Critical Issues OnTourism Education

Critical Issues in Tourism Education
Proceedings of the 2004 Conference of the Association for Tourism

in Higher Education, Missenden Abbey, Buckinghamshire UK
1-3 December, 2004
ATHE Publication No. 14

Edited by John Tribe and Eugenia Wickens
Supported by
the Higher Education Academy Network for
Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism
Annual Conference Proceedings 2004
Contents
____________________________________
Editors’ Preface 5
List of Contributors 7
Keynote Speakers
David Airey 9
From Here to Uncertainty
Brian Wheeller 17
Cheese, Gromit - We’ll Go Somewhere Where There’s Cheese-
Wallace and Gromit’s Grand Day out: Imagery, Metaphor and
Postgraduate Tourism Teaching
Presentations (in Alphabetical Order)
Maureen Ayikoru 24
A Discursive Semiotic Analysis of Tourism Higher Education Texts
Paul Barron 29
Learning Issues and Learning Problems of Confucian Heritage
Culture Students Studying Hospitality and Tourism Management
in Australia
Kevin Hannam, Nicole Mitsche, Chris Stone and Tom Mordue 39

Tourism Employability and the European Social Fund
Steve Hewett 53
Touring in the WWWilderness: Using Internet Discovery Tools
to Support Learning, Teaching and Research
Conrad Lashley 59
Escaping the Tyranny of Relevance: Some Reflections on
Hospitality Management Education
Sergio Leal 71
Is Tourism Education in Brazil Sustainable?
Acolla Lewis 77
Rationalising a Tourism Curriculum for Sustainable Tourism
Development in Small Island States: A Stakeholder Perspective
Association for Tourism in Higher Education 3

Tanja Mihalic 89
Current Issues in Tourism Education the Case of Slovenia and
the Faculty of Economics, University of Ljubljana
Petia Petrova and Peter Mason 99

How Valuable are Tourism Degrees? The Views of the
Tourism industry
Nancy Stevenson 107

Practice Paper: Redesigning Seminars to Enhance Student
Learning and Motivation
Mark Stone 115

Making Personal Development Planning Work for Tourism
Students, Staff and Departments
Marion Stuart-Hoyle 129

A Foundation Degree Uncovered: Packaging a Realistic
Programme in Response to the Widening Participation Agenda
Jaakko Suvantola 139

Self-Determination Theory in Charting Students’ Motivation
Claire Wellings and Lyn Bibbings 145

Perceptions and Expectations of 1st Year Students Studying
Tourism in Higher Education
Eugenia Wickens and Alastair Forbes 151

In their Own Voices: Student Experiences
4 Association for Tourism in Higher Education

Editors’ Preface
John Tribe
University of Surrey and Chair of ATHE
Eugenia Wickens
Buckinghamshire Chilterns University College, and convenor of the Conference
Organising Committee
_________________________________________
The Association for Tourism in Higher Education (ATHE) has represented the interests of those in
tourism higher education in the UK for over ten years. Its membership of approximately 40 HEIs
enables it to speak with authority on behalf of this sector and over this period it has firmly established
itself as the subject association for tourism. It has brokered the QAA benchmarks for tourism, run a
series of annual conferences, lobbied on behalf of its members, and responded to relevant consultative
documents (including the White Paper: The Future of Higher Education, and those relating to the last
and the next RAE).
Some of ATHE’s representations of tourism’s significance bear revisiting:
• A significant number of outputs submitted under RAE 2001 came under the area of Tourism
Studies. Taking only the seven most popular UoAs, 363 tourism outputs were submitted by
146 staff.
• There are currently about 90 tourism doctoral students.
• There are approximately 30 Professors in the area of Tourism Studies in the UK.
• Tourism Studies is well established internationally. There are in excess of 37 journals which
publish more than 500 research articles each year.
• There are currently approximately 10,500 undergraduate and 700 postgraduate students.
• There were 9738 UCAS applications under the JACS subject line N8 for Tourism, Transport
and Travel as of March 2004.
• In 2003-04 there were 56 HEIs offering undergraduate tourism programmes.
• Tourism was worth £74 billion to the UK economy in 2001, about 4.5% of the GDP. 2.1
million people are employed in this sector, which is 7% of the UK workforce. Some 10% of
all new jobs created are in the tourism industry.
• Tourism is an increasingly important activity in people’s lives, shaping identities and
communities.
Over the years ATHE has published a number of guidelines on a variety of issues affecting tourism
higher education. This publication is different from previous ones in two main respects. First, it is
substantially longer. Secondly, it consists of the proceedings of the 2004 ATHE Conference held at
Missenden Abbey, Great Missenden, Buckinghamshire, UK. Whilst ATHE has held regular annual
conferences over the years this was the first one which invited research papers. The interest generated
by the 2004 conference has prompted a similar approach for the 2005 conference and we anticipate
that the ATHE annual conference will grow over years to come.

2004’s conference, entitled ‘Critical Issues in Tourism Education’, sought to analyse critical issues in
tourism education from the perspectives of theory and practice. These included issues which are
critical to the success of tourism education, critical reflections on practice and a critique of the state of
tourism education. ATHE was delighted to co-host the conference in conjunction with the Leisure and
Tourism Education Research Centre (LaTERC) (Buckinghamshire Chilterns University College); the
Higher Education Academy Subject Network for Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism and the
Association for Tourism and Leisure Education (ATLAS). The conference attracted delegates from
around the world including Brazil, Australia, Finland, Croatia, Slovenia, Trinidad and Tobago, Spain,
Uganda and the Netherlands.
Three keynote speakers addressed the conference. On the first day Professor Ronald Barnett of the
Institute of Education, University of London, directly addressed the conference theme with his paper
Critical Issues in (Tourism) Higher Education. Later in the day Professor David Airey (Pro-Vice
Chancellor, University of Surrey) took stock of the challenges facing the subject in his paper, From
Here to Uncertainty. Prof. Brian Wheeler gave the closing keynote address entitled ‘Cheese, Gromit.
We’ll go somewhere where there’s cheese’ Wallace and Gromit’s Grand Day Out: Imagery,
Metaphor and Postgraduate Tourism Teaching.
The papers that follow represent a selection of the papers given at the conference. They fall under the
general headings of widening participation, curriculum, comparative studies, teaching and learning,
resources, marketing and cultural influences, the all offer a stimulating insight into the current
concerns confronting tourism education.
We would like to thank all of those who contributed to the success of the conference – particularly the
ATHE executive committee and the conference organising committee – and acknowledge the support
of the Higher Education Academy Subject Network.

List of Contributors
____________________________________
Airey, David (Prof) Pro-Vice-Chancellor (Teaching and Learning), Guildford, University of Surrey,
Surrey, GU2 7XH, UK
email: d.airey@surrey.ac.uk
Ayikoru, Maureen: Research Student, Faculty of Leisure and Tourism, Buckinghamshire Chilterns
University College, High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, UK
email: ayikorum@yahoo.co.uk
Barron, Paul (Dr): Executive Editor, The Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management and Senior
Lecturer in Hospitality Management, School of Tourism and Leisure Management, The University of
Queensland, Ipswich Campus, 11 Salisbury Road, Ipswich, Queensland 4305, Australia.
email: p.barron@staff.uqi.uq.edu.au
Bibbings, Lyn: Senior Lecturer, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK

email: ljbibbings@brookes.ac.uk
Forbes, Alastair: Assoc Dean/Head of Tourism, Faculty of Leisure and Tourism, Buckinghamshire
Chilterns University College, High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, UK
e-mail: aforbe01@bcuc.ac.uk
Hannam, Kevin (Dr): Principal Lecturer & Head of Tourism, School of Arts, Design, Media and
Culture, University of Sunderland, Green Terrace, Sunderland, UK
email: kevin.hannam@sunderalnd.ac.uk
Hewett, Stephen: Altis Manager, Information Services, University of Birmingham, UK

email: s.j.r.hewett@bham.ac.uk
Lashley, Conrad (Prof): Head of the Center for Leisure Retailing, Nottingham Business
School, Nottingham Trent University, Burton Street, Nottingham, UK
email: conradlashley@aol.com
Leal, Sergio: Research Student, Faculty of Leisure and Tourism, Buckinghamshire Chilterns
University College, High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, UK
email: sleal01@bcuc.ac.uk
Lewis, Acolla (Dr): Lecturer in Tourism, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Management
Studies, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad
email: alewis@fss.uwi.tt
Mason, Peter (Prof): Dept. of Tourism, Leisure and Sport Management, University of Luton, Park
Square, Luton, LU1 3JU, UK
email: peter.mason@luton.ac.uk
Mihalic, Tanja (Prof): Faculty of Economics, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana,

1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
email: tanja.mihalic@ef.uni-lj.si
Mordue, Tom (Dr): University of Teesside, UK

email: t.mordue@tees.ac.uk

Petrova, Petia: Dept. of Tourism, Leisure and Sport Management, University of Luton, Park Square,
Luton, UK
email: petia.petrova@luton.ac.uk
Stevenson, Nancy: Undergraduate Programme Leader: Tourism, Westminster, UK

email: stevenn@westminster.ac.uk
Stone, Mark: Teaching Fellow, Tourism & Hospitality Group, Faculty of Social Science & Business,
University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK
email:m2stone@plymouth.ac.uk
Stuart-Hoyle, Marion (Dr): Principal Lecturer, Tourism Studies, Canterbury Christ Church University
College, Department of Sport Science, Tourism and Leisure, North Holmes, Canterbury, Kent, UK
email: m.stuart@cant.ac.uk
Suvantoala, Jaakko (Prof): Leisure and Recreation Studies, Department of Geography, University of
Joensuu, Kuninkaankartanonkatu 5, PO Box 126, 57101 Savonlinna, Finland
email: Jaakko.suvantola@joensuu.fi
Tribe, John (Prof): School of Management, University of Surrey, UK and Chair of ATHE
email: j.tribe@surrey.ac.uk
Wellings, Claire, Deputy Head of School of Sport & Leisure University of Gloucestershire, UK
email: cwellings@glos.ac.uk
Wheeller, Brian (Prof): Visiting Professor of Tourism, NHTV, Breda University, The Netherlands
email: wheellerbrian@yahoo.ac.ul
Wickens, Eugenia (Dr): Reader in Tourism and Course Leader MSc Tourism Development and
Management, Faculty of Leisure and Tourism, Buckinghamshire Chilterns University College, High
Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, UK
email: eugenia.wickens@bcuc.ac.uk

Keynote Speakers
From Here to Uncertainty!

David Airey
University of Surrey
UK
_____________________________________________
Abstract
Over the last forty years, education related to tourism has become established as a notable and distinct
part of the repertoire of higher education. It now has a community of scholars, a body of research,
journals and books and many national and international organisations. Numbers of students taking up
tourism programmes has also been growing. All this suggests that the tourism academic community
should feel fairly confident about their position. This is not entirely the case. This paper explores the
uncertainties of tourism in higher education, both the teething problems associated with the
recognition of a new area of study as well as the more fundamental issues related to the nature of
tourism knowledge.
Keywords: Education, Knowledge, Vocationalism, Research, Curriculum
Introduction
The author recently opened a chapter in a book on Tourism Education (Airey and Tribe, forthcoming)
with the words:
“It is now more than 40 years since tourism first appeared as a distinct area of study.
Arguably its history goes back far longer than this in that the study of some of its
component sectors, notably hotel operations and catering, or component activities such as
leisure and recreation can trace their origins to before World War II. Also those
specialising in academic disciplines, notably geographers and economists have paid
attention to the role of tourism in, for example, regional studies or foreign trade studies
over an even longer period. The works of Brunner (1945), Norval (1936), Ogilvie (1933)
and Pimlott (1947) provide some early examples of serious scholarship in tourism and
even an earlier RAE (1891) has provided an account of the burgeoning travel trade of
Victorian England. However, these earlier developments are relatively fragmented either
by sector or by individual scholars. It really awaited the 1960s and a number of key
changes in tourism, in higher education and in society more generally for tourism to
emerge both as a clear area of study in its own right and as a subject for study up to
diploma and degree level and for research. The difference between the changes brought
by the 1960s and what had happened previously is that the basis was established for a
new and fairly discrete subject and an associated community of scholars. One outcome of
this change has been a fairly phenomenal rate of growth. In the UK for example, from
about 20 students of tourism in higher education in 1972 the figure had reached more
than 4,000 new student enrolments each year by the end of the century (Airey, 2002).
There are also many tens of thousands of such students in the UK in further, technical
and school education (Airey and Johnson, 1999).”

This brief background suggests one, rather confident, level of a complex picture in which there has
been a recognition and demand for tourism education with a corresponding expansion in students, in
scholars and in research and publications. All this suggests a relatively easy and confident process in
which growth has provided tourism education with its own rationale and justification. However, there
is also another, rather less confident, face of tourism education and it is this, as suggested by the title
that is the subject of this paper. This face is one of uncertainty. As a new subject area it is not
surprising that tourism’s beginnings were marked by uncertainties. Many of these in the end were
merely ‘teething’ problems. The more surprising thing is that if anything, the uncertainties have
increased over time and have become more fundamental. The purpose of the paper is to explore these
uncertainties by trying to answer a series of questions. It takes a broadly historical approach, starting
in the late 1960s. The underlying message is that as it has developed, more of the questions and
tensions inherent in the study of this complex human activity have become exposed, such that if
anything we are now much less certain about the direction than the early developers were in the
1960s.
Is It Laziness or Terrorism?
When the author went to Scotland in 1972 to join the first cohort of tourism postgraduates the idea of
studying tourism was a mystery to most people both within and outside academia. For many the
image of studying for a degree in tourism was confused with the idea of lying on a beach for a year,
while a misunderstanding by a Guildford headmistress led her to believe that her pupil’s father was
teaching “terrorism” at the University. In the early 1970s and in the wake of the Guildford pub bombs
this was perhaps an understandable mistake. However, such misunderstandings proved not to be
serious and the first tourism programmes were launched successfully and recruited even more
successfully. The justification of employment prospects and tourism becoming “the world’s largest
industry” provided ample evidence to use against the sceptics.
Is It Serious?
From the very beginnings there have been questions about whether this is really a serious area of
academic endeavour. The term “Mickey Mouse” degrees was almost invented for tourism and on a
fairly regular basis the media (Observer 1995) have delighted in carrying stories, often with
academics from other subject areas in collusion, about how these are not really worthy of the title
“degree”. Yet with equal regularity, when they have been the subject of external scrutiny, tourism
programmes have fairly consistently been reported to provide the students with a good education
leading to appropriate employment prospects. In 1992 HM Inspectorate (1992) commented on:
“well-designed programmes which are vocationally relevant, provide a good balance of
theory and practice and offer the students adequate academic challenge.”(p25)
More recently, based on a total of 109 institutions, a report by the QAA reaffirmed the overall quality
of the student experience on programmes in higher education in the related areas of hospitality,
leisure, recreation, sport and tourism (QAA, 2001). Noteworthy comments include:
“Curricula are multidisciplinary, flexible and coherent with impressive links to industry and the
professions.” (p1) “The interrelationship between theory and practice is a consistently strong
feature…” (p1) “The quality of teaching is consistently high. It is characterised by a rich
diversity of approaches, including many industry-supported initiatives” (p1) “The progression
of diplomates and graduates to employment and further study is satisfactory overall, and an
impressive feature of some of the provision”. (p5)
Where Does the Knowledge Come From?

A serious uncertainty, at least for the early years, was where the scholarship would come from. In
1972 there were a handful of books, one, not terribly serious, journal devoted to tourism, an
international organisation of scholars based in Switzerland and a research association based in the
USA. Against this background the knowledge essentially came from what Tribe (1999:103) has
referred to as “extradisciplinary knowledge” from “industry, government, think tanks, interest groups,
research institutes and consultancies”, in other words knowledge from outside academia. This is

clearly demonstrated in the very comprehensive reference list of Burkart and Medlik’s (1974) early
textbook which is dominated by government and official reports. This absence of traditional literature
clearly presented a challenge both to the early course developers as well as to subsequent scholars.
The former rose to the challenge by borrowing from other areas of study, notably economics. The
latter, in one generation, have now created a literature that supports at least 40 academic journals,
hundreds of textbooks, conferences and organisations by the score. Clearly this uncertainty did not in
the long run hold back the development of tourism education.
What are the Programmes For?

The next big question relates to the purpose of the programmes. At the start this seemed not to be a
major issue. They had a clear and fairly narrow, vocational focus. An important influence here was
their location in departments offering degrees in hotel management. This subject had been accepted
for degree level study somewhat earlier in the 1960s during that period of University expansion, a
development influenced by similar and earlier developments in the United States, notably at Cornell
University. The resulting degree programmes in hotel and catering management were highly
vocational, with close links to employers and a focus on practice and operation of the industry. When
tourism was established in this environment it took a similar vocational route. This was further
fostered by some of the early and influential textbooks that effectively set the boundaries of the
curriculum for a decade or more. This can still clearly be seen in the curricula of the first
undergraduate degree programmes created in the mid 1980s (Figure 1) and in the aims of programmes
on offer in the mid 1990s (Figure 2).
Figure 1: Tourism Course – BA (Hons) Tourism
Year 1
Introduction to Tourism; Tourism Environments; Tourism Economics; People, Work and
Tourism; Law; Accounting and Finance; Information; Residential Field Trip.
Year 2
Economics and Finance of Tourism Ops; Human Resource Management; Tourism
Marketing; Law related to Tourism; Administration of Tourism; Assessment of Tourism
Resources; Research Methods; Residential Field Trip.
Year 3
Industrial placement.
Year 4
Tourists and Destinations; Business and Tourism; Options; Dissertation.
Source: Her Majesty’s Inspectorate (1992)
However, behind this apparently simple picture there is another increasingly complex story. The early
scholarly work recognised that tourism raised issues that went well beyond the immediate practice
and operation of the tourism industry. As research progressed and new scholars entered the field,
knowledge of these wider dimensions of tourism expanded such that the aspects of tourism that went
beyond vocationalism became almost paramount and was certainly of great interest to scholars. To
some extent this is reflected in the 2000 benchmark statement for tourism (QAA, 2000) (Figure 3). In
other words, tourism education is not simply about vocationalism. Large parts are concerned with
allowing students to “stand back from their core course of studies” (Barnett, 1990:91) and “see it from
various perspectives” (Stuart-Hoyle, 2003:51).
There is an important uncertainty here. Is the purpose vocational or non-vocational? On the one hand,
as Stuart-Hoyle (2003:62) has suggested the “key purpose of the majority of undergraduate tourism
programmes is claimed to be the preparation of graduates for a career in the tourism industry”.
However, as she points out “the extent to which institutions actually deliver the programmes which
meet that aim varies significantly” and further she suggests that lecturers’ own perspectives on their
role may be very different from the vocational objectives. In other words, we appear to have an
uncertainty which is resolved through the unstated curriculum. The publicity highlights the vocational
attractions while the reality deals with wider and more complex issues. Whether the scrutiny of
teaching quality information will expose this is a question for the future.

