A Better Investment in Luxury Restaurants. Environmental or Non-Evironmental

International Journal of Hospitality Management 39 (2014) 5770
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
International Journal of Hospitality Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhosman
A better investment in luxury restaurants: Environmental or

non-environmental cues?
Sunghyup Sean Hyun a,1 , Juhee Kang b,
a
b
Department of Tourism and Convention, Pusan National University, Jangjeon-Dong, San 30, Kumjung-Gu, Busan 609-735, South Korea
Department of Hospitality Services, University of Central Florida, Rosen College of Hospitality Management, United States
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Keywords:
MehrabianRussell model
Arousal
Pleasure
Motivational orientation
Hedonism
Restaurant environment
Behavioral intention
Luxury restaurant
a b s t r a c t
The purposes of this study were (1) to examine the impact of environmental and non-environmental
cues on patrons emotional responses and (2) to examine the inuence of emotions on patrons behavioral intentions, as moderated by motivational orientation and hedonism. Based on a thorough literature
review, 11 theoretical hypotheses were proposed and a structural model was developed. The model
was then tested using data collected from 379 actual luxury restaurant patrons residing in the United
States. According to the results of data analysis, it was revealed that both environmental and nonenvironmental cues induce patrons arousal in the luxury restaurant setting; however, environmental
cues have a stronger impact on arousal than do non-environmental cues. More importantly, among the
various environmental cues, ambient conditions were found to be the most powerful element that drives
patrons arousal. Data analysis also revealed the positive effect of arousal on pleasure and the positive
effect of pleasure on behavioral intentions. Thus, it can be interpreted that arousal is a required condition
in inducing patrons pleasure. The moderating roles of motivational orientation and hedonism were also
supported. Theoretical and practical implications based on the ndings are discussed in the latter part of
the study.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Patrons emotional responses have long been an important topic
in restaurant marketing research (e.g. Han et al., 2010; Kim and
Lee, 2010; Lee et al., 2009; Mattila and Ro, 2008). Customer surveys commonly nd that large percentages of revisiting patrons are
patrons who had positive emotional responses (e.g. pleasure and
arousal) during previous visits (Han et al., 2009; Jang and Namkung,
2009; Kim and Moon, 2009). It has also been argued that positive emotional responses signicantly increase patrons perceived
value (Hyun et al., 2011) and satisfaction levels (Lin and Mattila,
2010; Mattila and Ro, 2008), thus helping to create patron loyalty
(Bowden and Dagger, 2011; Lee et al., 2009).
For these reasons, factors inducing positive emotional responses
have been an issue of great importance in the restaurant industry.
Mehrabian and Russells (1974) MR model theorizes that environmental cues play a critical role in inducing an individuals emotional
responses. For instance, a restaurants lighting, background music,
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 407 903 8138.

E-mail addresses: shyun@pusan.ac.kr (S.S. Hyun), Juhee.Kang@ucf.edu (J. Kang).
1
Tel.: +82 51 510 1856; fax: +82 51 512 1853.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2014.02.003
0278-4319/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
temperature, food aromas, interior decorating, and layout induce

patrons positive or negative emotional responses, thus inuencing
the overall dining experience and revisit intentions. However, our
understanding of the mechanisms by which environmental cues
induce patrons positive emotions is relatively weak in the restaurant industry. The current restaurant literature focuses heavily
on the impact of non-environmental cues (such as food quality,
service quality, price, and location) on patrons satisfaction and
revisit intentions (e.g. Chow et al., 2007; Hyun, 2010; Law et al.,
2008). Considering that a luxury restaurant is a specialized type of
restaurant operation that invests relatively high expenditures on a
superior physical environment (Kim et al., 2006, 2011), investigating the role of environmental cues on emotional responses in the
luxury restaurant setting is an issue of great importance.
However, luxury restaurant owners/managers do not currently
have a practical model demonstrating the link between a restaurants environmental and non-environmental cues and patrons
emotional responses. Therefore, upper-level luxury restaurant
personnel have been under constant pressure to nd more
effective investments that can induce patrons positive emotions. Specically, it is critical to determine whether investment
in environmental cues (e.g. lighting, furniture, interior decoration, renovations) or non-environmental cues (e.g. food quality
58
S.S. Hyun, J. Kang / International Journal of Hospitality Management 39 (2014) 5770
improvements, service quality improvements, and pricing strategies) is more effective.

