarin
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Smith, Carlota. 2005. Time with and without tense. Paper presented at the
International Round Table on Tense and Modality, Paris, December 2005. Available
at: http://uts.cc.utexas.edu/~carlota/papers/Paris%20article%208-18-06.pdf
Vendler, Zeno. 1967. Verbs and times. In: Vendler, Zeno. Linguistics in
Philosophy. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. 97-121. (Revised version of
Vendler, Zeno. 1957. Verbs and times. The Philosophical Review 66:143-60.)
russkuju
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