Figure 2: Top Twenty ‘Aims and Objectives’ of Tourism Degree Courses

Aims and Objectives Mentions
n=99
1. Career Opportunities 76
2. Employment/employer links/work 53
3. Tourism industry: large/important/global/growth 50
4. Vocational/ ‘reality’ skills/theory into practice 48
5. Tourism industry: international opportunities 45
6. Management/business skills 36
7. Private/public sector opportunities 31
8. Transferable relevant skills for other industries 28
9. Sound education/academic understanding 25
10. Broad foundation/wide range/thorough grounding 22
11. To meet the needs of the tourism industry 21
12.= Decision making/analysis/judgement 20
12.= European context/opportunities 20
14. Social context/sustainable tourism 19
15.= Professional/professionalism 17
15.= Quality excellence 17
17.= Flexibility 14
17.= Service delivery/service sector/customer service 14
19.= Successful/succeed 10
20. Competitive/compete 7
Source: Airey and Johnson (1999)
Figure 3: QAA Subject Benchmark for Tourism
• Concepts and characteristics of tourism as an area of study

• Products, structure and interactions in the tourism industry
• Role of tourism in communities and environments
• Nature and characteristics of tourists
Source: Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (2000)
Is There a Core Curriculum?

One of the important debates of tourism education in the early 1990s related to the idea of a core
curriculum. This was largely prompted by questions raised in the CNAA report (1993). The
background to this was that as tourism programmes had grown and developed, particularly as a wider
range of academics had entered the field, there was unease that, without an agreed curriculum, tourism
would simply mean what programme developers, primarily academics, wanted it to mean. The
CNAA Report warned of the dangers of this in terms of fragmentation, of confusion on the part of
applicants, students and potential employers and that with no common agreement the scope for
developing the subject would be limited. This prompted a number of efforts to describe this core
curriculum of which the QAA benchmark statement is the most recent example. In reality the work of
Tribe (1997) and Airey and Johnson (1999) suggested that for the most part tourism degree
programmes revealed more similarities than differences. In other words, a kind of core curriculum
was already in existence influenced particularly by the programmes’ vocational origins, by the
similarity in the academics’ interests and no doubt also by the competitive environment in which all
programmes competed for the middle ground of student demand. However, Tribe’s (1997) analysis
did point to an important distinction between the overwhelming majority of programmes that
essentially took what he described as a “business disciplinary approach” and those that did not. The
first, as he suggested have a commonality that crystallised around “business” but as he says “there is
no comprehensive aggregation of non-business tourism knowledge” (p654). In other words the
uncertainty about fragmentation largely appears to have been unfounded. Most tourism programmes

are basically similar. It is in the small minority where the diversity and lack of curricular agreement
are found. Stuart-Hoyle (2003) reached similar conclusions, commenting that:
“the most common purpose of tourism undergraduate programmes is to prepare students
to work in the tourism industry.” (p53)
Does Tourism Knowledge Really Exist?

Reference has already been made in this paper to the rapid growth of knowledge about tourism. As
the subject area has grown, driven particularly by student demand in a time when universities are
competing for students, more and more academics have been brought into tourism from a range of
different disciplines. Also, scholars who have specialised in tourism have increasingly joined the
academic community. It is undoubtedly true that this has allowed the knowledge base to expand to
such an extent that within less than one generation an extensive knowledge on tourism has been
created. What is less certain is whether this truly represents ‘tourism knowledge’ as a distinct and
coherent body of theory. This traditionally has been one of the starting points of academic enquiry.
Tribe’s distinction between three different types of knowledge in tourism helps us to understand this
question. First, as previously noted he identifies “extradisciplinary knowledge” that comes from
outside the academic domain. Clearly this knowledge is important in understanding tourism but it
hardly represents a body of theory. Secondly he identifies “multidisciplinary knowledge” which, as
the name suggests, comes from a range of disciplines. Given its origins elsewhere tourism can hardly
claim this as its own. Finally there is what he calls “interdisciplinary knowledge” which comes from
the genuine new knowledge when one or more disciplines are brought together to address a question.
If there is to be a tourism knowledge it lies in this last type.
Given the wide ranging and complex nature of the issues raised by tourism it would be satisfying to
imagine the growth of this interdisciplinary knowledge providing a firm bedrock for tourism as an
area of academic endeavour. This may happen over time but so far there are very few examples.
Butler’s Tourist Area Life Cycle (1980) represents one example and perhaps for this reason the paper
in which it was introduced is the most cited tourism paper. But beyond this, the examples are
isolated. In other words tourism still substantially draws its academic inspiration from elsewhere.
Where Does Tourism Belong?

As it has developed, the shape of tourism as field of study has changed. It started off with a clear
vocational shape which attracted students, attracted universities which in turn provided opportunities
for academics from a range of other subjects. This shape fitted very well in Departments of
Hospitality Management and Business Schools as well as in Tourism Schools, in which, as shown in
Figure 4, the majority of programmes are found. However, over a thirty year period, it has altered its
shape such that while the vocational/business core is still normally present, the territory covered by
the subject goes well beyond this. This change in shape is most prominently seen in the research
areas of tourism academics but it is increasingly evident in the curriculum as well. This raises some
fundamental questions about the location of tourism. For example, while parts of tourism fit very
comfortably in a business school there are other parts which go well beyond the types of enquiry
traditionally found in this environment. This obviously has important implications for the
development of the curriculum and indeed for the development of research. One expression of this
for academics in business schools is the pressure to publish in top management journals rather than in
tourism journals. For the curriculum it can mean restriction on movements into what are seen as
esoteric areas with perhaps the consequential development of a hidden curriculum, as previously
identified.
At the same time this broad spread of tourism and its essential multi-disciplinarity means that it has no
clear home in other subject areas, be they geography, sociology or town planning. A consequence of
this, as Botterill (2002) has pointed out, is that tourism research as a separate body becomes invisible
simply subsumed in other subject areas. In other words at a time when the development of a coherent
body of knowledge about tourism is crucial for its continued emergence as a study area the pressures

seem to be pushing it in a reverse direction into dissipation; or worse, shackling it to the narrow
business-related parts of its territory.
Figure 4: Departments in which Tourism Degree Courses are Located
Location / Department Number

Business and Management 49
Leisure/Sport 14
Hospitality 13
Tourism 8
Environmental/Geography/Social Science 15
Source: Airey and Johnson (1998)
While these uncertainties have been developing, tourism has been linked to other official purposes
with the related subject areas of Hospitality, Leisure, Recreation and Sport. This has found expression
in the QAA bench marking and subject review exercises. At one level there is a logic in this in that
these subjects are all concerned with similar aspects of the human experience and indeed suffer from
similar tensions between vocationalism and academicism. However, this hardly provides an answer to
the fundamental questions about location and indeed the essential differences between them mean that
this may not provide a viable home in which tourism will flourish.
Where From Here?

In so many ways tourism is a victim of its own success. Its success in attracting students and in
attracting scholars has created a generally thriving subject area that offers rich topics for research and
study that can make a real difference to a major sector of human activity. Yet the very things that
have made it successful, particularly its vocationalism and multidisciplinarity, are the very things that
may stand in the way of its full development and recognition as a serious field of study.
Vocationalism seems to have been good for attracting students but not for academic reputation and
multidisciplinarity makes for stimulating programmes but for fragmented research.
Among the current uncertainties there are now two further issues. First, we have begun to see a
decline in applications to tourism programmes with the ratio of applications per place falling from
11:1 in 1995 to 5:1 in 2003 (Stuart-Hoyle, 2004). If this continues one of the key forces that holds the
subject together is weakened. Secondly, the current research pressures, which are taking tourism
scholars into other disciplinary territories, mean that the opportunities to build up the coherent body of
work that is needed for tourism to stake out a claim for recognition is also weakened.
In this uncertain environment however, there are two very positive signs that may provide future
scope for tourism to continue its successful trajectory. The quality of scholarship, provided
particularly by the new generation of academics, gives a basis for the strengthening of the reputation
of tourism itself. Secondly, the collective force represented by tourism literature and organisations,
including this one, represents a formidable pressure if harnessed. The important thing now is to keep
our eyes on tourism and tourism knowledge and achieve the best possible scholarship in this.
References
Airey, D. and Johnson, S. (1998) The Profile of Tourism Studies Degree Courses in the UK 1997/98,
London: National Liaison Group for Tourism in Higher Education in the UK.
Airey, D. and Johnson, S. (1999) The Content of Tourism Degree Courses in the UK, Tourism
Management, 20(2), 229-235.
Airey D and Tribe J (forthcoming) An International Handbook of Tourism Education, Oxford:
Elsevier.
Barnett, R. (1990) The Idea of Higher Education, Buckingham: SRHE/OUP.

Botterill, D. (2002) Tourism Studies and Research Quality Assessment, Journal of Hospitality,
Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, 1(2), 71-74.
Burkart, A.J. and Medlik, S. (1974) Tourism Past Present and Future, London: Heinemann.
Butler, R.W. (1980) The Concept of a Tourism Area Cycle of Evolution: implications for management
and resources, Canadian Geographer, 24(1), 5-12.
Council for National Academic Awards (1993) Review of Tourism Studies Degree Courses, London:
CNAA.
HM Inspectorate (1992) Higher Education in the Polytechnics and Colleges, Hotel, Catering and
Tourism Management, London: HMSO.
Observer newspaper (1995) New Focus, Second Class Citizens p15, 3 September 1995.
QAA (2000) Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Subject Benchmark, Gloucester: Quality
Assurance Agency for Higher Education.
QAA (2001) Hospitality, Leisure, Recreation, Sport and Tourism, Subject Overview Report 2000-
2001, Gloucester: Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education.
Stuart-Hoyle M (2002) Critical Influences on Tourism as a Subject in UK Higher Education: Lecturer
Perspectives. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education 1(1), 5-18.
Stuart-Hoyle M (2003) The Purpose of Tourism Undergraduate Tourism Programmes in the United
Kingdom, Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education 2(1), 49-74.
Stuart-Hoyle M (2004) 1993-2003 Critical Incidents: Tourism in Higher Education (Guidelines No
12) Farnham: Association of Tourism in Higher Education.
Tribe J (1997) The Indiscipline of Tourism, Annals of Tourism Research 24(3), 638-657.
Tribe J (1999) The Philosophic Practitioner: Tourism Knowledge and the Curriculum, Unpublished
doctoral dissertation, University of London, London.


Keynote Speakers
_________________________________________
‘Cheese, Gromit. We’ll Go Somewhere

Where There’s Cheese’. Wallace and
Gromit’s Grand Day Out: Imagery,
Metaphor and Postgraduate Tourism
Teaching
Brian Wheeller
Breda University of Professional Education
The Netherlands
_________________________________________
Abstract
This presentation explores the integration of unorthodox teaching material, imagery and metaphor into
the delivery of postgraduate tourism teaching and learning – with Wallace and Gromit and the impacts
of travel and tourism as exemplar. It reports and elaborates on a research funded by the Learning and
Teaching Support Network for Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism. Although the original project
was clearly focussed on imagery and the visual…and this, indeed, remained central to the ensuing
research…interest broadened to incorporate other relevant, concomitant aspects – of which humour
(its delivery, currency, international and intercultural appeal etc) was considered critical. The
research, therefore, embraced learning and humour in general (and their visual interface in particular).
Fieldwork was conducted at eight higher education establishments; 110 postgraduate tourism students
were involved in the exercise. Student feedback would suggest that A Grand Day Out is an excellent
teaching tool. Not only can the range of tourism impacts – be they social/ cultural/ political/ economic
environmental – be elucidated, but spatial and temporal dimensions of this impact memorably
illustrated. It is a stimulating, provocative and, crucially, hilarious means of engaging students in the
appreciation of tourism impacts. Just as importantly, it is argued here that the Wallace and Gromit
DVD/video is a particularly apposite vehicle to show, ideally at the beginning of their programme, to
a group of multi-cultural postgraduate tourism students from a range of cultural and discipline
backgrounds, and who have varying levels of expertise in English. After all, a laugh, it is said, is the
shortest distance between two people. And tourism, and tourism teaching, should surely essentially be
fun. The research, it is argued, reinforces the belief that, if executed with conviction, and using
suitably considered (if unorthodox) material honed to the needs of the recipient cohort, an exercise
that deliberately introduces something eclectic into an otherwise conventional programme does have
disproportionately positive effects.
Keywords: Imagery and Metaphor, Postgraduate Tourism Teaching and Learning

Introduction
This presentation explores the integration of ‘unorthodox’ teaching material, imagery and metaphor
into the delivery of postgraduate teaching and learning – with Wallace and Gromit and the impacts of
travel and tourism as exemplar. It is a first step in reporting and elaborating on recent research funded
by the (then) Learning and Teaching Support Network…now metamorphosed into the Higher
Academy Subject Network …. for Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism in the UK. At the outset, I
am pleased to acknowledge my appreciation (and admiration) of their vision, and am obviously
grateful for their support, with regard to this venture.
Although the original axis of the envisaged project was clearly focussed on imagery and the
visual…and this, indeed, remained central to the ensuing research…. interest broadened to incorporate
other relevant, concomitant aspects – of which humour (its delivery, currency, international and
intercultural appeal etc) was obviously crucial. So, I’m hoping that to some extent this will be
reflected in todays rather light-hearted, but neither flippant nor frivolous, finale to the conference
proceedings. It really is a pleasure to be here and I’m flattered by having been afforded the
opportunity, and flexibility, as a keynote to attempt something a little different in bringing the
conference to a close. After these initial introductory words, what I’d like to do is take the liberty of
showing the video in its entirety. Rather than edited ‘highlights’ I have opted for showing the full
twenty- two minutes, in all its engaging glory. Usually, videos in keynotes are about as welcome as a
death at a birthday party. But I’m confident that Wallace and Gromit’s inimitable style will win you
over and that the ensuing presentation endorses my decision.
My reading, listening and watching encompassed learning and humour in general and, in particular,
their visual inter-face. The approach was eclectic in scope, embracing as background, yet integral,
contextualising material information on television, film and the video, a history of stop-motion
animation, Wallace and Gromit, Nick Park’s career and the successful development of Aardman
Productions. Similarly, I employed a range of material - books, journals, newspaper and magazine
articles, video/DVD and the internet - the intention being to cover and include both academic and,
equally importantly, non-academic ‘popular’ matter, thereby cementing a theme close to my heart and
one that I have always tried to adhere to, and incorporate into, all of my work. Often, we tend to be
too academic, too highbrow, overlooking or failing to recognise the wealth of teaching resources
readily available in unorthodox, yet common or garden material. (See chapter on Teaching and
Learning in Airey, D and Tribe, J forthcoming International Handbook of Tourism Education.)
Fieldwork
The fieldwork was conducted at eight higher education establishments during the 2002-2003
academic year. The respective postgraduate cohorts taking part consisted primarily of students
pursuing a range of named postgraduate tourism programmes. Also present were hospitality students
and a very small minority undertaking other majors. A total of 110 postgraduate students pursuing the
tourism modules covered by the survey were involved. All completed a questionnaire. In some
instances, a few undergraduate students also attended the sessions. They are not included in the
numerical breakdown and their completed questionnaires have been removed from the sample.
Chronologically, the fieldwork was conducted at:
The University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand, September 2002

19 students:
• Graduate Diploma Tourism 10
• Masters in Tourism 9
University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia, September 2002

33 students:
• Graduate Diploma in Tourism 9
• Master of Business International Tourism Management 13

• Master of Business International Hotel Management 8

• Master of Business International Events Management 1
• MBA 2
Birmingham College of Food, Tourism and Creative Studies, October 2002

23 students:
• MA Adventure Tourism 5
• MA Tourism Business Administration 14
• MSc Hospitality with Tourism 4
NHTV, The University of Breda, The Netherlands, October 2002

10 students
• MA European Tourism Management 10
University of Exeter, October 2002

12 students:
• MSc Tourism Development and Policy 12
University of Plymouth, Seale-Hayne, March 2003

6 students
• MSc Rural Tourism 6
College of St Mark and St John, Plymouth, April 2002

5 students
• MA Tourism and Social Responsibility 5
University of Wales Institute, Cardiff, May 2003

3 students
• MSc Tourism Management 2
• MSc Leisure Management 1
Total = 110 postgraduate tourism students
Some considerable thought was put into the questionnaire design. Given the constraints of delivery,
the intention was to come up with a short, manageable straightforward format that consisted of
(hopefully) interesting questions, which would provide the requisite basic data - while encouraging
individual expression. A couple of ‘generic’ questions on the use of videos to be completed before
being shown Wallace and Gromit’s lunar adventures, introduced the exercise. Then, after screening,
the students were asked a further eight questions prior to the discussion session. Post–discussion,
students were encouraged to respond to the remaining questions which comprised essentially of
repeating three key questions – in order to gauge the significance of the discussion - plus some that
provided profiled data of the students.
Student Feedback
Clearly, as an exploratory exercise, only so much could feasibly be achieved. Even so, student
feedback would suggest that A Grand Day Out is an excellent teaching vehicle…“I think it is a
fantastic teaching tool” “very good teaching method” “I like your lecture” “ Enjoyed the different
lecturing’’ “It is a great video. Should show more to any people” etc. Not only can the range of
tourism impacts – social/cultural/political/economic/environmental - be elucidated, but spatial and
temporal dimensions of this impact can be successfully illustrated…“Excellent way of illustrating
implications of tourism” “This lecture basically covers all of the impact lectures.” “I enjoy this kind of
educative tool, for me it is more effective than lectures” etc. While recognising possible charges of
‘cherry-picking’ here, these positive comments do reflect the overall student response as recorded by
the survey and are indicative of the tone of the discussion. Only three returns were overtly negative -

although it is also readily acknowledged here that some student cultures, disproportionately
represented on postgraduate tourism programmes, are far too polite to respond negatively to the
lecturer. These reservations were “This video would be more useful when illustrating these topics to a
younger audience”… concern that the video did not cover tourism planning and comments that using
the video denigrated the subject matter. And another student did comment that ‘the dog’s interests
weren’t sufficiently considered.’ If nothing else, it was well worth conducting the entire research
process if only to elicit this one marvellous response… for this one magical moment.
Adopting an unorthodox approach can undoubtedly engender interest, critical thought and fire
students’ imagination … “Excellent session, very interesting and stimulating. This is one of the few
seminars I’ve been able to concentrate on all the way through”: ‘‘Critical thinking”: “It’s really open
my eyes. I hope you give us more speeches to broad our view.”: “An interesting and unique twist to
introducing tourism themes and impacts. A revelatory approach that sets minds thinking”. And, rather
worryingly, “brian-storming”.
Students were wary of “old, out of date videos from the 80s”. But none commented negatively on this
with regard to Wallace and Gromit. On the contrary some recognised its ‘timeless’ qualities...and
transposed this to ‘quaintness’. {Literature on Wallace and Gromit, and Aardman productions in
general, emphasise this ‘timeless’ appeal.}.
The British sense of humour was commented on by many students, who thought it a useful way of
familiarising themselves with a different culture. Those students whose first language was not
English also found the predominantly visual medium easier to understand {while it is noted here that
there is, of course, dialogue - at times colloquial and with an accent - it is delivered slowly, sparsely
and in tandem with ‘explanatory’ animation}.
The time given to discussion proved fruitful, with the mutual feedback section very successful. For
many of the students (understandably, especially those new to the subject) the discussion appears
critical to the success of the session. “Great film especially when you delve deeper.” Pre-discussion
one student wrote…“I’m interested to see what is coming up. I hope I am not being too critical but I
would like to see some relevance.” And after the discussion? “Wow! A new way of looking at
things. Especially, the approach was very interesting and the use of alternative mediums in education.
I was surprised by the relevance the video had to my studies.”
Reflections and Conclusions