Therefore, the purpose of this research was to simultaneously
examine the impact of both environmental and non-environmental
cues on patrons emotional responses in order to provide investment guidelines for luxury restaurant owners and managers.
During the research process, it was also hypothesized that patrons
emotional responses could be strengthened and/or weakened by
their dining motivation, which refers to motivational orientation.
Lastly, since a large number of luxury restaurant patrons seek
hedonic benets from their luxury dining experiences (Hwang and
Hyun, 2012), this study also theoretically proposes the moderating
role of hedonism.
In summary, the purposes of this study were (1) to examine the
impact of environmental and non-environmental cues on patrons
emotional responses and (2) to examine the inuence of emotion
on patrons behavioral intentions, as moderated by motivational
orientation and hedonism.
he or she is situated (Lazarus, 1991). Similarly, in the restaurant context, patrons dining out experiences/evaluations should
theoretically be inuenced by their cognitive appraisal of environmental cues consisting of dcor and artifacts, spatial layout,
and ambient conditions (Han and Ryu, 2009; Jang and Namkung,
2009; Ryu and Jang, 2007). The existing literature supports the
theory that non-environmental store-choice criteria induce customers emotions, thus inuencing behavioral intentions (Jang and
Namkung, 2009; Walsh et al., 2011). In the restaurant context,
non-environmental criteria typically involve four elements: food
quality, service quality, price, and location (Hyun, 2010; Soriano,
2002).
Based on the above discussion, it can be theorized that both environmental cues and non-environmental cues positively inuence
patrons emotional responses. More specially, this study postulated
and tested the impact of such predictors on arousal, which is a
required condition for the pleasure (Kaltcheva and Weitz, 2006).
2.2. Restaurant environmental cues
2. Literature review
2.1. The MR model
The MR model (1974) theorized that environmental stimuli
inuence an individuals behavioral intentions, with the impact
mediated by emotional responses (Mehrabian and Russel, 1974).
According to the existing literature on emotion, an individuals
experience of emotion is a multi-dimensional construct composed
of two sub-dimensions: (1) pleasure and (2) arousal (Walsh et al.,
2011; Jang and Namkung, 2009). Pleasure refers to the degree of
an individuals feeling in a situation (e.g. happy, joyful, or good),
whereas arousal refers to the degree to which an individual feels
excited, stimulated, or active in a situation (Ladhari, 2007).
In the history of emotion research, arousal is the rst emotional response that an individual has when facing a certain
situation (Bagozzi et al., 1999; Lazarus, 1982). Accordingly, emotion
researchers have postulated that arousal occurs prior to pleasure
(e.g. Kaltcheva and Weitz, 2006). This causal relationship between
arousal and pleasure will be further explained in the later section
of behavioral intentions (the consequence of emotional responses).
Environmental stimuli include various physical cues such as
design, music, layout, and dcor (Koo and Kim, 2013). According
to the MR model, when customers are exposed to such environmental stimuli, they experience emotional responses (i.e. pleasure,
arousal), particularly in the hedonic consumption that relates to
positively emotive aspects of the consumption experience (Lucas,
2003; Ryu and Jang, 2007). Consequently, such emotional responses
lead to behavioral intentions (Hyun et al., 2011). Due to the critical impact of environmental stimuli on customers emotions and
behavioral intentions, a large number of studies have examined
the role of in-store environmental cues in retail settings (e.g.
Spangenberg et al., 2005; Sweeney and Wyber, 2002; Yalch and
Spangenberg, 2000).
Expanding the MR model, Baker et al. (2002) investigated
the role of non-environmental stimuli in the formation of customers emotional responses and behavioral intentions. According
to their study, an individuals emotional response is determined by
two categories of store-related cognitions: (1) store environmental
cues and (2) store-choice criteria that relate to non-environmental
cues. Walsh et al.s (2011) study further supports this argument. They empirically veried that both environmental and
non-environmental cues signicantly inuence customer emotions
and behavioral intentions.
According to the cognitive appraisal theory, a persons subjective evaluation is inuenced by the environmental cues in which
Han and Ryu (2009) emphasized the critical role of environment in inuencing patron behaviors in the restaurant industry.
Restaurant environment is dened as the physical surroundings
established by and controlled by the restaurateurs (Kim and Moon,
2009). Because patrons are consciously and/or unconsciously inuenced by their physical surroundings throughout their dining
experiences (e.g. before, during, and after their meals), an attractive restaurant environment affects overall patron satisfaction and
future behaviors (Han and Ryu, 2009; Lin, 2004). Moreover, when
patrons make dining-out decisions, they consider the physical surroundings of a restaurant as much as the food and service (Lee et al.,
2008). Thus, a comfortable, creative, and innovative store design in
a restaurant is a key component in inducing positive evaluations
and emotional responses and consequently in inuencing ongoing
patronage (Ryu and Han, 2011; Wu and Liang, 2009).
Ryu and Jang (2007) examined the effects of restaurant environmental cues on patrons emotions in upscale restaurants. Their
study employed ve DINESCAPE constructs that included only
internal environmental cues: facility esthetics, lighting, ambience,
layout, and dining equipment. Jang and Namkung (2009) employed
space, design, color, and music as the elements of restaurant
environmental cues in full-service restaurants. Integrating those
previous studies and using the luxury restaurant setting, Han and
Ryu (2009) comprehensively proposed three essential constructs of
restaurant environmental cues: (1) dcor and artifacts, (2) spatial
layout, and (3) ambient conditions. The three constructs have been
identied as key signals that determine restaurant environment
quality (Kim and Moon, 2009; Wall and Berry, 2007). Since Han and
Ryu (2009) comprehensively integrated sufcient measurements
for the physical environment, which are pertinent to the luxury
restaurant industry (which is the boundary of the present study),
this study employed the environmental cues of dcor and artifacts,
spatial layout, and ambient conditions to measure the effects of
such cues in the luxury restaurant context.
2.2.1. Dcor and artifacts
Dcor and artifacts are the essential components for generating the attractiveness of the physical environment in restaurant
settings (Mattila and Wirtz, 2001; Nguyen and Leblanc, 2002).
Restaurant customers consciously and/or subconsciously evaluate
the pleasant environment of a restaurant through tangible cues
such as the quality of construction materials, artwork, and interior
designs and decorations (Han and Ryu, 2009; Ryu and Jang, 2007).
More specically, these tangible cues include the color schemes
of the dining area, ceiling/wall decorations, pictures/paintings,
plants/owers, tableware (e.g. glass and silverware), linens (e.g.
table cloths and napkin), oor coverings, and quality furniture (e.g.
dining table and chair) (Han and Ryu, 2009, p. 490). Customers
consider these cues when evaluating their overall experiences at a
restaurant because they help create a positive image of the restaurant and give an esthetic impression to the customers (Martinez
and Martinez, 2007).
2.2.2. Spatial layout
Spatial layout refers to the arrangement of objects such as
machinery, equipment, and furnishings, the size and shape of the
objects, and the spatial relationships among those objects (Nguyen
and Leblanc, 2002). In restaurants, various objects (tables, seats,
aisles, food service lines, restrooms, etc.) are designed and arranged
to enhance the service delivery process (Kim and Moon, 2009).
The effectively designed spatial layout of a physical environment
is important in achieving customer satisfaction because it fullls
functional needs and gives a sense of comfort to customers (Kim and
Moon, 2009; Wakeeld and Blodgett, 1994). Moreover, an effective layout prevents customers from feeling crowded by providing
ample space that enables customers to move around and sit in comfort (Kim and Moon, 2009). Thus, a positive perception of spatial
layout can help customers experience a sense of coziness and intimacy and can consequently evoke positive emotional responses to
the environment (Lin, 2004).
2.2.3. Ambient conditions
Ambient conditions refer to intangible background characteristics that inuence the subconscious evaluation of an environment
(Han and Ryu, 2009; Nguyen and Leblanc, 2002). The elements
of ambient conditions include temperature, lighting, noise, music,
and scent (Han and Ryu, 2009). For example, a pleasantly scented
environment can result in more positive customer perceptions and
evaluations than an unscented environment (Morrison et al., 2011).
Musical style and the physical dimensions of music (e.g. tempo,
rhythm, pitch, and volume) have also been shown to have a signicant impact on restaurant customers behaviors (Mattila and
Wirtz, 2001). When these ambient conditions provide a pleasant
atmosphere within the service facility, customers are more likely
to exhibit positive behaviors such as a desire to stay longer and to
spend more (Han and Ryu, 2009; Nguyen and Leblanc, 2002).
2.3. Non-environmental cues in restaurant selection
In addition to environmental cues, restaurant patrons use various sets of other attributes when selecting a restaurant (Johns and
Pine, 2002). In the history of restaurant marketing research, different scholars have proposed various attributes to explain restaurant
patron behavior, but it is widely accepted that four attributes are
critical determinants of patrons dining experiences: (1) food quality, (2) service quality, (3) price, and (4) location (Hyun, 2010;
Raajpoot, 2002; Soriano, 2002).
2.3.1. Food quality
Previous studies have reported that food quality is the absolute
determinant in evaluating a restaurant experience for the fundamental reason that patrons expect that their dining out experiences
should satisfy hunger (Lo and Lam, 2004; Peri, 2006). In numerous
studies, food quality has been evaluated based on various determinants such as taste, freshness, appealing presentation, healthy
components, and appropriate temperature (Acebron and Dopico,
2000; Namkung and Jang, 2008). With regard to food quality, food
and beverages were the major components to determine the quality
of a dining experience (Lo and Lam, 2004; Sulek and Hensley, 2004).
As customers become knowledgeable about products and services
at restaurants, various primary attributes that inuence restaurant
selection have been proposed in different studies; for example, the
59
taste of food (Namkung and Jang, 2007) and the variety of food
choice (Ha and Jang, 2010).
2.3.2. Service quality
Considerable research has reported the importance of service
quality in the restaurant selection process because the interaction between customers and service employees affects customer
evaluation of the dining experience (Jang and Namkung, 2009).
According to Brady and Robertson (2001), such interaction includes
service employees responsiveness, assurance, and empathy while
providing services. As the Stevens et al. (1995) DINESERV dimensions suggested, responsiveness refers to staff assistance in
accommodating customers needs and requests pertaining to menu
items and wine selections. Assurance relates to customer condence in the staffs recommendations on menu items, safe feelings
that food has been prepared safely, and the ability to express
concerns without fear. Empathy indicates personalized attention
to customers by offering assistance with special dietary requirements or by showing sympathy for customers moods and emotions
(Stevens et al., 1995). For example, a service employees attention
to when to serve the next course is a factor of service quality (Wall
and Berry, 2007). Service quality implies a restaurants promise to
provide a standard of service, including service employees responsiveness to customer needs and requests, individualized attention
to customers, and willingness to provide prompt service and help
customers (Namkung and Jang, 2008).
2.3.3. Price
Along with food quality, price also has been a key criterion in
the restaurant selection process that inuences customer behavior (Law et al., 2008). Price has been suggested as a tool to attract
and retain customers, as does improved food quality (Hyun, 2010).
A reasonable price can positively inuence customer evaluations
of dining experiences (Andaleeb and Conway, 2006), whereas an
inated price (compared to the quality of food/service) can negatively affect customers future decisions to revisit (Kim et al., 2006).
2.3.4. Location
Restaurant location is another factor that customers consider
in their restaurant selection decision-making processes (Tzeng
et al., 2002; Yuksel and Yuksel, 2002). According to Soriano (2002),
restaurant customers consider the accessibility of a restaurant
when they decide to dine out. The primary reason for this can be
explained by customers desire to save time in travel (Heung, 2003).
In many studies, a convenient location has been found to be an inuential factor in generating satisfaction and determining behavioral
intentions (Law et al., 2008; Yuksel and Yuksel, 2002).
2.4. Restaurant environmental cues and arousal
Restaurant patrons consider various environmental factors
when they evaluate dining out experiences (Hansen, 2005). In many
cases, customer revisit/repurchase decisions are made based on
evaluations of the physical environment. For instance, customers
decide whether to stay longer and/or spend more when they feel
positive responses (e.g. excitement, arousal) to a store environment
(Mattila and Wirtz, 2008). Along these lines, Kaltcheva and Weitz
(2006) identied environmental cues as arousal-inducing features
that lead to positive behavioral intentions. Mattila and Wirtzs
(2001) empirical study further supports the impact of environmental cues on arousal inducement. Therefore, feelings of arousal
can be evoked as a result of the evaluation of environmental cues
(Sweeney and Wyber, 2002; Yalch and Spangenberg, 2000). Based
on previous studies, three hypotheses are proposed below.
According to Wakeeld and Baker (1998), the overall design
and dcor of the physical environment inuences the form of
60
excitement experienced by customers. Ryu and Jang (2007) emphasized the role of the color schemes of restaurant settings. Different
colors cause different emotional responses and feelings in a dining
site (Lin, 2004). Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H1. Dcor and artifacts have a positive and signicant effect on
patrons arousal in a restaurant.
An optimal spatial layout expedites the exploration of the
service environment and stimulates the emotional responses of
customers (Ryu and Jang, 2007). Inseparability addresses simultaneous production and consumption that emphasizes consumer
involvement in the service process. In other words, a customers
dining experience can be inuenced by other customers (Kotler
et al., 1993). For example, customers typically experience stress
when the layout of a service setting is crowded (Hui and Bateson,
1990). Poor spatial layout results in negative emotional responses
such as embarrassment, feelings of neglect, and avoidance (Ang
et al., 1997). Based on the discussions, providing sufcient space
between tables and seats in a luxury restaurant has a considerable impact on positive emotional responses (Kim and Moon,
2009). If customers cannot easily pass through aisles and navigate
around in a restaurant, their dining experiences may induce negative emotional responses. Luxury restaurants can increase the level
of arousal to the service environment by providing ample space
between tables and seats (Wakeeld and Blodgett, 1994). Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis:
H2. Spatial layout has a positive and signicant effect on patrons
arousal in a restaurant.
Affective responses occur when evaluating the servicescape
ambiance (e.g. music, aromas, and ambient temperature), which
generates an overall impression of a store and its service levels
(Sweeney and Wyber, 2002; Yalch and Spangenberg, 2000). Walsh
et al. (2011) investigated the effects of store environment on customer emotions (i.e. arousal and pleasure). A direct link between
music (a component of store environmental cues) and arousal was
identied, which indicated that customers feel good or get excited
when listening to pleasant music (e.g. Kellaris and Kent, 1993;
Vanderark and Ely, 1993). Russell and Pratt (1980) found that rooms
with specic types of atmospheres can arouse particular emotional
states in customers. The result of Lins (2010) experimental study
indicated that positive arousal occurs when hotel guests experience an ambience in hotel rooms that they perceive as similar to
that of their preconceived expectations toward the hotel room. In
the restaurant industry, all ambient conditions such as pleasant
scents, pleasing music, comfortable temperature, low noise levels, and adequate lighting create a synergy effect in generating
favorable perceptions of the restaurant and resulting in a positive
experience. Ryu and Jang (2007) found the essential role of ambience in inducing arousal from dining experiences. Accordingly, the
following hypothesis is proposed:
H3. Ambient conditions have a positive and signicant effect on
patrons arousal in a restaurant.
2.5. Non-environmental cues and arousal
In a restaurant setting, many stimuli play signicant roles in
inuencing customers emotional responses (Parsa et al., 2005).
Jang and Namkung (2009) identied the quality of food and service
as intangible features of restaurants that trigger customer emotions. Food quality is a critical factor that can induce patrons
positive emotional responses and future behaviors (Law et al.,
2008; Raajpoot, 2002). Wall and Berry (2007) found that service
quality is the most powerful dimension in affecting customers
positive dining experiences at table-service restaurants, while Jang
and Namkung (2009) found a positive relationship between service

quality and customer emotions in a full-service restaurant. Particularly in a luxury restaurant, where customers expect a high quality
of food and service can make customers more likely to experience
arousal when receiving their expected dining experiences. Based
on the discussion above, the following hypotheses are proposed:
H4. Food quality has a positive and signicant effect on patrons
H5. Service quality has a positive and signicant effect on patrons
Price and restaurant location have been identied as tangible cues for evaluating customer experiences at a restaurant (Han
and Ryu, 2009). Due to the intangible nature of service, customer
experiences at a restaurant vary depending on expectations and
evaluations of restaurant products/services. In this situation, customers tend to use price as a tangible cue in assessing the quality
of products and in making purchase decisions (Mattila and ONeill,
2003). Because customers do not know the actual cost of a specic product/service, they subjectively interpret the price set by
the restaurant in a meaningful way, such as a good value for the
money (Han and Ryu, 2009). For example, restaurant customers
are likely to show positive emotional responses when receiving
good service at a reasonable price (Namkung and Jang, 2010). Coffee
shop customers were aroused by lower prices, especially when they
were lower than their reference prices, which in turn, evoke arousal
responses (Walsh et al., 2011). Based on the discussion above, the
following hypothesis is proposed:
H6. Price has a positive and signicant effect on patrons arousal
in a restaurant.
In many restaurant studies, a convenient location has been a crucial attribute in restaurant evaluation (e.g. Tzeng et al., 2002; Yuksel
and Yuksel, 2002). Barsky and Nash (2003) found that a convenient
location gives customers a feeling of comfort. However, in the case
of a full-service restaurant, customers are willing to travel greater
distances for excellent food and service (Eliwa, 2006). If a restaurant is in a unique location, traveling a long distance may not be
a concern to customers who seek the experience of the favorable
environment in which the restaurant is situated (e.g. overlooking a
lake or golf course). Since location relates to environmental perceptions (Yksel, 2007), the effect of location on restaurant evaluation
can be inuenced by emotional responses such as feelings of alertness and excitement. Thus, the following hypotheses are proposed:
H7. Location has a positive and signicant effect on patrons
2.6. Behavioral intentions: the consequence of emotional
responses (arousalpleasure)
Empirical studies support the causal relationship between
arousal and pleasure. In other words, it is theorized that arousal
is a required condition for the formation of pleasure. For instance,
Ladhari (2007) examined the causal relationship between customers arousal and pleasure using the empirical data collected
from 470 moviegoers. Their structural equation modeling results
revealed that arousal signicantly inuences pleasure levels, which
in turn positively inuence customer satisfaction and word of
mouth. Mattila and Wirtz (2000) further emphasized the role of
arousal as an amplier of pleasure on post-consumption assessment. They analyzed the empirical data collected from the four
service settings: (1) a beauty center, (2) a dental clinic, (3) a
roller-coaster ride, and (4) a passport section of an immigration
department. In addition to the above studies, the causal relationship between arousal and pleasure has been further supported
by several empirical studies (e.g. Bign et al., 2005; Chebat and