Although notes of the discussions were taken at the time, it would have been sensible to have tape-
recorded them as well. Similarly, if the exercise is to be repeated, there is room for possible
improvement. When, and where, appropriate, the cohort could, perhaps, be split into
groups…probably with directed, specific questions to address as a group, before the lecturer leads the
cohort discussion. Ideally too, there could be a concluding, wrap-up discussion at the end of the
session where students are encouraged to suggest other possible potential unconventional material that
they might think apposite. In the discussion sessions I had broached the idea of incorporating wider,
more eclectic material into postgraduate tourism programmes. On reflection, this could perhaps prove
most productive if conducted at the end of the session. Either that, or include a specific question to
that end. Or both.
To me, it would seem that the most productive delivery would be to show the video in the first full
session with the new cohort of postgraduate tourism students …and then re-run it again at the end of
the (or appropriate) module, elaborating with further appropriate lecturer input and group discussion.
But unfortunately, given timetable limitations, this is perhaps unlikely to materialise.
It is appreciated that it is often easier as a one-off visiting lecturer to generate interest amongst the
students through what is perceived as a different approach. Even allowing for this, I feel the project
helps reinforce the belief that, if executed well and using suitably considered material, carefully honed
to the ‘interests’ of the recipient cohort, an exercise that deliberately introduces something ‘different’

into an otherwise more conventional programme does have disproportionately positive effects. These,
and other, impressions/conclusions are drawn from an amalgam of both qualitative and quantitative
data generated by the project. Knowledge acquired from the literature search, the experience gained
from conducting the surveys, the contribution of the discussions etc, together with the questionnaire
data itself, all proved fruitful.
Particularly rewarding was the impression that by far the majority of students appeared to enjoy the
exercise immensely. In the current education environment, where discerning postgraduates are often
funding their own studies, ‘to enjoy’ is, I suggest, synonymous with getting out of it ‘something
worthwhile and relevant to their studies.’ While conducting the sessions the mood and atmosphere in
the lecture rooms was buoyant and positive. This was reflected strongly in the questionnaire returns.
“It is easy to understand and I really enjoyed watching it” etc.
From a personal perspective, conducting the research was fun…..an enjoyable and highly rewarding
exercise. Wonderful…. And one that, judging from their responses, has broadened the imaginations
of, and brought pleasure to, the vast majority of the students that participated.
A laugh, it is said, is the shortest distance between two people. With this in mind, it seems appropriate
to conclude with a line from the aptly evergreen titled Quotations of Our Time (Peter, L 1980). On
page 80 there is a quotation from Laurence J. Peter that reads “Two things reduce
prejudice…education and laughter”. Dovetailing together perfectly in A Grand Day Out, these two
precious, priceless commodities are evident in glorious excess in Wallace and Gromit’s splendid
video, surely, a ‘must-see’ for all postgraduate tourism students.
Thank you.
References
Airey, D and Tribe, J (eds.) International Handbook of Tourism Education, Elsevier (forthcoming).
Peter, L (1980) Quotations of Our Time, Souvenir Press.
Wallace and Gromit: Three Cracking Adventures, (2000), Aardman/BBC Worldwide DVD.


Presentations
_________________________________________
A Discursive Semiotic Analysis of Tourism

Higher Education Texts
Maureen Ayikoru
University of Surrey
UK
_________________________________________
Abstract
This study investigates the relationship between tourism higher education and the texts that represent
it. The aim is to provide an alternative ‘reading’ of tourism education to that which focuses either on
the vocational or liberal aspects of tourism education. Attempts will be made to demonstrate that
tourism higher education is a synthesis of a complex web of texts and discourses that emanate from
different sources with broad implications. Curricula documents, education White Papers and Quality
Assurance Agency proposals are some of the documents to be interrogated. An interpretive paradigm
and specific approach of discursive semiotic analysis will guide the study.
Keywords: Vocational education, liberal education, interpretive paradigm, texts, discourse
Introduction
Tourism education is apparently one of the main sub sectors of the multisectoral tourism world and
one whose manifestation could impact on the whole of tourism’s society, directly or indirectly. Tribe
(1999) defines tourism’s society as encompassing not only tourists but all those impacted upon by
tourism, and, the tourism world as comprising three main domains, namely: the domains of the
tourists, the business and non-business environment.
Tourism higher education (THE) has been singled out by the World Tourism Organisation (WTO) as
holding a potential to achieve customer satisfaction and also improve the competitiveness of tourism
businesses and regions if specific education and training are guaranteed (WTO 1997). Bergsma
(2000) writing from the tourism and hospitality industry perspective notes that the average age of
people seeking employment is increasing, and that more people are in education and training,
necessitating tourism operators to follow the same trend when recruiting and investing in human
capital. She adds that in the new millennium, it is the latter, not capital assets that will make the
difference (2000:77). These not only reflect the potential role tourism education can play within the
tourism sector but also points to the enormous task that it ought to pursue in order to produce human
resources capable of steering the sector through the present, into the future.
Further still, WTO (1997) reiterates the need to not only direct specific efforts at training and
education but also to match the curriculum design as well as the contents of the teaching programmes
to demand. In other words, these should address the needs of the employers, the recipients of
education as well as the providers of education (Ibid).
However the provision of tourism education poses a very fundamental challenge to the educators in
that the different stakeholders have specific tourism education needs they deem appropriate for their

own purposes. This in principle should be reflected in the form of tourism higher education offered by
different institutions, something that does not seem to happen in practice. Lewis (2002) writes about
how [tourism higher education] programmes developed in North America and the UK tend to be
dominated by economic models and vocational ethos “that attach minimal emphasis on a critical
assessment of the broader implications of [the] tourism [phenomenon].”
Likewise Craig-Smith (1995) indicates how the tourism industry and other stakeholders like the WTO
and International Labour Organisation (ILO) argue that the prevailing education (in Asia pacific)
leaves a gap between student output and industry needs. Moreover it is said that there is apparent
incompatibility between the skilled labour supply from training organisations and the demand from
the industry (see also WTO 1997).
Although the industry - taken here to mean the domain of business within the tourism world (see
Tribe 1999) - appears to be the most predominant employer within the tourism sector, it certainly isn’t
the only one that has training and education needs that ought to be addressed. The non-business
domain that entails inter alia the public sector, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), local
communities and even tourism academics have demands that ought to be catered for by tourism
education and training. The latter’s stakeholder demands are imperatives that derive from the fact that
tourism has multiple impacts on society. In this regard Lewis (2002) has noted that;
“…where social phenomenon are considered, the tourism programmes are generally
limited to elucidating those human resource factors that contribute to maintaining a
stable workforce” (2002:2).
All these point to a fundamental concern; education that is hinged upon improving and/or enhancing
vocational/professional efficiency in the strictest sense is tantamount to viewing the world narrowly
from an economic model perspective which tends to be deterministic and reductionist. As Goodlad
would argue, such a view fails to capture what it means to be human (Goodlad 1997, cited in
Stevenson 2002). From this brief overview arises the main research issue. Although THE has been
shown to hold a potential to cater to the human resource needs of the entire tourism sector, the actual
way through which this has been represented leaves a lot to be desired. THE has been represented by
some specific texts which when analysed critically point to the fact that it is underpinned by some
particular discourses.
The notion of discourse as used here derives from Foucault’s (1972) conceptualisation in which
discourse encompasses an analysis of language in social use/practice whereby language is perceived
as not being neutral. It entails the use of language to not only reflect social reality but also to shape
that reality; and the converse holds. Viewed against this background, discourse is seen to operate
through the privileging of certain meanings and interpretations at the expense of other possible
alternatives. Thus issues of knowledge and power are considered to be part and parcel of any one
discourse (see for example Foucault 1971, 1980, Potter 1996; Chambers 2003).
With this in mind, the main issue at stake in this study is the pursuit of a critical ‘reading’ of THE in
three universities by focusing on the texts that appear to represent it implicitly or explicitly. The
universities in question include Makerere University in Kampala, Uganda; Buckinghamshire Chilterns
University College in High Wycombe, United Kingdom and University of Surrey in Guildford,
United Kingdom.
The main aim is to investigate what central discourses underpin THE in these universities and also to
attempt to discern their implications on the meanings and aims of THE in general. The specific aim
would be to attempt to provide an alternative ‘reading’ of THE in the sample universities in a clear
and coherent manner with the intention of demonstrating the discursive nature of the link between
THE and the texts that appear to represent it.
It is hoped that an understanding of this discursive relationship will become apparent and thus serve to
challenge what seems to be a ‘natural’ way of representing THE. Nevertheless, no claims are being

made here to suggest that this will be the only ‘correct’ reading of THE through the texts that
represent it, rather this will be one of the many possible interpretations, believed to be plausible, at
least from the point of view of this present study.
Likewise ‘reading’ THE in the said manner will also be done against the backdrop of existing
theoretical conceptualisations. The concept of philosophic practitioner (PP) (Tribe 2002) that
encompasses THE where the curriculum entails not only vocational/professional courses but also
liberal/emancipatory courses, will be of particular interest. This PP concept operationalised through
four seemingly disparate but related curriculum spaces - that is vocational action, vocational
reflection, reflective liberal, and liberal action - will also be discussed in discursive terms. Thus by
pursuing the objectives discussed in the preceding paragraphs, this study will hope to answer the main
research question: what are the central discourses that constitute THE and how have these become
‘the only acceptable’ discourses in the sample universities?
Rationale for the Proposed Study

In this study, THE is viewed as an integral part of a wider tourism society (See Tribe 1999) and thus
education as a process that is far from being neutral (see for example Freire 1970, Giroux 1983, and
Sarup 1978). As Youngman (1986) has noted, education is not only inextricably linked to the
economic, social and political structure of society, but acts as a setting for class struggles, resistance
and opposition to unjust [cultural], socio-political and economic structures.
If Youngman is to be believed, then education – in this case tourism higher education - ought to
ensure that learners have the opportunity to gain multiple perspectives on the [tourism] phenomenon
they are studying. This way their perceptions of / and actions within the [tourism] world are not
limited and/or restricted to the realm of the taken-for-granted issues. With this in mind, the motivation
for this study can be traced to two main issues.
Firstly, the literature consulted so far shows no traceable links to empirical studies that address the
possibility for a discursively derived critical and alternative ‘reading’ of tourism higher education. A
critical ‘reading’ that will attempt to challenge the paucity with which THE has been concomitantly
presented as a ‘natural’ phenomenon through certain texts that have become reified within the tourism
higher education system. As alluded to earlier, existing works in this respect have tended to be
conceptual/ theoretical in nature (see Tribe 2002; Airey 2003) and also for the better part these have
concentrated on tourism higher education in developed countries. As such the need to investigate this
territory in a real world, let alone developing country context, becomes a novel pursuit in this study.
Secondly, the use of a discursive semiotic approach to investigate the representation of THE in the
manner proposed here is a theoretical challenge that has also served a motivating function. Some
traceable empirical works have been done in tourism inquiry using either a semiotic approach or a
discursive approach. For instance, quite a number of researchers have used a semiotic approach to
analyse tourism brochures, see for example Thurot & Thurot 1983; Cohen 1989, Cooper 1994 (cited
in Hannam & Knox in press), MacCannell 1989.
However, all of these were primarily promotional materials with greater implications for tourism
marketing, and thus the business of tourism but not THE. Likewise, a discursive approach has been
employed by tourism researchers in different inquiries, such as an analysis of the relationship between
heritage and the nation (Chambers 2003). Similarly, Dann’s (1996a) treatment of tourism as a socially
constructed language with a unique discourse, and an influential work by John Urry (1990) in which
he uses the Foucauldian concept of the disciplinary gaze to conceptualise his notion of the tourist
gaze. Although the common ground between these previous studies and what is proposed here is the
actual use of these two approaches, the main difference is that none of these previous studies has
sought to combine semiotics and discourse analytic approaches in the manner proposed here.
Thus for now it is believed that the use of a discursive semiotic approach to understand the
relationship between THE and the texts/discourses that underpin it presents a territory that has not

been explored in the contemporary tourism [higher education] inquiry. These two aspects therefore
provide the motivational impetus behind the pursuance of the proposed study.
Methodology
This section briefly reflects on the methodological approach that will underpin this proposed study.
The overriding assumption here is that it is pertinent to explicate the epistemological and ontological
underpinnings of any form of inquiry as a means to ensure that these aspects shape the purpose of
research. Thus the interpretive methodology is being adopted here and the rationale for this will be
offered in terms of the ontological and epistemological assumptions inherent, compared to, for
instance, the scientific positivist paradigm.
But first a brief distinction is made between a methodology and a method as these terms are often
used interchangeably yet they are not necessarily synonymous (see Tribe 2001; Chambers 2003). It is
not uncommon to find discussions on methodology being replete with what is actually the method of
inquiry and indeed the latter has been privileged over the former (ibid). Here it is believed that
methodological considerations are imperatives that serve to articulate the philosophical grounds
within which a particular inquiry is rooted, lest the nature of the inquiry, beliefs and assumptions of
the inquirer remain masked.
Methodology and Method

Methodology can be regarded as ‘a model, which entails theoretical principles as well as framework
that provides guidelines about how research is done in the context of a particular paradigm’
(Sarantakos 1998:32). Thus a thorough reflection on different methodologies and the paradigms they
espouse form a crucial part in this study. A paradigm in this case refers to ‘the beliefs, assumptions
and values that underlie the way that different perspectives interpret reality’ (Jennings 2001:443). It is
this reflection on methodologies and underlying paradigms that enables one to locate, for example, the
different ontological perspectives inherent in each and the implications of these on the research issue
(s) in question.
A method on the other hand refers to ‘the tools or instruments employed by researchers to gather
empirical evidence or to analyse data’ (Sarantakos 1998). This means a method cannot in principle be
selected without a regard for the underlying methodology - as the latter has implications for the
research questions being posed and also the choice of methods or combinations thereof that are
deemed appropriate to address the questions (See Tribe 2001). The next subsection offers a brief
discussion of the interpretive methodology and discursive semiotic analysis as an approach that will
inform the investigations into the study being proposed here.
The Interpretive Social Sciences Methodology

This is a methodology rooted in the thoughts of hermeneutical sciences, whose emphasis is on
development of understanding of texts and cultures (Young 1990). The paradigm views the world as
consisting of multiple realities (Guba and Lincoln 1994; Fetterman 1989), so that a phenomenon such
as tourism, or its social constructs like education, curriculum etc can be explained in multiple ways.
This is as opposed to the scientific positivist tradition sometimes described as empirical analytical
sciences, whereby methodology is rooted in predictive control and subsequent actions are hinged
upon prediction and manipulation (Young 1990; see also Guba 1990). This positivist paradigm
upholds a worldview in which rules explain the behaviour of observable phenomenon through
establishment of causal relationships (Jennings 2001). In other words positivism is governed by a
realist ontological perspective which believes that “there exists a reality out there, driven by
immutable natural laws; and that the role of science is to discover the ‘true’ nature of how it ‘truly’
works” (Guba 1990:19). Although founded in the natural sciences, this paradigm also views the social
world - of which tourism education is part - as being organised by universal laws and truths (ibid).
Thus laws are regarded as “a probabilistic generalisation of descriptions of patterns of sensations, and
their roles in enhancing prediction of future sensory experiences is upheld’ (Rom 1981:3).

Within the interpretive social sciences paradigm, a proposed study or social inquiry is approached
inductively, by first exploring the empirical world (Jennings 2001). This is done in order to attain
explanations about the phenomenon and later on to form a basis for theory building (ibid). Whereas
the positivist tradition is rooted in expert-driven inquiries, the interpretive methodology starts off by
gaining an understanding into the meanings ascribed to the phenomenon by the subjects or
participants involved (Phillimore and Goodson 2004). By so-doing the interpretivists provide room
for the research subjects to voice their opinions into the inquiry (see Tribe 2001) rather than
objectifying them as data to be predicted and verified according to the laws of probability
(Hemmingway 1999, paraphrasing Horkheimer).
Within the context of this present study, the interpretive methodology would underlie the analysis of
the interrelationships amongst texts that underpin THE with a view to generating multiple meanings.
This will entail the use of discursive semiotic analysis as an approach to investigate the complexities
so-perceived through these texts. It is noteworthy to point out here that the use of discursive semiotic
analysis does not fall neatly into the preceding definition of a method, rather it is being used in this
particular context for the potential it holds for furthering the research issue at hand. Existing literature
shows that this approach rejects a positivistic view of reality in favour of a social constructionist
and/or interpretive perspective of the world. Likewise the fact that its views of language stems from
structuralist and post structuralist perspectives whereby language is regarded not as a neutral
descriptive medium but as a way of constituting and shaping social reality and social practices (Gill
1995; Chambers 2003).
As intimated earlier on, the Foucauldian notion of discourse is adopted, in which he perceived the
relationship between/amongst discourses to be dyadic in nature. That is, the notion of discourse
encompasses statements and the practices that result from these statements in such a way that led
Foucault to assert that discourses entail “those practices that systematically form the objects of which
they speak” (1972:49), which in turn define the limits of what can [and cannot] be said.
Of particular interest is Foucault’s assertion that truth is fundamentally a discursive construction

encapsulating different regimes all of which play a crucial role in delineating what is true and false
(see Potter 1996, Phillips and Jorgensen 2002). The crux of the matter for Foucault is that despite the
fact that there exists innumerable possibilities within which statements can be made, the statements
that derive from specific domains tend to be similar and repetitive. And that as a consequence,
multiplicity of statements remain unuttered; and that even if they were, the historical rules of the
discourse in question would occlude these as being meaningful.
This would be the result of discursive rules determining what can be uttered and thus accepted as
meaningful and what ought to be precluded (see Foucault 1972). Another Foucauldian concept that
might be useful in this study is that of ‘problematisation’ whereby he became concerned with the fact
that ‘At specific times and under particular circumstances, certain phenomenon are questioned,
analysed, classified and regulated, while others are not’ (Deacon 2000:127, quoted in Chambers
2003).
These then set precedence into how the discursive semiotic analysis of tourism higher education will
be undertaken based on the texts enumerated earlier on. However this is an evolving study and more
theoretical and methodological aspects need to be clarified in order to make a more coherent argument
to justify the research issue.
References
Airey D (2003) Tourism Education -Dilemma of Success? Tedqual, 1(6), 22-25.
Bergsma M (2000) The Future of Tourism and Hospitality. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 2(2),
76-79.
Chambers DP (2003) A discursive Analysis of the Relationship between Heritage and The Nation.
Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, Buckinghamshire Chilterns University College, Brunel
University.