Michon, 2003). However, this causal relationship (between arousal,
pleasure, and behavioral intentions) has never been tested in previous restaurant studies. In fact, the majority of existing restaurant
studies has dichotomized restaurant patrons emotional responses
into two sub-dimensions: (1) positive emotions and negative emotions (see Lee et al., 2009; Liu and Jang, 2009a; Jang and Namkung,
2009; Jang et al., 2011). Some restaurant studies have dichotomized
emotion into (1) pleasure and (2) arousal; however, those studies
concluded that arousal plays a moderating role in the relationship between pleasure and behavioral intentions (see Hyun et al.,
2011). Our study is the rst research to propose the causal relationship between arousal, pleasure, and behavioral intentions in
the restaurant context. This route has never been tested in previous
restaurant studies. Based on the MR model (which posits the effect
of environmental stimuli on emotions and behaviors), we have
proposed the causal relationship, which differentiates the present
study from other existing restaurant studies. This study adopted
the arousalpleasure route based on the existing theoretical and
empirical backgrounds. In a luxury restaurant setting, customers
who feel high arousal in response to an innovative restaurant environment are likely to exhibit high pleasure during their dining
experience.
H8.
Arousal has a positive and signicant effect on pleasure.
Individuals emotions about a particular environment signicantly inuence what they do and how they do it (Chebat and
Slusarczyk, 2005; Martinez and Martinez, 2007; Sweeney and
Wyber, 2002; Yalch and Spangenberg, 2000). For this reason, emotions have been considered an action-oriented component in prior
literature (Bergenwall, 1998; Zajonc, 1980). Arousal and pleasure, for instance, as discussed in the MR model (1974), induce
approach behaviors (e.g. unplanned shopping, staying longer at a
store, and interaction with employees) in a pleasant environment,
whereas unpleasant and non-arousal feelings induce avoidance
behaviors (e.g. the opposite of approach behaviors) in an unpleasant environment (Donovan et al., 1994). These emotional responses
derived from consumption experiences are stored as affective
memories in patrons minds and inuence post-consumption
behaviors (Donovan and Rossiter, 1982; Walsh et al., 2011).
Oliver (1996) dened behavioral intention as a rmly stated
likelihood of engaging in a certain behavior. In restaurant marketing research, scholars (e.g. Ha and Jang, 2010; Hyun et al., 2011;
Liu and Jang, 2009b; Ryu and Han, 2010) have measured behavioral intention using three variables: likelihood of (1) returning to
the restaurant, (2) recommending the restaurant to others including friends, family, and others, and (3) saying positive things about
the restaurant. Behavioral intention is a critical determinant of a
restaurants revenue maximization and business success; as such,
a large number of studies have examined the antecedents of behavioral intentions in the restaurant setting (Ha and Jang, 2010; Hyun
et al., 2011; Liu and Jang, 2009b; Ryu and Han, 2010).
Among the antecedents of behavioral intentions, emotion has
been in the spotlight by restaurant marketers (e.g. Han et al.,
2010; Hyun et al., 2011; Lin, 2004). Such studies have shown the
antecedent role of emotional responses in the formation of patrons
behavioral intentions such as willingness to repurchase and to
make recommendations.
H9. Pleasure has a positive and signicant effect on behavioral
intention.
61
(Hypothesis 8). More importantly, previous studies have proposed

that there is a key moderator in the relationship between arousal
and pleasure: motivational orientation (e.g. Kaltcheva and Weitz,
2006). For instance, in Kaltcheva and Weitzs (2006) study, motivational orientation is a situational variable that moderates the
relationship between shoppers arousal and pleasure. Motivation is
dened as psychological/biological needs and wants that are driving forces behind an individuals behavior and activity (Dann, 1981;
Dawson et al., 1990; Pearce, 1982). For this reason, motivational orientation has been utilized in consumer behavior research to explain
why people visit particular retailers and consume specic products.
From the perspective of practitioners, investigating why customers
visit a particular business is an issue of great importance because
motivational orientation inuences not only customers consumption experiences, but also future behaviors (Dawson et al., 1990).
According to the existing literature, there are two different types
of consumer motivational orientation: (1) task-oriented motivational orientation (also referred to as utilitarian motivation) and (2)
recreational motivational orientation (also referred to as hedonic
motivation) (Hirschman and Holbrook, 1982).
Consumers with a strong task-oriented motivational orientation
are efcient and rational (Batra and Ahtola, 1991). They go shopping
mainly to satisfy specic purposes or needs (e.g. obtaining particular products or services), rather than for enjoyment of the shopping
experience itself (Deci and Ryan, 1985). Customers with a strong
task orientation feel satisfaction from the outcome of shopping;
especially when they efciently complete the goal of shopping with
minimal effort/time expended (Kaltcheva and Weitz, 2006). For
instance, restaurant patrons with a strong task-oriented motivational orientation visit a particular restaurant mainly because the
food is tasty, it provides healthy food choices (e.g. an organic menu),
and/or the restaurant is located near several other places where
they will be spending time during their day.
In contrast, consumers with a strong recreational motivational
orientation pursue affective and experiential consumption experiences, and place great emphasis on the experience of fun and
playfulness derived from the consumption experience (Babin et al.,
1994). They leisurely enjoy the shopping activity itself more than
buying particular products/services. Restaurant patrons with a
strong recreational motivational orientation leisurely enjoy their
dining out experiences and enjoy pleasing interior design, relaxing
music, and/or an exotic ambiance.
Consequently, restaurant patrons with a strong recreational
motivational orientation expect to receive unusual dining experiences from restaurants with extraordinary environments, pleasing
background music, and exotic scents which create a positive overall
ambiance. Because such patrons visit a luxury restaurant not primarily to dine but to enjoy an overall sensual dining experience
(Lucas, 2003; Newman, 2007), they feel a higher level of pleasure from an arousal-inducing environment. In this sense it can be
argued that motivational orientation moderates the relationship
between patrons arousal and pleasure.
Empirical studies further support this theoretical hypothesis.
For example, Kaltcheva and Weitz (2006) empirically examined
the moderating role of motivational orientation in the relationship
between arousal and pleasure. Based on their ANOVA test results,
it was revealed that participants with a recreational motivational
orientation found a high-arousal environment to be statistically signicantly more pleasure than a low-arousal environment.
Therefore, the moderating role of motivational orientation in the
relationship between arousal and pleasure was statistically conrmed.
2.7. Motivational orientation as moderator

Based on the theoretical/empirical backgrounds, this study
proposed the causal relationship between arousal and pleasure
H10. Compared to patrons with a task-oriented motivational orientation, patrons with a recreational motivational orientation will
experience a stronger and signicant effect of arousal on pleasure.
62
2.8. Hedonism as moderator

In the stream of pleasure and arousal research, the concept of
hedonism has received considerable attention from scholars (Bell,
1978; Bozkurt et al., 2010; Campbell, 1987). Hedonism is dened as
an individuals propensity for pursuing psychological benets, such
as experiential, intangible, and multi-sensory benets; and emotional happiness (Ahtola, 1985; Hirschman and Holbrook, 1982).
Individuals with strong levels of hedonism tend to seek pleasure in
everyday life (Campbell, 1987). A hedonists life goal is experiencing
pleasure and having fun in the moment (Hirschman and Holbrook,
1982). For hedonic consumers, dining out itself is a pleasurable
event that brings fun and happiness in daily life. Thus, a hedonist shows stronger behavioral intentions than the non-hedonist
when attaining pleasure from a consumption experience. It therefore can be hypothesized that hedonism plays a moderating role in
the relationship between pleasure and behavioral intentions.
H11. Compared with patrons with low levels of hedonism, patrons
with high levels of hedonism will be more strongly and signicantly
affected by pleasure on behavioral intentions.
2.9. The differences between hedonism and recreational
motivation
The recreational motivational orientation is a consumption
motivation that places great emphasis on affective and experiential
consumption experiences (Babin et al., 1994). In other words, the
recreational motivational orientation is the motivator for diners to
visit a luxury restaurant that has pleasing interior design (Dawson
et al., 1990).
In contrast, hedonism is an individuals personality characteristic aimed at pursuing psychological benets, such as happiness
(Ahtola, 1985). In short, hedonism is a personality characteristic,
while the recreational motivation orientation is a motivation for
dining at a luxury restaurant.
A non-hedonist might choose to visit a luxury restaurant in order
to relax in the pleasing interior design, while a hedonist might
choose to visit a luxury restaurant because of the exceptional quality of the food (a strong task-oriented motivational orientation).
In other words, a hedonist does not necessarily have to possess a
strong recreational motivational orientation.
2.10. Proposed conceptual model
Based on the theoretical and empirical backgrounds, 11
hypotheses were proposed in the literature review section. Combining all of the proposed hypotheses, a structural model was
created (Fig. 1). The proposed conceptual model hypothesizes
that restaurant environmental cues and non-environmental cues
induce patron arousal. As such, the arousal will impact patrons
pleasure, thus inuencing behavioral intentions. During this process, patrons motivational orientations play a moderating role in
the relationship between arousal and pleasure. Lastly, the level
of patrons hedonism plays moderating role in the relationship
between pleasure and behavioral intentions.
3. Methodology
3.1. Sample
To empirically test the proposed conceptual model, data collection was conducted using a consumer panel database in the United
States. The database consisted of 27,000 email addresses and phone
numbers of luxury restaurant patrons residing in the United States.
An Internet invitation was sent to the 27,000 patrons. From the
27,000 invitations, 389 responses were received. Via a screening