Craig-Smith SJ (1994) Tourism Training Needs in the Asia Pacific Region: Research Notes and
Reports, University of Queensland, Australia.
Dann GMS (1996) The Language of Tourism: A Sociolinguistic Perspective. Wallingford, United
Kingdom: CAB International.
Fetterman D.M. (1989) Ethnography step by step. Applied Social Research Method Series, 17
Newbury Park: Sage.
Foucault M (1972) The Archaeology of Knowledge. Tavistock.
Foucault M. (1980) Power/Knowledge. Selected interviews and Other Writings 1972-1979. In C.
Gordon (ed.) Michel Foucault. Power/Knowledge. Selected interviews and other writings 1972-
1979.
Freire, P (1970) Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Seabury.
Gill S (1995) American Hegemony and the Trilateral Commission. New York: Cambridge University
Press.
Giroux H (1983) Theory and Resistance in Education: Pedagogy of Opposition. Bergin & Garvey:
New York.
Guba EG (1990) The Alternative Paradigm Dialog. In: EG Guba (Ed.) The Paradigm Dialog. Sage.
Guba EG, Lincoln, YS (1994). Competing Paradigms in Qualitative Research. In: NK Denzin and YS
Lincoln (Eds). Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Hannam K, Knox D (in press) Discourse Analysis in Tourism Research: A Critical Perspective.
Hemmingway JL (1999) Critique and Emancipation: Toward a Critical Theory of Leisure. In: EL
Jackson and TL Burton (Eds.), Leisure Studies. Prospects for the Twenty-first Century (487-
506). State College, Pennsylvania: Venture.
Jennings G (2001) Tourism Research. Australia: John Wiley & Sons.
Lewis A (2002) A Case Study of Tourism Curriculum Development in the Caribbean: A Stakeholder
Perspective. Unpublished Doctoral dissertation. Buckinghamshire Chilterns University College,
Brunel University.
MacCannell D (1989) The Tourist: A New Theory of the Leisure Class. New York: Schocken Books.
Phillimore J, Goodson L (Eds) (2004) Qualitative Research in Tourism: Ontologies, Epistemologies
and Methodologies. London/New York: Routledge: Taylor and Francis Group.
Phillips L, Jorgensen MW (2002) Discourse Analysis as Theory and Method. London: Sage.
Potter J (1996) Representing Reality: Discourse, Rhetoric and Social Construction. London: Sage.
Rom H (1981) The Positivist-Empiricist Approach and its Alternative In: P. Reason And J. Rowan
(Eds) Human Inquiry. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 3-17.
Sarantakos. S (1998) Social Research. Second Edition. South Melbourne: Macmillan.
Sarup. M (1978) Marxism and Education. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Stevenson RB Education and Sustainable Development: Perspectives and Possibilities In: Tilbury. D,
Stevenson. RB, Fien. J, Schreuder. D (Eds). Education and Sustainability: Responding to the
Global Challenge.
Tribe J (1999) The Concept of Tourism: Framing a Wide Tourism World and Broad Tourism Society.
Tourism Recreation Research 24(2) 75-81.
Tribe J (2001) Research Paradigms and Tourism Curriculum. Journal of Travel Research, 39, May,
442-448.
Tribe J (2002). The Philosophic Practitioner. Annals of Tourism Research, 29(2), 338-357.
Urry J (1990) The Tourist Gaze. Sage.
World Tourism Organisation (WTO) (1995): An introduction to TEDQUAL 1st Edition: September
1997.
Youngman F (1986) Adult Education and Socialist Pedagogy: Radical Forum on Adult Education.
London: Croom Helm Ltd
Young RE (1990) A Critical Theory of Education: Habermas and Our Children’s Future Teachers
College Press, Columbia University

_________________________________________
Learning Issues and Learning Problems of

Confucian Heritage Culture Students
Studying Hospitality and Tourism
Management in Australia
Paul Barron
The University of Queensland
Australia
_________________________________________
Abstract
International education is one of Australia’s largest industries and the fees generated by international
students are becoming increasingly important to the budgetary health of most Australian universities.
Traditionally, many international students that study for an Australian qualification originate from
Asia and a majority of these students are of Confucian culture heritage. As part of a larger study, and
working within a post-positivist interpretative paradigm, this paper builds on previous research that
identified the learning style preferences of international students who are studying hospitality
management and/or hospitality and tourism management at higher level in Australia. This paper
reports on research that examines Confucian Heritage Culture students’ learning experiences,
identifies differences in educational approaches and highlights specific problems and issues regarding
such students’ learning experiences.
Keywords: Education; international students; learning issues and problems
Introduction
During the past decade, education has developed to be Australia’s eighth largest export industry,
earning AUD$3.149 billion in export income in session 1998/1999 (Davis, Olsen and Bohm, 2000)
and contributing AUD$4.2 billion to the Australian economy in 2001 (Bohm, Davies, Meares and
Pearce, 2002). In comparison to domestic students who pay tuition fees through a combination of
government subsidy and personal contribution, invariably international students pay full tuition fees
(roughly double the domestic student fee) to the educational institution. As a whole, in 2000, these
international students contributed an estimated AUD$900 million annually to university budgets in
Australia (Davis et al. 2000).
Considering the potential income opportunities for Australian universities, it is not surprising that they
are keen to attract and retain international students. Many are often explicit in their desire to increase
their proportion of full fee paying international students. Consequently, higher education institutions
in Australia are adopting strategies that will result in international students undertaking tertiary study
at that particular university. Indeed the drive to attract international students is often quantified and
translated to university, faculty and school strategic objectives.
International Students Studying in Australia

The recruitment strategies adopted by many Australian universities appear to be successful as
international student enrolment at Australian higher education institutions has grown significantly

over the past decade. Australia now ranks third behind the United States and the United Kingdom as
the destination of choice for international students (Meares, 2003; IDP Education Australia, 2000).
The number of international students studying Australian programmes in Australia has more than
doubled from 46,600 to 108,600 students in the period 1992 to 2000 (Maslen, 1999; IDP Education
Australia, 2000). This figure has continued to rise with some 115,365 international students studying
for Australian higher education qualifications in semester one 2003 (IDP Australia, 2003). While
Australia trails both the UK and the USA in terms of international student enrolments, the annual
growth rate of international students studying in Australian higher education institutions at 15.3%
outstrips the growth rate of both the USA and the UK, at 4.9% and 3.5% respectively, during the
period 1997 to 2003 (Meares, 2003). Currently more than 13% of the total student enrolment in
Australia originates overseas (IDP Australia, 2003).
Future demand for Australian education appears strong with the International Development Program,
(IDP Australia, 2003) considering that, of the forecast 7.6 million students who will be studying
overseas by 2025, almost 1 million of these will be studying for Australian qualifications, either
onshore in Australia, by distance learning, or at an offshore campus of an Australian institution
(Bohm, et al. 2002).
Traditionally, the majority of international students who study for an Australian qualification originate
from Asia with Malaysia, Singapore, Hong Kong, Indonesia and more recently China, contributing in
excess of two thirds of the total overseas student enrolment (Sharma and Calderon, 1998; Davis et al.
2000; IDP Australia, 2003). Asia is forecast to continue to represent the major source countries for
international students in the future. It is forecast that students from Asia will represent 92% of the
total number of international students studying in Australia in 2025 (IDP Australia, 2003). Regardless
of nationality, it has been found that the majority of Asian students who study in Australian higher
education institutions are of Chinese nationality or Chinese ethnicity, or originate from countries that
share a common Confucian tradition, such as Vietnam, Japan, and Korea (Bohm et al. 2002). This
group of students is commonly referred to as Confucian Heritage Culture (CHC) students (Lee, 1999,
Barron, 2004).
The Unique Needs of International Students

In conjunction with the drive to attract the ever increasing number of CHC students to study in
Australia, universities invest substantial funds in a variety of recruitment methods. Such is the
importance placed on this market that most universities have designated international departments
responsible for marketing and recruitment, the administration associated with processing applications
and the orientation and continued pastoral care of international students. Consequently it would seem
appropriate that once international students have been attracted to a university, initiatives would be
undertaken to ensure that the student has an enjoyable and successful learning experience (Kennedy
1995; Yanhong Li and Kaye, 1998). Indeed it has been suggested that institutions should provide
“holistic support services for (international) students” Jennings (2001:50). However, a criticism faced
by western universities is that great emphasis is placed on the initial attracting of international
students but that they are ignored thereafter (Niven 1987; Kennedy, 1995). Recent studies have
indicated students’ frustration and disappointment regarding the level of support received by CHC
students in comparison to the level of fees being paid (Moon, 2003)
The needs and requirements of CHC students have been identified as being concerned with two
general areas. Firstly, it is contended that CHC students will experience issues concerned with living
in a foreign country, such as dislocation, culture shock, accommodation problems and homesickness
(Ballard and Clanchy 1991). Secondly, CHC students have been identified as experiencing issues and
problems concerning the overall learning experience. In particular, it has been found that such
students appear to adopt a learning style that is at odds with both other international students and
domestic students (Barron, 2004). In addition, these students have been found to be lacking in certain
study skills and display classroom behaviour that is very different to other students in western
classrooms. It has been suggested that CHC students’ specific needs and concerns should be

recognised and dealt with separately from the needs and concerns of other international students
(Yanhong Li and Kaye, 1998).
Learning Issues and Problems of CHC Students Studying Overseas

It has been suggested that it is normal for the CHC student to experience stress throughout their home
country education (Chan, 1999). This sensation is subsequently accentuated by gaining a position at
an institution overseas and it would appear that CHC students who undertake university level study in
one of the major English speaking destination (MESD) countries experience a range of issues and
problems associated with their education. When compared to their domestic counterparts, CHC
students themselves suggest that they feel incompetent across a range of study skills, including time
management, revision, English language and examination skills (Burns, 1991). Such students have
also reported themselves as experiencing extreme difficulty in joining in classroom discussion and
consequently experienced various physical and psychological stress symptoms as a result of their
western education (Chan, 1999; Robertson, Lines, Jones and Thomas, 2000). Indeed, voluntary
discussion in the classroom situation is alien to most CHC students (Choi, 1999). Consequently it has
been suggested that these feelings of stress are, in part, brought about by the different approach to
learning that CHC students have to adopt when studying overseas (Chan, 1999) and it has been
suggested that CHC students experience difficulty in employing a learning strategy other than
memorising (Robertson et al. 2000). The concept of participating in group work and giving
presentations to peers has been found to be a key concern for many CHC students (Barron, 2004).
CHC students also appear to experience issues regarding their relationship with the teacher. It has
been suggested that, in Australia, CHC students are required to get used to a more casual
student/teacher relationship where the student is required to take the initiative, for example, regarding
meeting with academic staff as opposed to being told specifically when a member of staff will be
available (Choi, 1997). Consequently, it has been found that many students decide not to
communicate with the academic as such an action might be considered rude due to the perceived
status of the academic and the excessive regard for authority held by the students (Moon, 2003).
When compared to local students CHC students experience additional concerns and problems at a
more extreme level (Mullins, Quintrell and Hancock, 1995), including worry and feeling scared
(Ramsay, Barker and Jones, 1999). In order to combat these feelings and overcome difficulties in
class, many international students adopted such coping strategies as working harder, undertaking
additional reading and cooperating with other international students regarding note-taking and study
sessions.
The stressful situation in which these students find themselves has been found to be compounded by
three issues. Firstly, these students have to contend with family pressure to succeed (Yee 1989).
Secondly, by the lack of understanding that western educators have regarding the behaviour of CHC
students in the classroom and their overall approach to learning (Chan 1999), and finally, that many
students are involved in racist incidents both on and off campus (Robertson et al. 2000).
Lecturing staff’s responses tended to echo many of the concerns of students but with different
emphases. Staff considered that CHC students were reluctant to become involved in, and contribute
to, class discussion. In addition the CHC students’ difficulty with the concept of there not being one
correct answer to a question was highlighted. Other concerns expressed by lecturers were the CHC
students’ reliance on books, not taking responsibility for their own learning and not understanding the
concept of plagiarism (Robertson et al. 2000). The problem associated with CHC students not being
aware of the requirement of acknowledging other people’s intellectual property within their
assignments and the concept of plagiarism has been identified in earlier Australian studies (Watson,
1999).
It is reasonable to expect that all students will experience an initial period of anxiety and stress
associated with university study. However it would appear that many CHC students’ problems

increased in both number and intensity as the student progressed through their programme (Mullins et
al. 1995).
Universities’ Responsibilities
It might be suggested that when a university expends resources attracting lucrative international
students to study their programmes, it would also be appropriate that some responsibility for the
overall experience of those students should be shouldered by the host university. This can be
achieved in several ways and many universities attempt initiatives that will assist the student to settle
into their new academic and social life and consequently minimise their readily identified predictable
learning problems.
That the university provides a supportive atmosphere from both an academic and social perspective
will go some way to ensuring that international students will continue to come to that university. The
argument is that a successful student, who has had an enjoyable period at a particular university, will
communicate that satisfaction to friends and relations who, in turn, may decide to pursue study in that
particular university or country (Mullins el al. 1995; Huang and Brown 1996). Due to the potential
benefits associated with this word of mouth advertising it would seem appropriate for Australian
universities to adopt strategies that would make an international student’s learning experience as
positive as possible.
This research builds on previous research that identified the learning style preferences of CHC
students who are studying hospitality management and/or hospitality and tourism management at
tertiary level in Australia. This paper reports on research gathered that examined CHC students’
learning experiences and identifies differences in educational approaches and highlights specific
problems and issues regarding students’ learning experiences. It concludes with several strategies that
universities might introduce in order to improve the learning experience of CHC students studying
overseas.
Methodology and Data Collection Methods

This paper represents a portion of a larger study which the researcher approached from a postpositivist
perspective. Postpositivism operates under an ontology of critical realism which assumes an objective
reality, but recognises that it is imperfect (Dias and Hassard, 2001). Thus, the postpositivist researcher
uses a variety of both qualitative and quantitative methods to achieve a more accurate indication of
what is happening in reality (Phillips and Burbules, 2000). The postpositivist then uses triangulation
in order to examine the same variable as a means of increasing accuracy (Neuman, 1997). From a
practical viewpoint, it is held that the postpositivist conducts research in a well controlled
environment, such as the classroom or within the framework of a focus group (Fischer, 1998) and thus
uses more natural and comfortable settings (Dias and Hassard, 2001). Sparks (2002) considered that
the postpositivist researcher conducts both individual and group research but solicits the emic, or
insider’s, viewpoint. Consequently, the postpositive researcher aims to produce recommendations
that assist in the general improvement of an issue rather than develop definitive results.
Data was gathered using focus group interviews with CHC students at four tertiary education
providers of hspitality and/or hospitality and tourism management in Australia. Although in-depth
interviews allow a significant degree of flexibility for the researcher to explore issues as they arise in
conversation, focus groups were used in this study. The advantage which a focus group has over an in
depth interview “is that the respondents or informants involved react to one another more naturally”
(Priest, 1996:109). In this approach a richer picture of how information is processed and conclusions
are drawn can be constructed when compared to an interview situation (McMillan, 2000; Priest,
1996). The research objectives and the methodology chosen were deemed entirely suited to the
synergistic and dynamic nature of focus groups (Morgan, 1997). Ticehurst and Veal (1999) suggest
that it is most appropriate to use focus groups when a particular group is important to a study, but is so
small in number that members of that group would not be adequately represented in a general survey,
for example in the case when people of a specific culture or ethnic group form the focus of a study. In

addition, Ticehurst and Veal (1999) also suggest that the use of a focus group is most appropriate as a
means of including respondents who may not wish to be interviewed on an individual basis.
The focus group interviews were recorded and transcribed and the data were analysed via content
analysis which is described by Neuman (1997:272) as “a technique for gathering and analysing the
content of text”. Content analysis allows the researcher to probe into and discover content in a
meaningful way and allows the researcher the opportunity to compare content across a variety of
texts. In this instance, content analysis allowed the researcher to compare content across the four
focus groups conducted in this study. The content was then analysed via quantitative techniques and
the data were able to be displayed via charts. In order to develop a more sophisticated data set, the
results were weighted thus allowing the researcher to identify the overall importance of the
participants’ comments.
Results and Discussion

Participants were asked to reflect on what different study approaches they have had to adopt in order
to successfully complete subjects at their Australian institution. Figure 1 gives an overview of
participants’ responses. Respondents made comments regarding the change of emphasis from
memorising to understanding. Indeed the most common response concerned the students’ new found
focus on understanding the material presented. One participant stated that “I’ve had to change
because well, usually I just study and memorise things but now I have to digest (the material) myself
and not just memorise but make it more clear.”
In addition to a realisation regarding the need to understand the material presented, this comment
would also suggest that there has been a perceptible shift in the responsibility for learning with this
respondent clearly understanding their requirement for understanding the material. This shift towards
understanding the material presented in class also appeared to be important with participants in all
four groups making comments concerning this point. In addition, several participants commented that
their requirement to understand the material resulted in a clearer link between theory taught in the
classroom and practice in industry. One participant suggested that “it’s not just memorising, it is
connected with the real world experience”.
Respondents appeared to understand that a change in classroom behaviour was required in order to be
successful. Respondents commented that the focus was no longer on the individual student and that
group work and presentations were now commonplace. Several respondents made the clear link
between presentations and their increased level of understanding with one participant stating that
“because you are standing there you have to fully understand the material you are presenting and so
you can answer questions about the material.”
Focus group participants were asked to specify what issues or problems had affected their learning
experience in Australia. The most common response to this question concerned students’
participation in class. This aspect appeared to be very important as members of each focus group
commented that participation in class was a major issue or problem concerning their educational
experience in Australia thus far.
Group work and presentations were again mentioned as a significant difficulty and several comments
regarding the issue of students of particular nationalities working together were raised. This last
comment was raised both from an exclusion and an excluded perspective. Firstly, respondents
considered that Australian students tended to stick together when forming groups and preparing
presentations and the accusation was made that Australian students considered that international
students would not make a valuable contribution to the group project, with one participant
commenting that:

Figure 1: Non Weighted and Weighted Responses to Question: What different study approaches have you had
to adopt in order to successfully complete subjects/courses here in Australia?
“There is also a problem I’ve encountered when I’d join the Aussies. Then (sic) what it
turned out to be was they don’t really appreciate my participating because they all think
that you know nothing. You’re not from an English background country. Sometimes I
would try and participate but they may reject and at the end of the whole assignment they
would go up to the tutor and say that I didn’t participate and so I don’t deserve the mark.”
Focus group participants were asked to reflect on their learning experience in Australia so far.
Generally the majority of comments were very positive with the most frequently mentioned response
suggesting that participants’ educational experience thus far had been good. However, it must be
noted that on the negative side, several participants mentioned that their Australian educational
experience had been stressful. Comments made by participants would suggest that the stress they
were experiencing was founded in the recognition of the serious consequences that would be
associated with them failing their programme. This feeling of stress was reasonably commonly felt as
members from three focus groups made such comments. Respondents also made comments
concerning the overall approach to learning and it was noted that respondents appeared to enjoy the
learning methods common on their Australian programme. When asked this question, one
enthusiastic respondent stated: “Good, good, because here things are very interesting and after you
have finished studying your subject, you still remember things. You still remember the things you
were studying in your previous semester.”
In addition, respondents stated that they enjoyed sourcing information and relished the opportunity to
debate, discuss and ask questions. Many participants recognised the direct link between their studies
and their future careers and commented that the focus on understanding and the information sourcing
and debating skills would be relevant and of use in the future. Several respondents also made
comments regarding the positive relationships that existed between students and lecturers and
complimenting the good standard of teaching.

Figure 2: Non Weighted and Weighted Responses to Question: What learning issues or problems have you
experienced here in Australia?
Towards the end of the focus group interview participants were asked what recommendations they
could suggest that would improve their learning experience in Australia. Broadly speaking,
respondents’ comments fell into three categories. The first and most frequently mentioned response
to this question concerned students’ classroom behaviour. Responses to this question would suggest
that respondents considered that responsibility for encouraging CHC student classroom involvement
needs to become the responsibility of the institution. It was suggested that the lecturer in charge
should take a more active role in managing the class interaction, ensuring that international students
were included in class discussions and that group composition for presentations be controlled to
ensure that there was a mix of nationalities in groups.
Respondents also considered that the university could provide additional classes after formal lectures
that were specific for international students. It was suggested that these classes would be an
opportunity for international students to question the lecturer, seek clarification regarding the content
of the lecture and have the opportunity to more fully reflect and digest the material presented in the
preceding lecture. Similarly, respondents also considered that the development of study skills and
more assistance with assessments, particularly presentations, would improve their learning
experience.
Conclusion
From this research, it is evident that the CHC students are required to make a paradigm shift in their
approach to education. They are expected to fit into a system which is very different to their home
country. These results would suggest that their level of learning has progressed from describing and
replicating to understanding, evaluation and analysis. In addition, there is a recognition of an
assumption of responsibility for learning through debate and disagreement and the substantiating of
discussion and submitted work. These students are exposed to classroom dynamics that are very
different to their previous experience and are expected to treat their once revered lecturers with what
some feel is disrespect. In addition, students are introduced to a range of new methods of assessment
for which they are ill prepared and find extremely difficult and uncomfortable.

Figure 3: Non Weighted and Weighted Responses to Question: What recommendations would you suggest that
would improve your learning experience?
While this research has focussed on student experiences, it is possible to make several comments
regarding the institutions that these students attend. It would appear that students consider that many
of these institutions treat students well. However, it might be suggested that these students would
appreciate and benefit from additional institutional support and consequently it is suggested that more
could be done in terms of the development of practical study skills and the support that such students
receive as part of their study programme.
Finally, it might be possible to make several comments regarding the lecturing staff with whom these
students have to deal on a daily basis. It is reasonable to conclude that students appreciated the high
quality of teaching they had received and enjoyed the more relaxed and informal student/teacher
relationship. However, it was noted that many students considered that lecturers might take a more
proactive role in the management of classroom activities, most notably regarding the composition of
groups. It would appear from comments made that while students recognise that there has been a shift
in the responsibility for learning, students do feel that the lecturer does have some responsibility for
classroom management which appears to be lacking. It has been found that the majority of CHC
students academically outperform their western counterparts and most students successfully complete
their western education (Biggs, 1998). However, this research has highlighted that a CHC student
who studies and eventually graduates from a western university will have had to contend with a
variety of learning issues and problems throughout their period of study. That such students succeed
is testimony to their hard work, diligence and flexibility. This research has highlighted several
proactive strategies that might be adopted by universities and academics in order to make this learning
experience less stressful and ultimately more enjoyable.
References
Ballard, B. and Clanchy, J. (1991). Teaching students from overseas: a brief guide for lecturers and
supervisors. Longman Cheshire, Melbourne.
Barron, P.E. (2004). An evaluation of learning styles, learning issues and learning problems of
Confucian heritage culture students studying hospitality and tourism management in Australia.
Unpublished PhD Thesis. The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.
Bohm, A., Davies, D., Meares, G. and Pearce, H. (2002). Global student mobility 2025: forecasts of
the global demand for international higher education. IDP Education Australia, September
2002.

Burns, R.B. (1991). Study and stress among first year overseas students in an Australian university.
Higher Education Research and Development, 10(1), 61-77.
Chan, S. (1999). The Chinese learner: a question of style. Education and Training, 41(6/7), 294-304.
Choi, M. (1997). Korean students in Australian universities: intercultural issues. Higher Education
Research and Development, 16(3), 263-282.
Davis, D., Olsen, A. and Bohm, A. (2000). Transnational education providers, partners and policy:
Challenges for Australian institutions offshore: a research study. Presented at the 14th
Australian International Education Conference. Brisbane, 2000.
Dias, M. and Hassard, J. (2001). From practice to theory, narrowing the gap: first year science
teachers emerging from a constructivist science education program. Paper presented at the
Annual Meeting of the Association for the Education of Teachers in Science. Costa Mesa,
California, 18th to 21st January 2001.
Fischer, F. (1998). Beyond Empiricism: policy enquiry in postpositivist perspective. Policy Studies
Journal, 26(1), 129-146.
Huang, S.E. and Brown, N.E. (1996). First year international graduate students in hospitality
programmes: school choice, career expectations and academic adjustment. Hospitality Research
Journal, 20(1), 109-117.
IDP Australia. (2003). International students in Australian universities – semester 1, 2003 national
overview. IDP Education, Australia.
IDP Education Australia. (2000). Survey of international students at Australian universities. IDP,
Canberra.
Jennings, G.R. (2001). Do I or don’t I teach them? – benefits and challenges as well as pedagogical
and ethical issues of educating tourism students in English when English is not their first
language. The Journal of Teaching in Travel and Tourism, 1(4), 35-52.
Kennedy, K. (1995). Developing a curriculum guarantee for overseas students. Higher Education
Lee, W.O. (1999). The cultural context for Chinese learners: conceptions of learning in the Confucian
tradition, in Watkins, D.D. and Biggs, J.B. (Eds.) The Chinese learner: cultural, psychological
and contextual influences, pp 25-41. Centre for Comparative Research in Education, Hong
Kong. Australian Council for Educational Research, Camberwell, Victoria.
McMillan, J.H. (2000). Educational research: fundamentals for the consumer, (3rd Edition).
Longman, New York.
Maslen, G. (1999). Australian universities set records in foreign enrolments. The Chronicle of Higher
Education, 14th May, Washington, USA.
Meares, D. (2003). Global student mobility 2025: the supply challenge – meeting and managing
demand for international education. Paper presented at the 17th IDP Australia International
Education Conference. Melbourne, 2003.
Moon, S.H. (2003). Managing international education: Korean students and student support staff
perspectives at the University of New South Wales. Paper presented at the 17th IDP Australia
International Education Conference. Melbourne, Australia.
Morgan, D.L. (1997). Focus groups as qualitative research (2nd Edition). Sage Publications,
Thousand Oaks, CA.
Mullins, G., Quintrell, N. and Hancock, L. (1995). The experiences of international and local students
at three Australian universities. Higher Education Research and Development, 14(2), 201-231.
Neuman, W.L. (1997). Social research methods: qualitative and quantitative approaches(3rd
Edition). Allyn and Bacon, Sydney.
Niven, A. (1987). Salad days without the dressing? What British higher and further education
institutions can do for their overseas students. Higher Education Quarterly, 41(2) 144-161.
Phillips, D.C. and Burbules, N.C. (2000). Postpositivism and educational research. Rowman and
Littlefield, Oxford.
Priest, S.H. (1996). Doing media research: an introduction. Sage, London.
Ramsay, S., Barker, M. and Jones, E. (1999). Academic adjustment and learning processes: a
comparison of international and local students in first year university. Higher Education
Research and Development, 18(1) 129-144.

Robertson, M., Line, M., Jones, S. and Thomas, S. (2000). International students’ learning
environments and perceptions: a case study using the Delphi Technique. Higher Education
Sparks, B. (2002). Epistemological and methodological considerations of doing cross cultural
research in adult education. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 21(2) 115-129.
Ticehurst, G.W. and Veal, A.J. (1999). Business research methods: a managerial approach.
Longman, Australia.
Watson, D.I.. (1999). ‘Loss of face’ in Australian classrooms. Teaching in Higher Education, 4(3)
355-361.
Yanhong Li, R. and Kaye, M. (1998). Understanding overseas students’ concerns and problems.
Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 20(1) 41-50.
Yee, A. (1989). Cross cultural perspectives on higher education in East Asia: psychological effects
upon Asian students. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 10(3) 213-232.

_________________________________________
Tourism Employability and the European

Social Fund
Kevin Hannam, Nicole Mitsche, Chris Stone
University of Sunderland
Tom Mordue
University of Teesside
UK
_________________________________________
Abstract
This paper discusses the politics of employability for students undertaking taught tourism Masters
programmes funded by the European Social Fund. Students at the University of Sunderland were
surveyed as to their projected aspirations for employment, the extent to which they felt that their
programme had enhanced their employability in both the public and private sectors, and asked to
reflect upon their own employability skills and attributes. Findings indicate that firstly, postgraduate
tourism students are fairly confident that they have the necessary professional employability skills and
attributes for higher level employment. Secondly, the vast majority of students recognise that careers
guidance is the responsibility of both themselves and the MSc programme team. Thirdly, in terms of
employment itself our key finding is that students want academic employment on the whole. We
argue that this may in fact reflect a lack of higher level employment opportunities in the tourism
employability market. Finally, we place these findings within the European context.
Keywords: Tourism, Employability, European Social Fund, Masters Programmes
Introduction
This paper discusses the politics of employability for students undertaking taught tourism Masters
programmes funded by the European Social Fund. Students at the University of Sunderland were
surveyed as to their projected aspirations for employment, the extent to which they felt that their
reflect upon their own employability skills and attributes.
Following an extensive review of the literature on employability, the paper goes on to discuss the
political context of funding awarded by the European Social Fund (ESF) to the North East of England.
After a note on methodology the paper analyses the quantitative and qualitative data obtained from the
student respondents. The subsequent discussion section summarises our key findings within a
national and European context, and highlights avenues of research that require further investigation.
Employability and Skills

This section draws upon and develops the excellent recent literature review on employability provided
by Dr Dawn Lees (2002) published by the LTSN generic centre. Lees (2002: 1) begins her literature
review by pointing out that:
“The notion of employability challenges traditional concepts of HE and raises the
question of what the point of HE is; subject knowledge and understanding, or learning
how to learn. Some academics feel that this agenda is too driven by government policy

and employers, rather than the academy, and this can lead to unrest amongst academics
who are expected to teach employability skills and attributes in the classroom.”
In the UK context, Lees (2002) notes that the Dearing Report into Higher Education (1997)
emphasised the importance of education for employability and that this agenda is also picked up in a
broad sense in the QAA subject benchmark statements (QAA, 2000). Furthermore, the QAA Career
Education, Information and Guidance (CEIG) gives a further steer towards employability initiatives.
This is intended so that Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) meet both students’ career aspirations
and also so that the graduates they produce are equipped to meet the demands of the changing
employment market (QAA, 2001). The QAA suggests that HEIs should consider integrating careers
guidance within the curriculum in order to prepare students for a successful transition to employment,
further study and for effective management of their career thereafter. It has thus increasingly been
recognised that careers services should become part of the mainstream academic business of HEIs
(Coopers and Lybrand, 1998).
In terms of definitions of employability it has been noted that there are many conflicting
(mis)understandings of the term employability. In practical terms, the Confederation of British
Industry (1998) defined employability as: “The possession by an individual of the qualities and
competencies required to meet the changing needs of employers and thereby help realise his or her
aspiration and potential in work.” A simpler definition was put forward by Hillage and Pollard (1998)
of the Institute for Employment Studies: “Employability is the capability of getting and keeping
satisfactory work.” Hillage and Pollard (1998) carried out research into employability for the DfES.
Their main findings were that:
• Employability is about having the capability to gain initial employment, maintain
employment and obtain new employment if required.
• For the individual, employability depends upon:
1. Assets in terms of knowledge, skills and attitudes.
2. The way these assets are used and deployed.
3. Presentation of assets to potential employers.
4. The context within which the individual works; e.g. the labour market, personal
circumstances, etc.
Lees (2002: 2) thus argues that there are two main concepts of employability. These are:
1. The educational conception relating to the ability of graduates to tackle ‘graduate’ jobs.
This is related to the notion of ‘capability’ which means that employability relates to
graduates being equipped for a job and capable of being employed, rather than simply
job acquisition (Harvey, 2001; van der Heijden, 2001).
2. The ability of the graduate to get a job – usually defined by governments as any job.
The second concept is used by the British Government in the construction of Employability
Performance Indicators (EPIs), but it is the first concept that most practitioners in HE are primarily
concerned with. Clearly, employment and employability are not the same thing:
“Being employed means having a job, being employable means having the qualities
needed to maintain employment and progress in the workplace. Employability from the
perspective of HEIs is therefore about producing graduates who are capable and able, and
this impacts upon all areas of university life, in terms of the delivery of academic
programmes and extra curricula activities.” (Lees, 2002: 2-3.)
Lees (2002: 2-3) also argues that “From the employers’ point of view, employability is the propensity
of the graduate to exhibit attributes that employers anticipate will be necessary for the future effective
functioning of their organisation (Harvey, 1997).” More theoretically, Morley, (2001) has suggested
that the concept of ‘employer-ability’ needs to be developed to balance out the power-relations
embedded in the employability discourse of recruitment and retention.

Employability is thus about graduates acquiring various skills and personal attributes. In this context,
Davies (2000: 436) cites Hawkins and Winter’s (1995: 5) report for the Association of Graduate
Recruiters (AGR):
“In the twenty-first century the most significant challenge for graduates will be to
manage their relationship with work and with learning. This requires skills such as
negotiating, action planning and networking, added to qualities like self-awareness and
confidence. These are the skills required to be ‘self-reliant’ in career and personal
development; skills to manage processes rather than functional skills.”
Moreover, increasingly, graduates need to be more flexible in response to the growing number of
career changes experienced through life for many people, because of the increase in short term
contracts, part-time work, outsourcing and home-working (Harvey, 2000). Van der Heijden (1996)
has called this new cohort of flexible experts ‘flexperts’.
Lees (2002) goes on to note that at the core of the employability debate is the issue of whether the
teaching of employability skills should be embedded in a particular programme or bolted-on.
Research has shown that skills are best developed when they are integrated across the curriculum thus
allowing students opportunities to develop higher levels of skills as they progress through the
programme of study (De la Harpe et al., 2000).
In reality though:
“It is only a minority of students who are able to gain employment which directly utilises
the academic content of their degree programme (HESA, 1998). Students in the UK
appear to choose their degree programme on the basis of intrinsic subject interest, rather
than whether it would prepare them for employment (Guardian/Gallup Survey, 1994).
However, it seems that this trend is set to change with graduates considering the type of
career they may enter when they choose a programme of study.” (Lees, 2002: 5.)
In terms of this, three important aspects of employability need to be recognised. The first is the role of
Personal Development Planning (PDP) which has to be integrated into the programmes for all
students by 2005-6. The second is the role of reflection and in particular reflective writing and
thinking (Moon, 1999). The third is the role of work experience opportunities (see Knight & Yorke,
2004; Jackson, 1999; Davies, 2000; Holmes, 2001).
However, it should also be recognised that: “Postgraduates are rarely mentioned in the literature
concerning the development of employability skills and attributes. They seem to be a forgotten group
who are not explicitly encouraged to think about either their skill or career development.” (Lees,
2002: 7). The European dimension in terms of tourism employability is also under-researched
(although see Brennan et al., 1996).
Whilst all of this discussion over definitions of employability is useful, in their recent critique of the
literature surrounding employability, Brown and Hesketh (2004: 2) ask the fundamental question: “Is
the problem of employability one of developing the appropriate attitudes and skills or does it reflect a
mismatch between the aspirations of university graduates and labour market realities?” Furthermore,
they go on to argue that:
“The demand for high skilled, high waged jobs has been exaggerated. But it is something
that governments want to believe because it distracts attention from thorny political
issues around equality, opportunity, and redistribution. … if good jobs are in limited
supply, how the competition for a livelihood is organised assumes paramount
importance.”
Their argument is that the major problem is not the employability skills of individuals (although there
is room for improvement of these skills) but that there is simply not enough good jobs. Hence they
define employability as: “the relative chances of getting and maintaining different kinds of
employment” (see Brown and Hesketh, 2004: 25). The point they make is that if we swamp the

employment market with (tourism) postgraduates, (events) management graduates and so on then
potentially they will all end up with lower salaries and potentially underemployment. Tourism is
generally recognised as a skills sector that needs more highly skilled workers by the British
government and the EU. However, in contradiction to this both the British Government and the EU
remain reluctant to fund theoretically informed research into tourism and allied industries. The
question needs to be asked as to whether there are in fact enough highly skilled jobs in the tourism
industry for the highly skilled postgraduates that are being produced (apart from jobs replacing the
promotion and retirement of existing tourism academics and thus reproducing the current status quo).
This is an important point and something we return to in our discussion later in this paper.
Having reviewed the conceptual literature pertaining to employability to date, our research goes on to
analyse the relationships between skills, attributes, careers guidance and the employability agenda in
terms of our MSc tourism students. In the next section, we outline the relationships between tourism,
employability, the European Social Fund (ESF) in the context of the North East of England.
The ESF and the North East

Tourism Master’s programmes at the University of Sunderland have benefited from a significant
amount of EU funding from the European Social Fund (ESF). According to the official ESF website
(ESF, 2004):
“The European Social Fund (ESF) is the main financial tool through which the European
Union translates its strategic employment policy aims into action. Set up by the Treaty of
Rome, it is the longest established Structural Fund which, for over 40 years, has invested,
in partnership with the EU Member States in programmes to develop people's skills and
their potential for work. The ESF now stands at an important point in its development.
A new seven-year period begins in 2000 for the ESF, in which its own potential has been
fully integrated - in both policy and management terms - into what is done at Member
State level to put the European Employment Strategy’s priorities into practice. The
Strategy involves the fifteen Member States working together towards common agreed
goals to prepare people for work, and to create a better climate for jobs. The ESF
provides European Union funding on a major scale for programmes which develop or
regenerate people's "employability". This task focuses on providing citizens with
appropriate work skills as well as developing their social interaction skills, thereby
improving their self-confidence and adaptability in the job marketplace. The ESF
channels its support into strategic long-term programmes which help regions across
Europe, particularly those lagging behind, to upgrade and modernise workforce skills and
to foster entrepreneurial initiative. This encourages domestic and foreign investment into
the regions, helping them to achieve greater economic competitiveness and prosperity.”
The ESF has been successfully targeted by the Learning and Skills Council (LSC) in different regions
of the UK in order to fund a range of training and education packages in subjects and regions that
have acknowledged skills shortages in sectors such as tourism.
At the University of Sunderland, students entering the MSc Scheme in Cultural and Heritage Tourism
Development were specifically financed through the ESF Objective 2 programme. “Objective 2 aims
to renew industrial, urban, rural and fisheries areas that are in decline. Areas eligible for Objective 2
funding are broken down into electoral wards” (ESF, 2004). In terms of the North East of England,
the region was allocated £434m from the Objective 2 Programme for 2000-2006. Moreover the EC
had specifically flagged up the development of tourism human resources as part of the ESF
programme (EC, 1999). As the skills base in tourism for the North East of England was recognised as
underdeveloped and in order to develop SME growth and competitiveness in the region a total of
c£600K was successfully awarded to support entrants to the MSc Tourism Scheme for 2003-2005.
In this context, it should also be noted that the North East of England has the lowest uptake of higher
education of any of England’s regions and that graduate retention is a major issue for the region.