process, it was revealed that ten responses were not usable (e.g. due
to missing information, incomplete answers, extreme answers);
consequently 379 usable responses were used for further data analysis (usable response rate of 1.4%).
3.2. Non-respondent error check
The study used an online database of luxury restaurant patrons
that yielded 379 usable responses out of 27,000 invitations. It
was necessary to ensure that those who participated were not
different from those who chose not to participate. Signicant differences between respondents and non-respondents would represent
a non-respondent error (Zikmund, 2003, p. 178). As Zikmund
(2003) stated, in order to reduce non-respondent error, researchers
should select a sample of non-respondents and then re-contact
them in order to assess whether there is a group difference
between those who responded and those who did not. Following Zikmunds (2003) suggestion, this study identied the extent
of non-respondent error. When the rst e-mail invitations were
sent out, only 210 respondents participated in the survey. The
210 samples were analyzed, following which data analysis results
and conclusion were derived. In order to subsequently assess for
non-respondent error, we sent out another invitation email to the
non-respondents (26,790 samples) several times, and obtained an
additional 179 responses from initial non-respondents. Next, we
analyzed the 179 samples, and found that the results and conclusion were not different to the previous ones. Finally, we merged
the two different sample sets and wrote a nal report based on the
data analysis results. In summary, we assessed for non-respondent
error using Zikmunds (2003) methodology, and found that the
respondents who participated following the rst request were not
different from those who did not participate initially.
3.3. Measures
To empirically measure the 12 theoretical concepts proposed in
this study, validated measurement items were adapted from the
existing literature in various areas (restaurant operation, psychology, and consumer behavior) as follows:
Restaurant-environmental cues were measured with 13 items
under three dimensions employed by Han and Ryu (2009). The
three sub-dimensions were (1) dcor and artifacts, (2) spatial
layout, and (3) ambient conditions;
Non-environmental cues were measured with 13 items under
four dimensions adapted from Delwiche (2004), Hyun (2010),
Law et al. (2008), Namkung and Jang (2008), and Parasuraman
et al. (1988). The four sub-dimensions were (1) food quality, (2)
service quality, (3) price, and (4) location;
To measure patrons emotional responses, Ladharis (2007) 11
items under two dimensions (arousal and pleasure, which are
widely used in behavioral research) were employed;
Behavioral intensions were measured with three items adapted
from Zeithaml et al. (1996);
Patrons motivational orientations were measured by two
psychological behavioral orientations: (1) the task-oriented
motivational orientation and (2) the recreational motivational
orientation. These two dimensions were measured with 12 items
adapted from Ha and Jang (2010), Hyun (2009), and Park (2004)
(see Appendix A);
Hedonism was measured by ve items adapted from Bozkurt et al.
(2010) (see Appendix A).
The initial questionnaire was created by combining the measurement items named above (All measurement items in this study,
63
Dcor and
Artifacts
H1
Restaurant
environmental
cues
Spatial
Layout
H2
Ambient
Conditions
H3
Arousal
H8
Pleasure
H9
H4
Behavioral
Intentions
Food Quality
H5
Nonenvironmental
cues
Service
Quality
H10
H11
Motivational
Orientation
Hedonism
H6
Price
H7
Location
Fig. 1. Proposed conceptual model.
except motivational orientations and hedonism, can be found in

Table 1). Multi-items and a ve-point Likert scale ranging from 1
(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) were adapted for this
study to measure all of the proposed constructs. To ensure the content validity of the initial questionnaire, three professional groups
reviewed all of the questions. The groups consisted of (1) three
faculty members whose major research area were restaurant marketing, (2) four graduate students who had previously worked in
restaurants, and (3) two luxury restaurant managers. Based on
the three groups feedback, the initial questionnaire was revised.
Then, a pre-test was conducted with 80 luxury restaurant patrons
to double-check the readability of the questionnaire. Cronbachs
alpha values higher than 0.7 further supported the reliability of
the adapted scales. The survey questionnaire was nalized and
distributed to 27,000 luxury restaurant patrons in the summer of
2011.
4. Data analysis
4.1. Respondents socio-demographic prole
The socio-demographic prole of the respondents found that
48.8% of respondents in the sample were female (n = 185) and 51.2%
were male (n = 194). The respondents were fairly evenly distributed
from 18 to 90 years of age, with a mean age of 46.8. More than half of
respondents reported that they dined out at any restaurant at least
three times per month. In terms of income and education levels,
the sample had respondents of relatively prestigious status levels.
73.1% of respondents possessed higher than a bachelors degree,
and 70.5% of respondents possessed an annual income higher than
$100,000. In summary, the socio-demographic prole accurately
represented the U.S. luxury restaurant population.
that the measurement model had a satisfactory t with the

empirical data [2 = 1435.030 (df = 691, p < 0.001), RMSEA = 0.053,
CFI = 0.943, IFI = 0.944, TLI = 0.936]. The values of CFI, IFI, and TLI
exceeded the 0.9 threshold (Byrne, 1998), while the RMSEA value
between 0.04 and 0.08 further supported an adequate model t
(Turner and Reisinger, 2001). Table 1 displays the specic variables
used for this study, with their standardized factor loading values.
As shown in Table 1, all of the factor loadings were equal to
or higher than 0.658. In addition, all of the constructs average
variances extracted (AVEs) were higher than the 0.50 threshold
(Table 2) (Bagozzi and Yi, 1988). Based on (1) the high factor
loadings and (2) the acceptable AVE values, it was judged that convergent validity for the scale items had been achieved (Fornell and
Larcker, 1981).
In the next step, discriminant validity was tested by comparing
the squared correlations between proposed concepts and AVE estimates (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). All of the squared correlations
(R2 ) between a pair of proposed concepts were smaller than the
intended AVE estimate with the exception of one pair: ambient conditions and arousal. In this case, discriminant validity between the
pairs was re-evaluated by combining them into a single construct
and then conducting a 2 difference test on the values obtained
from the combined and uncombined models, as the existing literature recommends (e.g. Bagozzi and Yi, 1988). The resulting 2
difference was 223.558 (df = 9), which was statistically signicant at
p < 0.001. Consequently, discriminant validity between the ambient
conditions and arousal pair was empirically conrmed. In summary, all of the constructs discriminant validities were adequately
supported by data analysis. Lastly, all of the constructs composite
reliability exceeded 0.7 thresholds, thus conrming internal consistency (Hair et al., 1998).
4.3. Structural equation modeling
4.2. Measurement model analysis