Hence, in addition a number of other Masters programmes at the University of Sunderland in subjects
as diverse as Project Management, Human Resource Management, Gender Culture and Development,
and Art and Design were separately also awarded finance from the ESF – a point that will be raised
again in the discussion.
The authors of the paper are not aware at present as to whether any other Masters Tourism
programmes in the UK were also successful in attracting ESF funding. However, according to
Learndirect (2004) there are at present some 295 postgraduate tourism courses from 49 Higher
Education Institutions (HEIs) in the UK. Despite the large number of Masters Tourism courses in the
UK, the programme at the University of Sunderland is unique in focusing on Cultural and Heritage
Tourism Development specifically. The cultural industries are seen as central to the North East of
England’s regeneration strategies and thus the scheme was recognised in terms of fulfilling the
ambitions of the region. Indeed Strategic Aim 5 of the Cultural Strategy for the NE is: “To stimulate
vigorous and sustainable economic growth of the region’s tourism, cultural and creative industries.”
A key component of which is the need for “a skilled labour market linked to …higher education, [to]
be developed to drive the cultural sector forward” (CNE, 2001). The ESF funded project was
endorsed and supported by the Northumbria Tourist Board (NTB), various regional cultural and
heritage attractions as well as by SME’s, in particular tourism research consultancies.
However, it should be noted here that the Northumbria Tourist Board (NTB) has subsequently been
wound up as an organisation. In April 2003 its activities were transferred to the Regional
Development Agency, One Northeast (ONE) following a directive of the British Government’s
Department of Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS). Despite extensive resistance from the NTB, One
Northeast successful lobbied the government that tourism in the region was ‘underperforming,’
needed greater investment and that the NTB was unrepresentative. One Northeast has since
established its own business led tourism advisory board in November 2004.
Despite the changing regional political context, ESF funding has continued and in financial terms paid
the students’ full-time fees, in addition it gave them as an incentive a stipend of £75 per week. The
aim of this ESF project was to provide high level training specifically designed to support the
developing needs of SME’s in the Cultural and Heritage Tourism skills sector. The project aimed to
enable 100 unemployed beneficiaries to gain NVQ 5 equivalent qualifications; i.e. MSc awards in
Cultural Tourism Development, Heritage Tourism Development or Ecotourism Development. (Due to
a relative lack of applicants the latter programme has not run to date though.) The Cultural Tourism
Development and Heritage Tourism Development programmes have recruited 85 students to date,
79% of which were awarded ESF funding, the remainder were either self-funded international
students or part-time students funded by their employers.
The students were drawn primarily from the UK (60%), with another 20% from other EU countries
(Greece, Spain and Poland), the remaining 20% come from China, Pakistan, India and Thailand. Due
to an ERASMUS agreement students have the opportunity to study for a semester at another
institution in Germany on the latter’s MA World Heritage Studies programme sponsored by
UNESCO. However, the potential withdrawal of ESF funding for the 2005-6 intake in the context of
the development of Erasmus Mundus Masters Schemes and the expansion of the EU will be raised in
the discussion section. The next section of the paper outlines the methodology of the research
undertaken.
Methodology: Questionnaires
In terms of methodology for this paper an extensive questionnaire was administered to two cohorts of
the MSc Tourism Scheme at the University – a total of 77 students and a total of 38 usable
questionnaires were returned (a 49% response rate). The questionnaire asked students questions about
1) their own background, 2) their career aspirations, 3) their careers guidance, 4) whether they felt that
the programme had or is enhancing their tourism employability, 5) their work experience in tourism,
6) their employability skills and attributes. The latter were adapted from the HAVE Project

(Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Adding Value and Employability) available from the Higher
Education Academy website (HAVE, 2004). Quantitative data from the questionnaires was analysed
using SPSS and qualitative data was manually coded in order to reveal significant responses.
Data Analysis
The majority of students (74%), have completed or are currently engaged with the MSc Cultural
Tourism Development programme, the others (16%) chose the MSc Heritage Tourism Development
or were still undecided as to their exit award (they undertake a common first semester) at the time of
survey (11%). All further analysis makes no distinction between the different programmes due to the
skewed distribution. On the programmes there have been slightly more females (58%) than males
(42%). The largest age groups recruited were 21-24 years (42%) and 25-34 years (37%). However
21% of students are over 35 years of age and the programme has attracted students who are in their
late 60s. The vast majority of the students (84%) want to work in the tourism sector in the future and
(from qualitative responses) the majority of students rated the opportunity for varied work as well as
opportunities for travel as their main motivations for studying tourism at Masters level. Money and a
relaxed lifestyle were rated poorly in contrast (see figure one below).
Future work in
Tourism
Chosen Tourism
programme
Gender Age groups
84%
74%
58%
42% 42%
37%
21%
16%
11% 11%
5%
MSc MSc dUn- Female Male 21-24 25-34 35++ e sYes No dUn-
TD
eT
D
ide ale ale ars ars ea
rs y no id e
al m M yeyears4 ye years
lturCulturalit de c decided
ag Heritage Fe 24
- 3
- + y years
+ d ec decided
Cu r Un 21 25 35 un
c He
TD TD
MS
Figure 1
The following data analysis considers responses in terms of responsibility for careers guidance and
career aspirations, reflection on skills obtained and personal attributes.
Career Guidance and Aspirations

All MSc tourism students have access to careers guidance at the university and many make use of this
service. In addition specific career guidance sessions are arranged for the MSc tourism students. In
this context, the responsibility for career guidance shows an interesting picture. Although a large
share of the students (45%) recognise that they themselves have the major responsibility for their
career guidance, 26% see careers guidance as a combination between themselves with others
(University, MSc programme team and/or someone else) and another 26% hold others, rather than
themselves, responsible for careers guidance. Overall the findings point towards a strong
responsibility to the MSc programme team for careers guidance, either on their own or in combination
with the University (see figure two below).

MSc programme
team, 10.5% MSc programme team
Yourself & others,
& University, 10.5%
7.9%
Yourself & University, Others, 10.5%

15.8%
Yourself, 44.7%
Figure 2
Interestingly though (and in spite of the above results) the majority of the students think they have had
sufficient/too much guidance on careers to date (54%), with 24% feeling that they had insufficient
guidance and 8% no guidance at all (see figure three below).
No guidance
at all, 8%
Too much guidance,
27%
Insufficient
guidance, 24%
Sufficient guidance,
Neutral, 14% 27%
Figure 3
Whilst this could be cause to give the university a pat on the back, it could also be seen as a misplaced
sense of their own skills and confidence in terms of the employment market.
From the qualitative data obtained in terms of career aspirations the overwhelming finding seems to
be that the students want our jobs! In terms of current career aspirations it was significant that the vast
majority of respondents asserted that they wished to go on to further study and to become a full-time
researcher or lecturer as the following responses indicate: “I would like to lecture in tourism, therefore
broadening my horizons.” “First of all I will try and get further education after MSc…” “..any
research and development project.” “..research leading to PhD.” “Consultancy work, lecturing.”
“Technical college lecturer.” “I would very much like to undertake further research, perhaps towards a
PhD in tourism.”
A secondary theme of career aspirations was the tourism industry itself, in particular public sector
occupations with either tourist boards or local government at a management level. A small number of
respondents cited the heritage industry specifically in terms of their career aspirations. For example:
“I would like to work in the heritage tourism industry. Would like to stay in the NE and do a job that
is varied and that I find enjoyable. I would consider any job that fulfilled these aims and paid
reasonable wages.” “Heritage tourism with an archaeology background provides a wider variety of job
opportunities.” Other more individual career aims included “freelance travel writer”, “working in a

remote region – this could be voluntary; it’s the experience I want most” and “self-employed”.
Interestingly one respondent argued that: “I’m aware that I need to gain more experience so I am
looking for any jobs that are relevant. ... I would like to be in a job with a salary as soon as possible.”
In terms of future career aspirations in ten years time responses were more varied but again
emphasised being a researcher or lecturer or working in local government or for a tourist board. More
respondents indicated self-employment in ten years time as a possible career aspiration. However, a
number of other interesting and varied responses came back. For example: “Living and working in a
country with a better climate than GB and with more openings in tourism.” “I want a job that I can
enjoy and continually learn about, rather than one where status and financial rewards are the only
appeal.”, “I want to work in tourism development in the NE … I am interested in marketing and
product development at the research and implementation stages. Ideally I would be involved in major
tourism initiatives in Newcastle and the North East, making decisions over the future of the region.”,
“I believe that I will be much happier working in a warm environment abroad earning little money as
a researcher…”
Reflection on Employability Skills and Personal Attributes

Interestingly, in terms of the quantitative data analysed, the majority of the students generally thought
that they were either excellent or good in terms of most professional graduate skills. Indeed in about
two thirds of the questions over 70% of respondents thought they had obtained the relevant skills
required. Very high self-evaluation was found in the category of creativity and initiative where 92%
feel able to act independently and 87% feel able to create their own ideas. Other high scoring skills
were keeping confidential data confidential (87%; ethical awareness), helping others (87%;
leadership) and working alone and unsupervised (87%; improving learning and performance). In only
two out of 33 questions the values were lower than 60% (application of numbers 45%, self-confidence
when failing 55% - see figure four below).
Although numbers were small, students felt they were poor or very poor in terms of improving their
own learning and performance through balancing their studies (11%) and sticking to deadlines (8%),
as well as in the application of numbers (19%), IT use for editing and manipulating databases, and
spreadsheets (8%) and presenting this information accordingly (11%). Other problems areas
mentioned were keeping calm under pressure (problem solving) (8%), lacking self confidence when
failing (11%) and time management (judgement) (8%).
91.9%
86.5% 86.8% 86.8% 86.8%
55.3%
44.5%
feel able to act feel able to keeping helping others working alone self- application of
independently create own confidential and confidence numbers
ideas data unsupervised when failing
confidential
Figure 4

Significances were found in problem solving – identifying a problem related to career responsibility
(p=0.079). Students who feel themselves responsible for finding employment felt themselves poor in
identifying problems, whereas students who see the University and/or the MSc programme team
responsible for their further employment think they are excellent/good in identifying problems. This
is perhaps because they have a tendency to leave things for others to do. A similar relationship was
found in improving learning and performance. Students who have more problems accepting criticism
are more likely to see themselves as mainly responsible for finding a job, than students who see the
responsibility for their future employment in the University/MSc team. This needs investigating
further using qualitative research.
Within the self-assessment test gender differences were found in terms of ethical awareness. Female
students self-assess themselves better (96%) in showing tact when dealing with sensible issues
(p=0.028) than their male fellow students (63%). Similarly they give themselves a better self-
evaluation (96%; p=0.005) in considering ethical issues at the work place than their male counterparts
(56%).
From the qualitative data obtained with reference to employability skills and attributes, responses
were grouped under:
1. Best employability skills.
2. Skills I need to develop.
3. Best personal attributes.
4. Attributed I need to develop.
Best Employability Skills

Students rated their best employability skills as shown below. Responses were grouped into the
following nine categories as shown in the pie-chart below.
Leadership, Self-confidence,
Independence and IT skills each1%
Creativity, 10%
Team working,
Professional
12%
skills, 47%
Communication
skills, 14%
Figure 5
Self-confidence (1%), Professional skills (47%), Team working (12%), Independence (1%), Time
management (1%), Communication skills (14%), Creativity (10%), Leadership (1%), IT Skills (1%).
The category ‘professional skills’ included such responses as integrity, honesty, perseverance and so
on. What is interesting from the data gathered is that beyond these professional skills which
employers would naturally expect the students also rated their own communication skills, team-
working and creativity highly. This mirrors the findings from the quantitative research described
above.
Skills to be Developed
Students rated the skills they need to develop further as below. Responses were grouped into the
following nine categories as shown in the pie-chart below (figure six):

Creativity, Leadership, Self-confidence,

Independence and Team Working each1%
Communication
skills, 7%
Professional
skills, 31%
Time management, 11%
IT skills, 24%
Figure 6
Self-confidence (1%), Professional skills (31%), Team working (1%), Independence (1%), Time
management (11%), Communication skills (7%), Creativity (1%), Leadership (1%), IT skills (24%).
In terms of the results, what is again interesting is that beyond the professional skills they feel they
need to develop, IT skills stand out – this resonates with the quantitative data gathered as above. In
addition, time management is recognised as a particular skill problem. Again this mirrors the
quantitative findings above.
Best Personal Attributes

Students rated their best personal attributes as shown below. Responses were grouped into the
following seven categories as shown in the graph below (see figure seven):
Self-confidence,
Team working,
Time management,
Communicating,
Professional Creativity and Leadership
attributes each 1%
86%
Figure 7
Professional attributes (86%), Self-confidence (1%), Team working (1%), Time management (1%),
Communicating (1%), Creativity (1%), Leadership (1%). Again various professional attributes
(integrity, honesty, perseverance) come out on top.
Attributes To Be Developed
Students rated the personal attributes that they need to develop further as below. Responses were
grouped into the following seven categories as shown in the graph below (see figure eight):
Self-confidence (1%), Professional attributes (44%), Team working (1%), Time management (1%),
Communicating (27%), Creativity (1%), Leadership (1%). Interestingly the key personal attribute that
students feel that they need to develop are their communication skills. This needs further
investigation.

Professional Self-confidence,
attributes Team working,
44% Time management,
Communicating Creativity and Leadership
44% each 1%
Figure 8
Overall, from the qualitative data obtained we also learned that the respondents felt that on the whole
the MSc tourism programmes would ‘significantly’ enhance their employability. For example:
“Improved qualifications will enable me to seek lecturing jobs…” “I think it will help me to get a job
in tourism planning in the public sector.” “…the higher degree level … is notorious for making you
more employable.” “I think the programme has greatly increased my employability … due to the
content of the course being closely related to the study of local and national government.” “The
development of research skills could prove useful.” “I think it has definitely enhanced my
employability.”
Some respondents felt that the course had enhanced their prospects in the North East region in
particular, for example: “I’ve acquired an awareness of many of the key issues surrounding tourism
development. There has been particular emphasis on the issues that are relevant to the NE of England
including studying many examples of local government/RDA policies and strategies.” Another felt
that: “The fact that the course places such an emphasis on all sides of tourism development
particularly sustainability, has left me with a negative attitude towards the intentions of the private
sector. I want to get into tourism in order to help develop the region; not just to make money.”
In terms of previous work experience, the majority had no previous work experience in the tourism
industry. Those that had work experience generally described low paid, voluntary, temporary or sub-
management level experiences working as tour guides, waiters or waitresses, receptionists, sales
assistants, travel agents, tourism information officers, museum guides, tour representatives, customer
service agents, airline passenger clerks. A couple of respondents specified more revealing
occupations as travel writers or as a ‘medieval wench’ but very few had management level work
experience in the tourism industry.
Interestingly, only a minority recognised the need for further work experience, for example: “I do not
believe that the MSc alone would be enough to make me employable … in many cases practical
experience is more desirable in prospective employees.” “Recognised qualification to add to work
experience already gained.” This clearly needs further investigation. The key findings of the research
are evaluated theoretically in the next section of the paper.
Discussion
In this section we wish to discuss the key findings of the research undertaken in terms of firstly the
importance of the various skills and attributes for tourism employability through students’ own
perceptions. Secondly, we wish to discuss students’ perceptions of the importance of careers
guidance. Thirdly we want to consider tourism employability in terms of the market context of actual
employment. Finally we want to place this in the context of the enlargement of the European Union
(EU).

Firstly, in terms of employability skills and attributes, our key findings are that postgraduate tourism
students are fairly confident that they have the necessary professional employability skills and
attributes (independence, creativity, integrity, honesty, perseverance etc) for higher level employment.
Female students also seem to be more ethically aware than male students.
On the other hand students felt that they needed to improve their time management, IT and numeracy
skills and communication abilities. Interestingly only a minority recognise the importance of work
based learning in terms of their future careers. Clearly this needs further investigation; however this is
related to our second key finding – the relative importance of careers guidance.
Our second key finding is that the vast majority of students recognise that careers guidance is both
their own responsibility and the responsibility of the MSc programme team. This is interesting in the
context towards the UK government’s move towards making careers guidance a more central part of
HEIs business. The vast majority of students also felt that they had had sufficient careers guidance to
date. Again, the actual postgraduate employment patterns of tourism students needs to be investigated
more thoroughly through further data collection and analysis.
Thirdly, in terms of employment itself our key finding is that the vast majority of postgraduate
tourism students want to work within the tourism sector. Furthermore, in terms of their motivations
they value varied work and the opportunity to travel. This concurs with Hjalager’s (2003: 31)
comment that: “International careers seem to be attractive, and many dreams and hopes are connected
to working abroad.” However she goes on to note that: “When compared with the other findings about
motivations and likely job categories, however, these dreams and hopes are less likely to be realised.”
This point also seems particularly pertinent for our students.
Interestingly our students seem to want academic employment on the whole. This is particularly
significant as it raises issues of the tourism employability market – in the sense that postgraduate
students view their career aspirations as primarily academic ones rather than in the private sector. In
this context Hjalager (2003: 33) notes that: “…students are fairly unimaginative in their job and
enterprise orientation. They seem to lack a good overview of the more intrinsic opportunities in the
experience economy.” However, this also points towards a strong motivation to renew the academic
tourism community. It may nevertheless reflect the lack of opportunities elsewhere in the tourism
employability market. Indeed as Brown and Hesketh (2004: 13) note:
“Rather than being recruited into highly skilled jobs, many potential knowledge workers
are finding themselves in a competitive scramble for managerial and professional jobs
that will leave many of them disappointed. This will not only lead to underemployment,
where university graduates are in jobs that make little use of their formal training, but to
unfulfilled personal and social expectations.”
Indeed, with the increase in tourism Masters programmes nationally, allied to increased funding
sources such as the ESF, we may actually be faced with a situation of credential inflation where the
regional or national tourism employment market becomes swamped with highly skilled postgraduates
who will have to take less skilled positions. One of the interesting outcomes of the ESF funding of
Masters level programmes has been a tendency for a significant minority of postgraduates (around
10%) to complete multiple degrees consecutively – thus we have the situation where a single student
has multiple Master’s degrees in subjects as diverse as art, human resource management and cultural
tourism development. Clearly this also needs further investigation.
Finally, we need to place this within the European context too. Tourism is one of the largest industries
in the European Union and is estimated to account for 5.5% of the EU’s Gross Domestic Product (EC,
1999). Forecasts suggest that from the existing level of 9 million jobs in the tourism sector in Europe,
tourism can create between 2.2 and 3.3 million extra jobs by 2010 based upon an annual growth rate
of 1-1.5% (EC, 1999).

The 1999 declaration of the European Ministers of Education entitled the European Higher Education
Area was a key landmark in the process of achieving convergence of the diverse national higher
education systems of Europe. Better known as the Bologna Declaration, this unprecedented step
towards a common HE framework level in Europe aims to establish a ‘Europe of Knowledge’: This
framework seeks to consolidate and enrich European citizenship, give its citizens the necessary
competencies to face the challenges of the new millennium, together with an awareness of shared
values and belonging to a common social and cultural space. The overall aim is to create a European
higher education area by 2010, establishing a level playing field for higher education on the
subcontinent, and indeed to promote the ‘European system of education’ world-wide. The Council of
Europe considers the Bologna process to be ‘the most important and wide-ranging reform of higher
education in Europe since the immediate aftermath of 1968’ (Council of Europe, 2003). There are
currently 40 signatories to the declaration, extending the boundaries of the area across countries as
diverse as Bulgaria, Malta, Iceland, Turkey and Russia.
In this context, the European Commission has instituted the Erasmus Mundus programme in support
of cooperative Masters programmes development across the subcontinent partially in support of the
Bologna process. Mundus sets out to promote the EU as a global centre of excellence in learning,
seeking to give European HE a higher profile around the world, with a key objective being to improve
the competitiveness of European HE institutions in an increasingly globalised HE market.
While the details of the declaration are not pertinent to the substance of this paper, two key issues may
be noted. Firstly, the extent to which employability will be strengthened or weakened through this
process needs to be investigated. Secondly, we need to consider whether the UK will be able to
maintain its position or whether the Bologna process will lead to students pursuing tourism Master’s
degrees in other European countries instead of the UK. Interestingly, at present, many of the students
with multiple Master’s degrees are in fact of European origin and collect them using ESF funding
before returning to their country of origin. Again further research is needed here.
Conclusions
This paper has discussed the politics of employability for students undertaking taught tourism Masters
programmes funded by the European Social Fund (ESF). Students at the University of Sunderland
were surveyed as to their projected aspirations for employment, the extent to which they felt that their
reflect upon their own employability skills and attributes. In summary, findings indicate that firstly,
postgraduate tourism students are fairly confident that they have the necessary professional
employability skills and attributes for higher level employment. Secondly the vast majority of
students recognise that careers guidance is both their own responsibility as well as that of the MSc
programme team. Thirdly, in terms of employment itself our key finding is that students are
interested in academic employment opportunities. We have argued that this may in fact reflect a lack
of higher level employment opportunities in the tourism employability market. However, a great deal
more research needs to be done on the topic of employability.
References
Brown, P. and Hesketh, A. (2004) The Mismanagement of Talent: Employability and jobs in the
knowledge economy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Brennan, J., Koogan, M. and Teichler, U. (eds.) (1996) Higher Education and work. London:
Kingsley.
CBI (1998) In Search of Employability. London: CBI.
CNE (2001) Regional Cultural Strategy for the North East of England. Available online:
http://www.culturenortheast.org/pdf/Cultural%20Strategy.pdf Accessed 14th November 2004.
Coopers and Lybrand, (1998) Skills development in Higher Education. Report for
CVCP/DfEE/HEQE. London: CVCP.