To assess the construct validity and internal consistency, the
measurement model was evaluated via conrmatory factor analysis (CFA) (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988). The CFA results showed
Following the assessment of the measurement model, a structural model was estimated to validate the proposed conceptual
model in Fig. 1. Goodness-of-t statistics and the summary of
ndings revealed that the proposed model adequately t the
Pleasure
Pleased/annoyed
Contended/melancholic
Hopeful/despairing
Relaxed/bored
Happy/unhappy
0.870
0.818
0.684
0.770
0.789
Behavioral intentions
I would like to dine out at this restaurant again.
I would recommend this restaurant to my friends or others.
I would say positive things about this restaurant to others.
0.973
0.994
0.710
Note: All factors loadings are signicant at p < 0.001.
data [2 = 1639.419 (df = 706, p < 0.001), RMSEA = 0.059, CFI = 0.929,
IFI = 0.929, TLI = 0.922].
Fig. 2 shows the SEM results with standardized theoretical path
coefcient and relevant t-values, while Table 3 summarizes the
0.568
0.495
0.449
0.679
0.655
0.481
0.280
0.579
0.916
0.277
0.552
0.714
0.750
0.534
0.442
0.357
0.218
0.863
0.335
0.078
0.315
0.227
0.178
0.128
0.374
0.493
0.727
0.048
0.078
0.135
0.328
0.308
0.280
0.289
0.552
0.942
0.243
0.127
0.231
0.147
0.489
0.368
0.396
0.466
0.929
0.305
0.140
0.195
0.429
0.222
Note: AVE: average variance extracted estimate; CFI: comparative t index; IFI: Incremental t index; TLI: Tucker-Lewis index; RMSEA: root mean square error of approximation.
a
Composite reliabilities are along the diagonal.
b
Correlations are above the diagonal.
c
Squared correlations are below the diagonal.
0.820
0.713
0.702
0.705
0.658
0.694
Goodness-of-t statistics:
2 (691) = 1435.030, p < 0.001
2 /df = 2.077
CFI = 0.943; IFI = 0.944; TLI = 0.936
RMSEA = 0.053
Emotional responses
Arousal
Calm/excited
Relaxed/stimulated
Sluggish/frenzied
Dull/jittery
Sleepy/awake
Unaroused/aroused
0.490b
0.938
0.498
0.279
0.135
0.095
0.052
0.510
0.245
0.098
0.771
0.777
0.740
0.941a
0.240c
0.241
0.272
0.239
0.108
0.099
0.305
0.323
0.095
Location
This restaurant is located in a convenient location.
This restaurant is located near where I live or work.
This restaurant is located near several other places I patronize.
0.658
0.819
0.809
0.828
0.650
0.818
0.582
0.514
0.622
0.817
0.916
0.912
0.885
4.12 (0.73)
3.96 (0.75)
2.13 (0.93)
2.51 (1.12)
3.85 (0.72)
3.20 (1.18)
3.12 (1.46)
3.34 (0.81)
3.91 (0.89)
3.91 (0.89)
Price
This restaurant offers good value for the money.
The prices at this restaurant are reasonable.
The prices charged by this restaurant are appropriate.
6
3
4
3
4
3
3
6
5
3
0.796
0.845
0.788
0.795
Food quality
Service quality
Employees in this restaurant are always willing to help me.
Employees have the knowledge to answer my questions.
This luxury restaurant has my best interests in mind.
The meals are served in a timely manner.
Ambient
conditions
0.910
0.909
0.911
Spatial
layout
Non-environmental cues
Food quality
This luxury restaurant serves tasty food.
This luxury restaurants food presentation is attractive.
Food is served at the appropriate temperature.
Service
quality
0.925
0.839
0.919
Dcor and artifacts

Spatial layout
Ambient conditions
Food quality
Service quality
Price
Location
Arousal
Pleasure
Behavioral intentions
0.911
0.522
0.528
0.508
0.896
0.217
0.084
0.016
0.285
0.461
0.154
Price
0.948
0.829
0.491
0.706
0.943
0.258
0.157
0.078
0.032
0.563
0.202
0.050
Pleasure
Arousal
Location
0.934
Dcor and
artifacts
Ambient conditions
The lighting in this luxury restaurant creates a warm
atmosphere.
The background music is pleasing.
The temperature is comfortable.
The food aromas are enticing. Overall, the layout in this luxury
restaurant makes it easy to navigate.
0.917
0.761
0.750
0.832
AVE
Spatial layout
Overall, the layout in this luxury restaurant makes it easy to
navigate.
The table/seating arrangements offer me enough space.
The seating arrangements make me feel comfortable.
0.724
0.866
Mean (Std. dev.)
Restaurant environmental cues

Dcor and artifacts
The paintings/pictures in this luxury restaurant are attractive.
The plants/owers in this luxury restaurant make me feel
happy.
This restaurants ceiling decorations are attractive.
The wall dcor in this restaurant is visually appealing.
The colors used create a warm atmosphere in this restaurant.
The furniture (e.g. dining tables, chairs) in this restaurant is of
high quality.
Standardized
loading
Table 2
Descriptive statistics and associated measures.
Construct and scale item
Behavioral
intentions
Table 1
Conrmatory factor analysis: items and loadings.
0.309
0.313
0.223
0.393
0.471
0.383
0.367
0.280
0.526
0.947
No. of items
64
65
Dcor and
Artifacts
.158 (3.121)*
Restaurant
environmental
cues
Spatial
Layout
.276 ((4.787)*
Ambient
Conditions
.334 (5.807)*
.33
.685 (12.202)*
.525 (10.542)*
Pleasure
Arousal
Behavioral
Intentions
.147 (2.930)*
Food Quality
.118 (2
.118
((2.148
.14 )*
Nonenvironmental
cues
Significant
Significant
Service
Quality
.100 (2
.100
((2.003
.0 )*
Motivational
Orientation
Price
Hedonism
H7
H
Location
Fig. 2. The results of the proposed model. Note: 1. Numbers in parentheses are the t-values. 2. Numbers outside of parentheses are the standardized path coefcients. 3.
Dotted lines indicate non-signicant paths (p < 0.05).
hypotheses testing results. According to the SEM results, eight out

of nine hypotheses were statistically supported.
4.4. Testing the moderating effects

In the literature review section, this study hypothesized two
moderating functions: (1) the moderating effect of motivational
orientation in the relationship between arousal and pleasure (H10)
and (2) the moderating effect of hedonism in the relationship
between pleasure and behavioral intentions (H11).
To empirically check the moderating effects, this study adapted
a multiple-group analysis method (Byrne, 2001). First, respondents
were split into two sub-groups by using a moderator score. The
moderator score for motivational orientation was calculated as follows:
Five variables measuring task-oriented motivational orientation (utilitarian) were reverse-coded. Then, the moderator score
was calculated as the sum of the ve motivational orientation
(reverse-coded) items and seven recreational motivational orientation items.
The moderator score for hedonism was calculated as the sum

of the ve hedonism scale items. Following the calculation of
two moderator scores, two sub-samples were selected based on
the median split of the moderating score (Chandrashekaran and
Grewal, 2003). Then, multiple-group analyses were performed with
a hierarchical approach that compared the two newly created
sub-samples. To test the differential effects caused by the moderating variable, the chi-square difference between constrained and
unconstrained models was compared with regard to the difference
in degrees of freedom (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988).
First, the moderating function of motivational orientation in the
relationship between arousal and pleasure was assessed (H10).
The coefcient for the path between arousal and pleasure was
compared between the task-oriented and recreational motivational orientation groups. The chi-square difference between the
constrained model and the unconstrained model was statistically signicant at the 0.05 level [2 = 28.625 > 2 0.5(1) = 3.84,
df = 1]. This result indicates that the effect of arousal on pleasure
was signicantly different between the task-oriented motivational
orientation group and the recreational motivational orientation
group, which supported Hypothesis H10. With regard to the
task-oriented motivational orientation group, the path coefcient
between arousal and pleasure was 0.568 (p < 0.001). In contrast, for
Table 3
Standardized parameter estimates for structural model.
Paths
H1
H2
H3
H4
H5
H6
H7
H8
H9
H10
H11
Dcor and artifacts Arousal