Council of Europe, (2003) Bologna process. Available online: http://www.coe.int/T/E/Cultural_Co-

operation/education/Higher_education/Activities/Bologna_Process/default.asp. Accessed 14
October 2004.
Davies, L. (2000) Why kick the ‘L’ out of ‘Learning'? The development of students’ employability
skills through part-time working. Education & Training 42, 436-444.
Dearing, R. (1997) Higher Education in the Learning Society. Report of the National Committee of
Inquiry into Higher Education. HMSO, Norwich.
EC (1999) Enhancing Tourism’s Potential for Employment: Follow up to the conclusions and
recommendations of the High Level Group on Tourism and Employment. Brussels: European
Commission. C 178/3.
ESF (2004) ESF 2000-2006. Available online:
http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/esf2000/index-en.htm Accessed 14th November
2004.
De la Harpe, B., Radloff, A. and Wyber, J. (2000) Quality and generic (professional) skills. Quality in
Higher Education. 6(3), 231-243.
Guardian/Gallup Survey (1994) Graduate Facts 1,2,3. The Guardian.
Harvey, L. (1997) Graduates’ work: organisational change and student attributes. Centre for
Research into Quality. University of Birmingham.
Harvey, L. (2000) New realities: the relationship between higher education and employment. Tertiary
Education and Management 6, 3-17.
Harvey, L. (2001) Defining and measuring employability. Quality in Higher Education, 7 (2), 97-109.
HAVE (2004) Download HAVE Resources. Available online:
http://ctserv.qmuc.ac.uk/online/HAVE/page.asp?ID=Download Accessed 14th November 2004.
Hawkins, P. and Winter, J. (1995) Skills for Graduates in the 21st Century. London: Association of
Graduate Recruiters.
HESA (Higher Education Statistics Agency). (1998) First Destinations of students leaving Higher
Education institutions. Cheltenham: HESA Services Ltd.
Hillage, J. and Pollard, E. (1998) Employability: developing a framework for policy analysis.
Research Brief 85, Department for Education and Employment.
Hjalager, A-M. (2003) Global Tourism Careers? Opportunities and dilemmas facing higher education
in tourism. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education 2(2), 26-37.
Holmes, L. (2001) Reconsidering Graduate Employability: the ‘graduate identity’ approach. Quality
in Higher Education, 7(2), 111-119.
Jackson, N. (1999) Modelling change in a national HE system using the concept of
unification. Journal of Education Policy 14(4), 411-434.
Knight, P. and Yorke, M. (2004) Learning, Curriculum and Employability in Higher Education.
London: Routledge.
Learndirect (2004) Advance search for courses. Available online: http://www.learndirect-
advice.co.uk/findacourse/. Accessed 10th November.
Lees, D. (2002) Graduate Employability – Literature Review. LTSN Generic Centre. Available
online: http://www.ltsn.ac.uk/ Accessed 15th October 2004.
Moon, J. (1999) Reflection in Learning and Professional Development. London: Kogan Page.
Morley, L. (2001) Producing New Workers: quality, equality and employability in higher education.
Quality in Higher Education, 7(2), 131-138.
QAA (2000) The Framework for Higher Education Qualifications in England, Wales and Northern
Ireland. Gloucester: QAA.
QAA (2001) Code of Practice for the assurance of academic quality and standards in higher
education: Section 8, Career Education, Information and Guidance. Gloucester: QAA.
Van der Heijden, B. (2001) Pre-requisites to guarantee life-long employability. Personnel Review,
31(1), 44-61.

_________________________________________
Touring In The Wwwilderness: Using

Internet Discovery Tools To Support
Learning, Teaching And Research
Steve Hewett
University of Birmingham
UK
_________________________________________
Abstract
Students and academic staff frequently use generalist search engines, such as Google and Alta Vista,
to find the information they need to help them with their assignment, project or research. Using these
search tools, however, can be frustrating and time consuming. A solution being offered is one that
aims to create a free Internet search tool, or gateway, for the hospitality, leisure, sport and tourism
subject areas within higher and further education. This searchable database contains information
about web resources, selected for their quality and relevance, by subject specialists. This paper
introduces the concept of the Internet subject gateway as a tool to support learning, teaching and
research whilst, at the same time posing the question: ‘Is there a place for quality assured Internet
resource catalogues when faced with the power and popularity of Google?’
Keywords: Web resources; catalogues; world wide web; learning material; Internet
Introduction
Use of the Internet, either to locate information or to disseminate it, is growing exponentially across
the higher education sector. The delivery of web-based information to teachers and learners via such
interfaces as Managed Learning Environments (MLEs), digital libraries and educational portals is
becoming commonplace and the majority of students entering UK colleges and universities expect,
rather than hope, to find what they require via the world wide web.
When it comes to searching for information to help them with their teaching assignment or project,
academic users tend to resort to the same search tools as the general public and that means using one
of the commercial search engines, such as Google, Yahoo or Alta Vista. Using these tools, can,
however, be frustrating and time consuming. Anyone who searches the Internet on a regular basis will
be only too aware of the problems to be encountered when searching for high quality, reliable web
resources using these kinds of search engines. The amount of information that can be returned as the
result of even quite a specific search is often mind-boggling! For, as Bill Clinton is reputed to have
once said:
“When I first took office, only high energy physicists had ever heard of what is called the
World Wide Web….Now, even my cat has its own page!”
How are searchers to organise and evaluate the mass of information now published on the Internet?
Resource discovery using the web can be a very real headache!

But a solution being offered to Higher and Further Education communities in the UK is through the
development of a national Internet service, funded by the Joint Information Systems Committee
(JISC), called the Resource Discovery Network (RDN). The RDN, a freely available service, enables
users to locate, quickly and easily, high quality, information-rich, and generally free, web-based
resources via a series of Internet Resource Catalogues (IRCs) containing descriptions of appropriate
Internet sites, selected and described by subject specialists from UK universities, colleges, libraries
and affiliated organisations.
To date, the RDN consists of a family of eight independent subject-based Internet gateways (the RDN
refers to them as ‘Hubs’); each gateway covering a faculty-level group of subjects:
• Altis, (Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism) based at the University of Birmingham:
• Artifact, (Arts and Creative Industries) based at Manchester Metropolitan University;
• BIOME, (Health and Life Sciences) based at the University of Nottingham;
• EEVL, (Engineering, Mathematics and Computing) based at Heriot Watt University;
• GEsource, (Geography and the Environment) based at Manchester University;
• PSIgate, (Physical Sciences) also based at Manchester University;
• Humbul (the Humanities) based at Oxford University; and
• SOSIG, (Social Sciences, Business and Law) based at the University of Bristol.
Each Hub, or gateway, has its own identity and branding, website and database, with which to
promote itself to its particular user community. However, strategic planning and development is
managed by an RDN-wide Board of Management and implemented by an RDN Executive. The
Executive, based at the University of Manchester, is responsible for the overall development of the
service. It sets service standards, provides the framework for the Hubs’ collection development
policies, promotes the RDN, develops strategic partnerships and provides support to the Hubs.
The RDN gateway of most relevance to this audience is Altis: the guide to Internet Resources in
Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism. Altis is one of the latest additions to the RDN, having been
officially launched in March 2003. In keeping with the other Hubs, it is free to use and aims to
provide speedy and reliable access to the best hospitality, leisure, sport and tourism resources
available on the Internet. The service is based at the University of Birmingham, but is very much a
collaborative partnership, using subject specialists from universities and colleges across the UK who
assist in populating its database.
For readers who may be wondering what the name ‘Altis’ stands for; it derives from the Greek for
‘sacred (olive) grove’ and refers to the place on Mount Olympus where the Olympic games were first
held. It seemed appropriate to pick a name that has strong connotations with a major sporting event;
and also one which must have a major effect on the host country’s hospitality and tourism industries!
The Altis project had its beginnings in May 2001, following a successful bid submitted to JISC by the
University of Birmingham. The University has a long track record in delivering a national sport and
leisure information service and was enthusiastic about becoming involved in developing this web-
based information service.
The other project partners are: Birmingham College of Food, Tourism and Creative Studies;
University College Worcester; the Higher Education Academy, Higher Education Academy Network
for Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism; and BIOME (another RDN Hub.) To this list of core
partners can be added: Lauder College, Rother Valley College and Sheffield Hallam University.
The core activity revolves around the development of the Internet Resource Catalogue which is
currently the main service provided by Altis. As mentioned above, this development work involves
selecting, evaluating and describing suitable Web resources. This content provision is undertaken by
Subject Consultants who are recruited from both information professionals and academic staff within
our particular subject areas: travel and tourism; hospitality and catering; sports science etc. A formal

contract is agreed between Altis and the institution providing the Subject Consultant(s) whereby a set
number of records are to be created and supplied to Altis each quarter in return for a financial
payment.
The Altis team spends a lot of time liaising with the Subject Consultants over matters such as
collection development policy and cataloguing guidelines, which are kept constantly under review;
and debating a range of issues relating to cataloguing Web resources.
One hot topic, (and it’s an issue shared by most of the other Hubs), is the question of granularity – the
level at which a web resource is catalogued. At present many of the sites in our catalogue point to the
top, or possibly, the secondary level pages, but these often contain many separately identifiable
‘learning objects’, such as individual full text documents, that perhaps deserve their own description.
After all, having been directed to a useful looking resource, the user doesn’t then want to spend time
hunting through a large web site looking for the specific item required. However, a catalogue
containing descriptions of large numbers of smaller ‘objects’ requires far more checking and
maintenance as they have a habit of moving, or disappearing completely. This is an area that Altis
feels needs addressing even if the additional maintenance work required means less time available to
create new records.
It is worth emphasising that once a web resource has been catalogued and entered in the database it
isn’t forgotten! Given the general impermanency of the web, it is very important that the currency of
links and the resource descriptions are checked periodically to ensure they are up to date and still
available. So, even though subject gateways cannot hope to rival the commercial search engines in
terms of size, they do offer a more stable and reliable, as well as a more focused source for
information.
In addition to a searchable and browsable database of resource descriptions, Altis is beginning to

develop some additional services. For example, using RSS (Rich Site Summary), an XML format for
sharing and distributing news items, job advertisements etc within the Altis community. RSS feeds,
once produced, can be gathered on the web by a variety of third parties, and by, for example,
integrating them into their own websites. This should have the valuable net effect of driving traffic to
Altis and increasing awareness of the service. The BBC News Service is a very good example of an
RSS news feed in action.
The RDN and individual Hubs, are developing other tools and resources that can support learning and
teaching. There is, for example, a set of subject-based online tutorials called the Virtual Training Suite
(http://www.vts.rdn.ac.uk/). This service aims to help students, lecturers and researchers develop their
internet information literacy skills. It offers a set of free ‘teach yourself’ tutorials, delivered over the
web, each of which offers internet skills training in a particular subject area. There is a tutorial for
most of the subjects taught in universities and colleges. The tutorials offer ‘any time, any place’
training and include quizzes and interactive exercises to lighten the learning experience and a subject-
based approach to internet skills training.
There are three tutorials relevant to Altis, written by FE practitioners primarily for the FE sector, but
equally valuable to the HE community. These cover hospitality and catering; leisure, sport and
recreation and travel and tourism. There are also links to a number of subject specific resource guides
which provide a description of relevant quality electronic resources available to a particular subject
area, such as catering, food and hospitality.
A series of case studies is provided, created by and for lecturers, librarians and learning resource
centre staff which give some practical ideas and suggestions for incorporating RDN, and other
internet resources, into teaching and learning activities.

Under Travel and Tourism, sample scenarios include ‘tourism development’; ‘tourism activity and
destinations’; and ‘student employability’.
A recent addition to the Altis service is the Sport and Leisure Index, a bibliographic database
containing more than 42,000 records of articles and research papers covering all aspects of sport,
leisure and physical activity.
The database is owned by the library at the University of Birmingham and was originally used to
produce a monthly current awareness bulletin called the Sports Documentation Monthly Bulletin. This
ceased publication in 2003 but rather than see it go to waste, Altis acquired the data and now makes it
available to Altis users as a value-added resource. Users can therefore use Altis to locate both web
resources and bibliographic references on a particular topic.
It is very important that Altis is made as accessible as possible to its users, and one way to achieve
this would be to embed Altis functionality into Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs), or
institutional portals that are beginning to appear in increasing numbers
VLEs typically comprise a range of tools and features that aim to assist teaching and learning, which
often includes linking to further resources that are available online. So, for example, an Altis search
box could be added to the e-resources section of a university’s VLE or library portal such as at the
University of Wolverhampton: http://asp.wlv.ac.uk/search/rdnsearch.asp
Or an RSS newsfeed facility (described above), to facilitate finding subject-specific news, might
usefully be incorporated into a library portal. An example of this kind of thing would be the RSS
newsfeed facility embedded in the University of Sheffield’s institutional portal, designed to give
students and staff personalized access to the University’s online resources, and which allows users to
customise the news they wish to view:
http://www.shef.ac.uk/cics/services/internet/portal/support/newsfeeds.html.
Altis newsfeeds currently under development, will soon be available for use in a similar way.
The Rise and Rise …… of Google!

Some may say that this kind of work is all very commendable, but question whether there is really a
place for these kinds of services, when there are the commercial search engines. If asked: ‘which
search engine do you use most often’, it is more than likely that most would say that it was Google.
Studies of the information gathering behaviour of Internet users in the post-16 education sector, as
well as anecdotal evidence, suggests that all types of user, (teaching staff, students and researchers,)
use Google as their search engine of choice. There are now more than 200 million searches a day run
on Google which represents about 75% of all search engine-generated traffic to websites, (Bradley,
2004).
It is true that search engine functionality has improved in recent years. Six or seven years ago search
engines such as Alta Vista, (the first of the big, fast search engines), were struggling to compete with
the explosion of information appearing on the web, whilst at the same time meeting the demand of a
growing population of internet users. Nowadays they seem much more effective. Google for instance
has quite a sophisticated advanced search functionality which allows for quite specific searches to be
undertaken. It also has an array of tools to help the user find what they want.
But are they really that good? Can Google be relied upon to produce the kind of results that the
education community requires? Despite search engines claiming that their indexes are better than ever
(Vine, 2004) searching does appear to be less, rather than more, productive.
There are issues arising from the sheer number of ‘hits’ produced by a single search. Even with quite
specific search terms, it is normal to retrieve thousands, if not hundreds of thousands of potentially

useful results. How can users hope to create order from so much information? Despite their
willingness to use search engines, users appear not to be prepared to spend much time assessing and
evaluating what is retrieved.
So there is the trustworthiness of the resources listed – where has the information come from and is it
accurate or even relevant? Businesses are now buying those special ‘key’ words that keep cropping up
in search engine searches. Words like ‘links’ and ‘resources’. They optimise the content of their
websites by including these popular terms so as to get themselves placed higher up the list of search
results than they perhaps warrant and sometimes clutter up the first few pages of a search with
products and services rather than academic content.
Then there is the question of unhelpful descriptions and the inability of search engines to retrieve
websites from behind password protected areas - the so-called ‘hidden web’. For example, electronic
archives, containing copies of academic papers, reports, manuscripts and other work by a University’s
research staff. [Although, technically, it is perfectly possible to ‘tag’ such material in such a way that
a search engine could locate it. However, the authors’ approval is required to do this]
Much scholarly material that does appear is buried way down in the results where a user may not
bother to look. As more and more content appears on the web, its becoming harder and harder to find
the high-quality material the teacher or researcher needs. A search for ‘tourism ethics’ via one
commercial search engine produced 1.6 million hits! How far down this list of websites should the
enquirer scroll in search of good quality material? What help does he/she receive in separating the
useful from the useless to produce a manageable amount of data? Do the descriptions give much
assistance in gauging the value or relevance of a resource?
By contrast, the same search using the Altis gateway would produce considerably fewer, but more
focused, ‘hits’ including, as in this example, the text of the World Trade Organisation’s ‘Global Code
of Ethics for Tourism’ and a learning module on responsible tourism. The results come with a brief
description of the site, which summarises the resource’s contents and gauges its usefulness. The
outcome therefore is to improve the recall and precision, of internet searches for a particular group of
users, saving time and effort by doing much of the ‘leg-work’ involved with internet searching. In
stark contrast to search engine searches with their long lists of automatically generated and
unevaluated websites, which leaves the user with the frustrating task of sorting ‘the best’ from ‘the
rest’.
Surveys quoted by Markland, (Markland, 2003) show that parts of the web demonstrate ‘content
churn’, an interesting phrase, which relates to the lifespan of many web pages that are born and, like
the summer mayfly, die away in a matter of months; other web pages are under constant update whilst
yet others are produced ‘on the fly’ by database manipulations. This kind of web activity suggests
estimates of possibly 500 billion pages of information available on the web of which only 1/500 can
be reached via search engines (Sullivan, 2000). So for students and teachers, short on time to
complete assignments or prepare lessons, sifting through thousands of search results to find relevant
information can be daunting. Even for researchers, with more focused information needs, there must
be times when a search for information might require a more refined discovery tool.
It should be remembered that search engines are not just in the search/information retrieval business.
They are in the advertising business, which, for free services is the main way to make revenue. So
anything that brings in advertising, (and thus revenue,) is what search engines will concentrate on,
even if this means little time spent on improving the search experience for their users, particularly
academic users.
Having said all this there is no doubt that search engines have opened up a door to information on a
global scale that didn’t exist ten years ago. Statistics, government reports, research papers, health
information, learning materials and much else besides. The pay off has been the need to sort the