Spatial layout Arousal
Ambient conditions Arousal
Food quality Arousal
Service quality Arousal
Price Arousal
Location Arousal
Arousal Pleasure
Pleasure Behavioral intentions
Motivational orientations moderating function between arousal and pleasure
Hedonisms moderating function between pleasure and behavioral intentions
Standardized estimate
t-Value
Hypothesis
0.158
0.276
0.334
0.147
0.118
0.100
0.031
0.685
0.525
3.121
4.787
5.807
2.930
2.148
2.003
.642
12.202
10.543
Supported
Supported
Supported
Supported
Supported
Supported
Not supported
Supported
Supported
Supported
Supported
66
the recreational motivational orientation groups, the path coefcient was 0.866 (p < 0.001). In summary, arousal was more effective
in inducing consumers pleasure in the recreational motivational
orientation group than in the task-oriented motivational orientation group.
Second, the moderating function of hedonism in the relationship
between pleasure and behavioral intentions was assessed (H11).
The chi-square difference between the constrained model and the
unconstrained model was also found to be statistically signicant at
the 0.05 level [2 = 8.726 > 2 0.5(1) = 3.84, df = 1]. Thus, Hypothesis
9a was supported. This nding indicates that the effect of pleasure
on behavioral intentions was statistically different across hedonism
levels. With regard to the high-hedonism group, the path coefcient
between pleasure and behavioral intentions was 0.542 (p < 0.001).
In contrast, for the low-hedonism group, the path coefcient was
0.396 (p < 0.001). In summary, pleasure was more effective in inducing positive behavioral intentions in the high-hedonism group than
in the low-hedonism group.
Based on the hypotheses testing results, the next section of this
research will discuss the possible interpretations for the output,
and will derive the theoretical/managerial implications of the ndings.
5. Discussions and implications
The purposes of this study were (1) to examine the impact of
environmental and non-environmental cues on patrons emotional
responses, (2) to examine the inuence of emotion on behavioral
intentions, with the impact moderated by motivational orientation and hedonism. Based on a literature review, 11 theoretical
hypotheses were proposed and a structural model was developed.
The proposed structural model was tested using data collected from
379 luxury restaurant patrons.
5.1. Summary of the results
According to the data analysis results, patrons arousal is
induced by (1) dcor and artifacts (H1: 0.158, p < 0.05), (2) spatial
layout (H2: 0.276, p < 05), and (3) ambient conditions (H3: 0.334,
p < 0.05). Thus, it was revealed that all of the environmental cues in
a restaurant signicantly inuence patrons arousal.
It was also found that patrons arousal is induced by (1) food
quality (H4: 0.147, p < 0.05), (2) service quality (H5: 0.118, p < 0.05),
and (3) price (H6: 0.100, p < 0.05). Thus, it was conrmed that nonenvironmental cues also have a direct impact on patrons arousal.
However, contrary to the theoretical background (e.g. Soriano,
2002), it was revealed in the present study that location does not
bear a signicant impact on arousal in the luxury restaurant context
(t = 0.642, p = 0.031). It can be interpreted that luxury restaurant
patrons are willing to travel far distances as long as their chosen
luxury restaurants can meet their expectations in terms of attractive environments, gourmet food, and excellent service along with
appropriate pricing.
Data analysis revealed (1) a positive effect of arousal on pleasure (H8: 0.685, p < 0.05) and (2) a positive effect of pleasure on
behavioral intentions (H9: 0.528, p < 0.05). Only a few studies in
the elds of retail and marketing have theorized and/or tested the
links between arousal and pleasure (Kaltcheva and Weitz, 2006).
This study is the rst to examine this link in the luxury restaurant context. Thus, it can be interpreted that arousal is a required
condition in inducing patrons pleasure.
Another important contribution of this study is the nding of two psychological moderators in patrons behavior: (1)
motivational orientation and (2) hedonism. It was revealed
that arousal was more effective in inducing pleasure in the
recreational-oriented patrons group than in the task-oriented

patrons group. In a restaurant, patrons with a strong recreationoriented motivation are highly interested in exciting experiences.
Thus, when they feel arousal in a restaurant, they feel higher level
of pleasure. In contrast, for patrons with a strong task-oriented
motivation, the impact of arousal on pleasure was relatively
weak. The moderating effect of hedonism was also signicant. For
high-hedonism patrons, pleasure has a strong impact on positive
behavioral intentions. In contrast, for low-hedonism patrons, pleasure has a relatively weak impact on positive behavioral intentions.
The life goal of hedonists is to seek pleasure (Campbell, 1987),
such that their experience of pleasure leads to strong behavioral
intentions. These ndings also account for the characteristics of
luxury restaurant patrons. According to the existing research (e.g.
Hwang and Hyun, 2012), many luxury restaurant patrons want to
be entertained and to escape from daily life by visiting a luxury
restaurant. In other words, hedonists should be a target market of
luxury restaurant marketers.
5.2. Theoretical implications
Previous studies examined the positive relationship between
restaurant environmental cues and satisfaction (Lin, 2004;
Sweeney and Wyber, 2002; Yalch and Spangenberg, 2000). This
research replicated and further expanded the existing literature by
empirically testing the relationship between environmental cues
and arousal inducement. Environmental cues create an overall
image of a facility (Martinez and Martinez, 2007) because patrons
unconsciously gather and retrieve all available cues to form an
evaluation (Oliver, 1981). Consequently, environmental cues play
a critical role in the formation of patrons arousal in the restaurant
setting.
Regarding non-environmental cues, in the history of restaurant
marketing, a large number of studies have examined the importance of food quality (Lo and Lam, 2004; Longart, 2010; Ryu et al.,
2010a,b), service quality (Chow et al., 2007; de Faria et al., 2012;
Jani and Han, 2011; Ladhari et al., 2008), and reasonable price (Johns
and Pine, 2002; Law et al., 2008). However, these previous studies
focused heavily on their impacts on satisfaction and loyalty (e.g.
Hyun, 2010; Ladhari et al., 2008; Namkung and Jang, 2008; Sulek
and Hensley, 2004). No previous study has theorized that nonenvironmental cues contribute to patrons arousal. In this regard,
this study provides a new guideline for scholars and practitioners
in the restaurant eld. From the perspective of scholars, it is necessary to conduct a eld experiment to clarify the psychological
mechanisms by which patrons feel arousal from food, service, and
reasonable price.
The positive effect of arousal on pleasure explains the mechanisms and processes by which patrons are made aware of and assess
the environmental and non-environmental attributes in restaurants. Once patrons feel excited during their dining experiences,
they are likely to feel pleasure and as a result, make a decision
to revisit and convey positive things about a restaurant. Thus,
restaurant managers should develop and focus upon managerial
strategies that can induce patrons arousal. In this sense, future
research is needed to further examine this psychological mechanism.
Restaurant studies have considered environmental cues as the
predictors of customer emotions (Lin and Mattila, 2010; Ryu and
Jang, 2007) and their behaviors (Han and Ryu, 2009). Another
stream of restaurant studies have investigated the impact of nonenvironmental cues on customer intentions (Kincaid et al., 2009;
Hyun, 2010). Although Ryu et al. (2010a,b) developed a comprehensive research model of foodservice quality consisting of three
dimensions (i.e. physical environment, food, and service), quality
measurements were limited to food and service. This study was the
rst to incorporate both environmental (i.e. dcor and artifacts, spatial layout, and ambient conditions) and non-environmental cues
(i.e. food quality, service quality, price, and location) into a holistic model that delineates relationships between patrons emotional
responses and behavioral intentions. The ndings aid in an understanding of which sets of restaurant cognitions evoke stronger
dining excitement. As presented in Fig. 2, environmental cues have
a stronger impact on patrons behavioral intentions than do nonenvironmental cues. Restaurant managers can utilize this nding
to prioritize environmental cues when it comes to allocating their
budgets.
Lastly, a causal relationship between arousal and pleasure was
empirically conrmed in the luxury restaurant setting. Emotion
research in the restaurant industry heavily focuses on inducing
patrons pleasure (e.g. Hyun et al., 2011). However, this study
found that arousal is required in order to effectively induce pleasure. This nding explains the mechanisms and processes by which
patrons are made aware of and assess the environmental and nonenvironmental attributes in restaurants. Thus, restaurant managers
should focus on managerial strategies that can induce patrons
arousal.
5.3. Practical implications
These results provide restaurant managers with insights into
the endeavors of creating an attractive physical environment. As
presented in Table 1, it can be a useful strategy to place reproductions of well-known artworks in a restaurant in order to create a
prestigious image (Hyun and Kim, 2011) and thus help to induce
patrons arousal. In addition, placing attractive plants/owers in
a restaurant is also a good strategy (Han and Ryu, 2009). Plants
supply oxygen-rich environment (Camenson, 1995), which helps
to induce arousal. Upgrading furniture quality is also important,
because patrons physically experience furniture elements when
they touch dining tables and chairs.
More importantly, for an optimal spatial layout, it is necessary
to obtain consulting service from experts. The spatial layout of
tables and seating arrangements may increase arousal by providing patrons with a degree of privacy (Namkung and Jang, 2008).
Therefore, it is important to provide ample space and/or a physical barrier separating patrons from other nearby patrons (Robson,
2008). In addition, the layout should be designed to be easily navigated. Finally, managers should adapt a creative spatial layout
strategy when they arrange or modify a layout. For example, revisiting patrons may feel strong arousal when they regularly see a new
arrangement of tables and seats. Such new layouts can provide an
impression of freshness to revisiting patrons.
Among the three environmental cues, ambient conditions were
found to be the most powerful element that drives patrons arousal.
This may be good news to managers because the elements of
ambience are one of the least expensive and easiest attributes
to manage (Ryu and Jang, 2007). Therefore, restaurant managers
should inquire about patrons music, color scheme, and temperature preferences by placing questionnaires on dining tables to
solicit (Hyun, 2010; Kotler et al., 1998). Based on patron preferences, restaurant owners should provide a harmonious combination
of appropriate music, lighting, aromas, and ambient temperature
to elicit patrons arousal.
Among the three non-environmental cues, food quality was the
most inuential factor for inducing arousal, followed by service
quality. Managers should therefore seek ways to meet or exceed
patrons expectations about food palatability, plate presentations,
and variety of menu options (Hyun, 2010; Hyun and Kim, 2011). It
is necessary to educate chefs at well-known culinary schools (e.g.
Le Cordon Bleu in France) to learn about advanced food preparation skills. In addition, recruiting well-known chefs internationally
67
Recreational
Motivational
Orientation
Target
Market
Low
Hedonism
High
Hedonism
Task Oriented
Motivation
Orientation
Fig. 3. Selected target market for luxury restaurants.
is a useful strategy for signicantly enhancing food quality. More

importantly, it is necessary to adapt a chef salary system based on
patrons evaluations to determine chefs annual salaries in order to
achieve food quality improvements.
In addition, luxury restaurant patrons tend to have high expectations about service quality that are primarily related to interactions
with employees. Managers should therefore pay close attention to
their employees performance in terms of their willingness to communicate with patrons and to provide appropriate services (e.g.
delivering food courses at the proper pace). Hiring employees who
are congruent with a restaurants image in terms of neat appearance
and congenial personality (e.g. friendly, proactive, and pleasant)
can be also a key factor in enhancing the effect of service quality
on positive emotions and behaviors (Ryu and Jang, 2007). Luxury
restaurant managers also need to recognize that their patrons have
existing perceptions about high-priced menu items, and that price
policies such as promotions or discounts create a negative image of
luxury restaurants (Lee and Hwang, 2011). Managers should therefore target patrons who have adequate disposal income for dining
out at luxury restaurants and/or open restaurants in locales where
high-income populations reside.
Data analysis revealed that convenient location is not a critical
factor in the luxury restaurant visitation. Therefore, when luxury
restaurant owners open new branches, they should place greater
emphasis on attractive scenery and landscaping when considering
location as opposed to the convenience of the location alone.
Lastly, integrating the moderating effects, this study proposes an
effective market segmentation strategy for luxury restaurant marketers. Luxury restaurant marketers should inquire about patrons
(1) dining out motivations and (2) hedonism levels via an in-store
survey. Next, market segmentation should be conducted based on
the two psychological variables. As presented in Fig. 3, patrons
with strong recreational motivational orientations and high levels of hedonism should be the main target market for luxury
restaurant marketers in order to maximize marketing effectiveness. The selected target patrons (Fig. 3) seek exciting experiences
when dining out in luxury restaurants and place great emphasis
on the experience of fun and playfulness from these experiences.
Therefore, luxury restaurants should provide unique experiences
that can be differentiated from other restaurants.
The nding of the moderating functions of motivational orientation and hedonism can aid managers in effectively identifying their
68
target market by understanding patrons expectations of a luxury

restaurant.
6. Study limitations and future research
Despite its theoretical and practical implications, one limitation
of this research should be addressed. The empirical data for this
study was collected from luxury restaurant patrons who resided in
the United States. Therefore, the extent to which the conclusions
are cross-culturally generalizable is somewhat limited. Considering
that many luxury restaurant companies open new branches in the
Asian market, it is necessary to re-examine the proposed model
using data collected from patrons who reside in Asia. In addition, it
is a useful approach to conduct cross-cultural studies that compare
U.S. patrons and foreign patrons (e.g. Japan, China, and Russia) in
their psychological attitudes toward restaurant environmental and
non-environmental cues.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the 2013 Specialization Project
Research Grant funded by the Pusan National University.
Appendix A. Measures for motivational orientation and
hedonism
Strongly disagree/strongly agree
Motivational orientation
Task-oriented motivation
Recreational motivational
orientation
I go this restaurant because the food is tasty.

I go to this restaurant because of the variety of
menu choices offered.
I go to this restaurant because I like its healthy
food options (such as a low-fat menu).
I go to this restaurant because the food is
served at the right temperature.
I go to this restaurant because it is located near
several other places where I spend my leisure
time.
I go to this restaurant because the interior
design is pleasing to me.
I go to this restaurant because the music
played in the restaurant entertains me.
I go to this restaurant because I feel like its an
escape from ordinary life.
I go to this restaurant because the food
presentation is attractive.
I prefer eating out at this luxury restaurant
because its a wonderful place that gives me a
good feeling.
I go to this restaurant because eating out here
is fun and pleasant.
I go to this restaurant because its a wonderful
place to relieve a sense of boredom.
Hedonism
I think people should live their lives in
accordance with their feelings and desires.
People cannot take their money with them
when they die, so we should live for today.
People should always pursue pleasure in their
lives.
People should always live for the present
moment.
People should not sacrice the pleasure of the
present for the possibility of something better
in the future.
Note: Other measurement items in this study are listed in detail in Table 1.
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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Hospitality Management

A better investment in luxury restaurants: Environmental or

Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 407 903 8138.

temperature, food aromas, interior decorating, and layout induce

S.S. Hyun, J. Kang / International Journal of Hospitality Management 39 (2014) 5770

improvements, service quality improvements, and pricing strategies) is more effective.

S.S. Hyun, J. Kang / International Journal of Hospitality Management 39 (2014) 5770

S.S. Hyun, J. Kang / International Journal of Hospitality Management 39 (2014) 5770

and Namkung (2009) found a positive relationship between service

S.S. Hyun, J. Kang / International Journal of Hospitality Management 39 (2014) 5770

by several empirical studies (e.g. Bign et al., 2005; Chebat and

Arousal has a positive and signicant effect on pleasure.

(Hypothesis 8). More importantly, previous studies have proposed

2.7. Motivational orientation as moderator

S.S. Hyun, J. Kang / International Journal of Hospitality Management 39 (2014) 5770

2.8. Hedonism as moderator

27,000 invitations, 389 responses were received. Via a screening

S.S. Hyun, J. Kang / International Journal of Hospitality Management 39 (2014) 5770

Fig. 1. Proposed conceptual model.

except motivational orientations and hedonism, can be found in

that the measurement model had a satisfactory t with the

4.2. Measurement model analysis

Note: All factors loadings are signicant at p < 0.001.

Dcor and artifacts

Mean (Std. dev.)

Restaurant environmental cues

Construct and scale item

S.S. Hyun, J. Kang / International Journal of Hospitality Management 39 (2014) 5770

S.S. Hyun, J. Kang / International Journal of Hospitality Management 39 (2014) 5770

hypotheses testing results. According to the SEM results, eight out

4.4. Testing the moderating effects

The moderator score for hedonism was calculated as the sum

Dcor and artifacts Arousal

S.S. Hyun, J. Kang / International Journal of Hospitality Management 39 (2014) 5770

recreational-oriented patrons group than in the task-oriented

S.S. Hyun, J. Kang / International Journal of Hospitality Management 39 (2014) 5770

is a useful strategy for signicantly enhancing food quality. More

S.S. Hyun, J. Kang / International Journal of Hospitality Management 39 (2014) 5770

target market by understanding patrons expectations of a luxury

I go this restaurant because the food is tasty.

S.S. Hyun, J. Kang / International Journal of Hospitality Management 39 (2014) 5770

S.S. Hyun, J. Kang / International Journal of Hospitality Management 39 (2014) 5770

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