‘wheat from the chaff’ sifting out the products and services, the adverts and the adult content whilst
spending as little time as possible in performing a search.
Conclusion
It is clearly something of a challenge for subject gateways to try and compete with the commercial
search engines, which look to remain the internet users’ discovery tool of choice. Subject gateways
are expensive to produce. It is estimated that the process of identifying, evaluating and describing a
website can take between 30 and 60 minutes, so there is no way that such tools can ever describe
more than a tiny fraction of the billions of pages available on the web. They also require a great deal
of maintenance to ensure that records remain accurate and don’t contain any broken links.
The more information being thrown at you, the less you can really hope to handle adequately. The
sheer volume of data available and the amount of time required to order and evaluate it is more than
most learners and teachers have available when there are teaching materials to put together and
assignments to write.
This, hopefully, is where the RDN and Altis really can help by providing access to a selection of the
best of the Web - high quality, evaluated Internet resources. Precision searching; easy and reliable
identification of authoritative resources; more relevant search results; instant delivery and 24/7
availability!!
References
Bradley, P. (2004) Search Engines: 2003: the year in perspective. Ariadne, No.38
http://www.ariadne.ac.uk/issue38/search-engines/
Brooks, T.A. (2001) Where is meaning when form is gone? Knowledge representation on the Web.
Information Research, 6 (2), paper no. 93 http://informationr.net/ir/6-2/paper93.html
Markland, M. (2003) Embedding online information resources in Virtual Learning Environments:
some implications for lecturers and librarians of the move towards delivering teaching in the
online environment. Information Research, 8(4), paper no. 158 http://informationr.net/ir/8-
4/paper158.html
Sullivan, D. (2000) The search engine report, no.44 pt.1, 5th July.
http://searchenginewatch.com/sereport/article.php/2207571
Vine, R. (2004) Coming soon – the death of search engines? llrx.com (Web journal), 24th May.
http://www.llrx.com/features/deathsearchengine.htm

_________________________________________
Escaping the Tyranny of Relevance: Some

Reflections on Hospitality Management
Education
Conrad Lashley
Nottingham Trent University
UK
_________________________________________
Abstract
Higher education provision to meet the needs of management within the hospitality industry is now
well established in most English speaking countries. In the UK the first degree programmes appeared
in the late 1960s and burgeoned alongside the general expansion of higher education in the 1990s.
This paper draws on recent reports on higher education for the hospitality industry, and on recent
academic research into the nature of hospitality to suggest that higher education programmes would
better serve both students and industry if they reflected more social science underpinnings.
Paradoxically, an overly managerial focus in content is not always consistent with the needs of
manager education. Various studies suggest that reflective practitioners are needed for a turbulent and
changing hospitality industry. The development of analytical and critical thinking skills are essential
for managers who are increasingly being asked to ‘think outside the box’. This paper argues that
these skills are best developed in a framework of critical education which is as concerned with the
study of hospitality management as it is with the study for hospitality management.
Keywords: Hospitality management, Education for hospitality, Hospitality studies, Reflective

practitioner
Studying Hospitality: Some Reflections on Hospitality Management Education

In the United Kingdom students from hotel and catering management degree programmes began to
enter the labour market in the early 1970s, and by the late 1990s there were more than 8000 students
enrolled on 79 courses in 27 institutions (Airey & Tribe, 2000). The total number of graduates and
diplomates in the subject was estimated to be between 2,000-3,000 per year (Higher Education Funding
Council for England, 1998). The early degree programmes frequently emerged from technician level
National Diplomas in Catering and Hotel Keeping, and as a consequence provision is concerned with
developing vocational skills and is largely located in the post 1992 ‘new’ universities created from former
polytechnics.
Almost from the onset industry commentators have been critical of degree provision. For example Miles
Quest, a former editor of the Caterer and Hotelkeeper wrote several editorials, and addressed the 1988
HM Inspector’s conference, criticising the need for degree level provision. In more recent years Gary
Hawkes (2003) and Paul Slattery (2002) have been critical of hospitality management education
provision though for different reasons. Certainly the atmosphere created by a trickle of industry sniping of
higher education led the Higher Education Funding Council – England to undertake two pieces of
research that will be referred to in detail later in this paper. Certainly the Review of Hospitality
Management (HEFCE, 1998) and Getting Ahead: graduate careers in hospitality management (HEFCE,

2001) represent the most systematic attempts to understand the nature of higher education and the impact
this has within the firms actually employing graduates in industry.
The paper explores some of the issues arising from these reports and from other work undertaken by the
author on the nature of management in hospitality businesses. The paper also suggests that recent work
exploring the nature of hospitality from an array of social science perspectives provides opportunities to
support the development of those being prepared for management in the hospitality industry by
encouraging the study of hospitality and management through critical and theoretical perspectives. It
advocates that the hospitality field of study needs to refocus so as to reflect these social science
perspectives and suggests that Hospitality Studies as a title for the field provides an opportunity to
encompass the study of and the study for hospitality.
Hospitality Management Education

The Review of Hospitality Management (HEFCE, 1998) defined hospitality management as “having a
core which addresses the management of food, and/or drink, and or accommodation in a service
context” (p2). When all these activities are taken into account, hospitality activities employ
approximately 2 million people in Britain (HtF, 2002) and the Henley Centre (1996:15) suggested that
for each hospitality job a further 1.3 jobs are created in support services in the wider economy. The
report acknowledged that the industry is complex, covering different sectors, hotels, restaurants, pubs
and bars, contract catering as well as provision in the welfare sector and some leisure units where
hospitality services are a subset of the operation. Small firms dominate commercial sectors of the
industry. Some 99% of hospitality firms in these sectors employ fewer than 50 people, yet these firms
account for only 45% of total sales and 50% of employment (Thomas, Lashley, Rowson, Guozhong,
Jameson, Eaglen, Lincoln, & Parsons, 2000). At the other end of the scale, in each of these
commercial sectors a small number of branded businesses own and manage hundreds or thousands of
units. These businesses offer management careers in multi-layered organisations at individual unit,
multi-unit, middle, and senior management positions.
The report confirmed that courses were designed to match these occupations incorporating a mixture of
operational management subjects together with topics that supported the development of management
competences in people management, marketing, finance, business strategy, small firms and
entrepreneurship. It was recognised that programmes showed some variations between institutions but
much of the provision had common content and objectives.
The report was undertaken at a time when the Higher Education Funding Council – England was
considering the introduction of a revised mechanism for funding courses which potentially would have
placed hospitality management programmes in the lowest funding band along with programmes that are
solely classroom based. In fact the report showed that all courses included some element of ‘laboratory’
time in kitchens, bars, restaurants, reception, and accommodation suites. Litteljohn and Morrison (1997)
estimated that on average 23% of students’ contact hours at university or college were spent in laboratory
situations and 64% of this in food and beverage activities. In addition, most courses incorporated a one-
year work placement as part of the programme.
Although there were estimated to be 2,000-3,000 graduates in the late 1990s, numbers on hospitality
management programmes have reduced in the last few years, as new competing programmes in ‘licensed
retail management’, ‘event management’ and ‘leisure management’, together with the impacts of the
introduction of student fees and changes in university management structures have reduced student
enrolments even at a time of increased participation in university education. The number of graduates
entering the labour market in 2002 was closer to 2000 than the higher figure shown above. Given an
estimated 250,000 managers employed in accommodation, bars and restaurants services alone
(Hospitality Training Foundation, 2000) it is still true to say that, “there is no question of graduates
flooding the market” (HEFCE 98:15, 1998: 8). Commenting on graduate entry into the industry, the same
report stated that, “initially, 80% went into work connected with the industry” (p7). Though most
educators are also aware of the strong competition for hospitality graduates from traditional high street
retailers who like the array of skills they possess.

The report acknowledged a failure in communication with industry at large that has sometimes resulted in
comments from practitioners that educators produce too many graduates, and not enough graduates go
into the industry. The somewhat contradictory nature of these comments is in part a reflection of these
communications failures but also a reflection of the relatively low level of graduates working in the
industry. This stands at just 5.5% of all employees and employers, compared with 17.9% across all
industries (HtF, 2000). It is estimated that 20-30% of managers in the hospitality industry are graduates
hence some seven or eight out of ten practicing managers are not graduates and have no higher education.
Whilst acknowledging these communications difficulties with the industry at large, Airey & Tribe (2000)
describe hospitality courses as being prominently influenced by industry. “The emphasis on practical and
industry-oriented content is clear from module titles, such as food preparation techniques.” The Council
for National Academic Awards (1992:7) suggested that these programmes “combined a range of business
studies components” as well as more generic management studies and “these are combined with specific
hotel and catering studies which invariably include a science element” (Council for National Academic
Awards, 1992:7). Airey and Tribe note that over recent years course titles have shifted from hotel and
catering management to include hospitality, and whilst they recognise the change in title opens up a wider
conceptual framework, “at the same time it is clear that the vocational orientation remains at the core of
the curriculum” (2000:282). In fact they go on to establish these programmes as located in the
vocational action quadrant when higher education provision in general is mapped against two continua –
stance as reflection/action, and ends as liberal/vocational. This is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: The use of curriculum space

Stance
Reflection Action
Ends
Liberal Reflective liberal Liberal action
Vocational Reflective vocational Vocational action
Source: Airey & Tribe, 2000
They suggest that whilst this meets the needs of industry and employers, these programmes can be
criticised as being “dominated by the tyranny of relevance” (2000:290). The study of hospitality in its
broadest sense provides opportunities to locate the subject in the wider social sciences, and provide a
more reflective agenda for educators. Certainly the link with industry and the vocational aims of these
programmes locates them within one of several potential positions in higher education provision.
These potential positions will be discussed in more detail but the tyranny of relevance is further
compounded by the learning style preferences of students entering hospitality management
programmes. There is now a weight of research in the UK and internationally (Lashley, 1999;
Lashley & Shaw, 2002; Baron & Arcadia, 2002; Lashley and Barron, 2003; Charlesworth, 2003)
showing that hospitality management has a predominant preference for Activist learning styles
(Honey & Mumford, 1986).
Honey and Mumford point out that Activist learners are at an advantage when they are in contexts
where they are working with other people and through talking with other people. They enjoy contexts
where there is a great deal of variety and situations are difficult to predict. Many aspects of the
hospitality working environment could be said to match these requirements. Often demand is difficult
to predict precisely. Unusual customer requests, or customer complaints require quick responses, and
the work usually involves immediate contact with other employees and customers. Hospitality

management university programmes prepare graduates for specific occupations and Activist learning
styles could be seen as compatible with this type of programme.
Honey and Mumford (2000) however also identify some drawbacks to the Activist learning style.
They suggest that activist learners tend to rush into things, they avoid planning work in advance and
tend to neglect subjects in which they are uninterested. Often they leave things to the last minute and
have difficulty on deciding priorities. Frequently they have poor time management skills, and can’t be
bothered with details. As both students and managers these disadvantages to Activist approaches can
lead to poor performance. Furthermore, substantial numbers of UK and Australian students register
low or very low preferences for Reflector and Theorist styles, which presents added difficulties when
research from both industry and academia suggest ‘reflective practitioners’ are required for effective
performance (Lashley, 1999; Lashley & Barron, 2003). Certainly educators need to adopt strategies
that challenge both the ‘tyranny of relevance’ and the reluctance of many students on hospitality
management programmes to reflect and theorise. The pleasure in action and reluctance to reflect are
implicit in a number of research projects exploring current management practice and in some of the
comments referred to earlier. A recent study of employment practice in hospitality firms in
Manchester’s tourism sector (Lashley, Thomas, & Rowson, 2002) and an earlier study of staff
turnover in the pub sector (Lashley & Rowson, 2000) suggest many managers are prepared to put up
with staff retention difficulties without reflecting on why staff are leaving. In one extreme case, a
manager interviewee reported recruiting 286 employees for a normal establishment of 50 job roles.
There appeared to be little reflection in this practitioner’s performance (Lashley & Rowson, 2000).
Several reports and academic studies about hospitality management programmes in the UK show,
‘widespread and mature links with industry’ (HEFCE 98:15, 1998:15). The link to tightly defined
occupations does bring with it problems, because there can be a tendency to make programmes overly
pragmatic and reinforce student tendencies to avoid reflection and theorising. Although it is possible to
address these problems within the current programme structures and subject titles (Lashley, 1999), this
paper suggests there is a strong case to broaden the curriculum so as to embed reflective practice in the
student’s development. This view is supported by a recent report on graduate careers in hospitality
management.
Hospitality Management Careers

The applied nature of the programme content and the relevance of content to careers in hospitality
management were confirmed by a follow-up report commissioned by the HEFCE. Getting Ahead:
Graduate careers in hospitality management (HEFCE, 2001) was commissioned by the Higher Education
Funding Council – England to explore some of the concerns raised by industry commentators. One of the
key aims of the research was to explore management careers in the hospitality industry with specific
reference to the impact that higher education qualifications have on management careers. The
research also aimed to explore the nature of work and skills required of managers in the industry with
a view to exploring the relevance of the current curriculum and educational practice in higher
education to the needs of managers, and the value of a higher education to stakeholders.
The research team adopted a sector-based approach to the analysis of management career paths and the
contribution that qualifications make to careers. This involved the production of six detailed sector reports
and also a final report that combines the analysis from all the sectors studied and reaches overall
conclusions. The sector reports covered licensed retail, hotels, restaurants, contract catering, welfare
catering and leisure. All these reports are available through the HEFCE’s web site (www.hefce.ac.uk)
Using a case study methodology, each sector report was based on the detailed study of key hospitality
organisations identified as representing different operations typical of that sector. The individual
organisation studies included in-depth interviews with key senior personnel, life histories from
managers in representative positions, and questionnaire results from a range of managers. Reports
from each sector study therefore include data from all of these sources.

The research gather detailed data about management careers in the six sectors through thirty cases
study organisations and approximately 150 interviews with mangers at key positions within the
management hierarchy. In addition the report gathered information about management career training
and development from 1396 small firms through a postal survey integrated into the small firms survey
undertaken by Leeds Metropolitan University (Thomas, et al, 2000).
The report confirmed that the education background of the managers being interviewed strongly
influenced their perception of graduates and their potential contribution to the organisation. The report
quotes several cases where senior executives who were graduates themselves, employed graduates in
large numbers. The report quotes one CEO as saying, (2001:20) “changes in the last few years require
us to be more qualified. In the business world a degree is recognition that someone can think outside
of a square and can write and add up with dexterity”. This firm had a better qualified management
structure than in many other firms in the survey. The report also noted that the small firms survey
showed that graduate owner managers were more than twice as likely to employ graduates
themselves. Further, owner managers with a degree were more likely to employ graduates in
managerial rather than operational roles.
Managers who had been promoted through experience did not value graduates or the skills they might
contribute. In several cases, managers interviewed reported that graduates were treated with suspicion
and were dismissive of the benefits a higher education might provide. The report went on the say,
“Non-graduates knew almost nothing about hospitality degrees and tended to overplay the aspirations
of graduates believing they would only want high level jobs and would not want to get their hands
dirty.” Several managers in the sample believed that graduates ‘expected too much too early’ (p20).
Several interviewees commented on graduates being ‘too intellectual’ or being unwilling ‘to roll their
sleeves up’ (p20). In some cases interviewers were told that non-qualified managers liked to ‘expose
inexperienced graduates’ (p20). Managers without qualifications were also more likely to accuse
graduates of wanting to be promoted too quickly and of being unwilling to learn the business. In fact
interviews with graduates themselves were reported as confirming, “most of them were realistic about
what was required of them. They realised that their degrees were not a passport to anything and once
in their first job would be judged on their performance.” (p. 20).
Interviews with senior managers in large organisations, and from the questionnaire data from small
firms suggested that those actually employing graduates are highly satisfied with graduates.
Hospitality graduates were frequently favoured over other disciplines mainly because hospitality
graduates ‘understood the industry’ and ‘were more likely to stay the course’(p18). A principal officer
in social services said “I recently conducted interviews for a management post and one of the ladies I
interviewed had a degree in hospitality management. I noticed that she was much more confident and
had more transferable skills than some of the other candidates and this made her the best candidate for
the post” (p18). One hotel manager spoke of hospitality graduates’ ‘passion’ (p18) about the hotel
industry. Commitment from hospitality graduates was seen as very important and one hotel manager
who was interviewed said that this gave hospitality graduates ‘the edge’ p18). Even the owners of
small firms employing graduates expressed high levels of satisfaction with the graduates in their
employ. When small firm owners employing graduates were give a series of positive and negative
comments about graduates over 90 per cent agreed with positive statements and substantial minorities
disagreed with the negative statements.
The report confirmed that qualifications have a large impact on careers in hospitality management,
though this varied between sectors. It was clear that in the larger organisation there were points in the
hierarchy that could not be passed without a degree qualification. Increasingly the most senior
managers were expected to have MBAs or some other postgraduate qualification. The importance of a
degree at unit management level was an issue where there was some variation between organisations.
“Interviewees were unanimous in recognising the key importance of management skills at unit
management level” (p15). Many organisations were requiring unit managers to be ‘more
entrepreneurial’ and recognised that unit managers were often running substantial businesses in their
own right. In these cases, they recognised the qualities that a graduate could bring to unit

management. In other cases, graduates were expected to undertake unit management though they
might ultimately be destined for more senior management positions. The report stated, “As the
industry continues to develop and managerial roles and companies become more complex, the nature
of the unit management role will also increasingly require the skills and knowledge that graduates
bring”. This observation is interesting considering Paul Slattery’s recent criticism of hospitality
educators at the Council for Hospitality Management Education’s recent conference (May, 2003). His
other criticism that there is an over concern for operational issues in these courses is also not
supported by the evidence from these interviews.
One of the key areas for criticism by self appointed critics of higher education provision is that it is
not providing the food and beverage skills that the industry requires. The point was frequently made
by Gary Hawkes and a string of others. The report observed, “It would appear from this research that
these accusations are groundless and that current higher education practice of moving away from
developing technical skills to a detailed appreciation of operating systems and concepts is actually
what the vast majority of the industry now requires of its managers.” (p7). Managers are much more
likely to need to consider the changes in customer eating fashions and their impact on popular
restaurants than how to butcher a side of beef, or knock out frangipani. Managers in the early stages
of their careers need to be able to cope with the technical operational complexity of hospitality
operations, “but it is only at the extremes of the industry that high level technical knowledge and
skills are really required” (p7). That said, it is highly unlikely that managers are required to regularly
step into an operational role to replace a member of staff, and if they are there are considerable
opportunity costs because managers are not doing important tasks.
The report commented on supposed skill deficiencies of graduate, “In fact there is no evidence to
suggest that graduates from hospitality management programmes are demonstrably deficient in any of
the skill areas identified by industry as important in line managers” (p6). The report confirmed that
people management skills were very important in the industry and the graduates were given a good
grounding in this, but recognised that these skills were ultimately developed with experience. Whilst
the report acknowledge the criticism that higher education was overly academic and limited in its
concern for developing practical skills the research found that, “The clear message from all industry
sectors, both public and private, was that business acumen and commercial awareness is fundamental
to the future success of managers at all levels and to the success of the industry as a whole” (p6).
Again the evidence from these interviews is that graduates are well prepared in business skills and
commercial acumen.
The report also pointed to the transferable skills elements of programmes. The ability to communicate
effectively in a variety of forms was seen as important skills developed in higher education. Whether
preparing a formal report for senior executives or presenting a team briefing to service staff just
before opening, graduates stand out as offering a range of skills that others may not have developed.
As industry moves to a more devolved pattern of management, all managers need to be able to tackle
and resolve day to day operational problems as well as those of a more tactical and strategic nature.
Again graduates are seen as offering competence in this area.
The industry continues to change rapidly and the role of managers along with it. Part of this change
signals a move to empowered and participative forms of management. Although some companies,
particularly in the hotel sector strongly favour graduates from the more controlled regime of the ‘hotel
school’ many others are looking for people who can think ‘outside the box’ (p5). The interviewees
from across all six sectors confirmed the view that they were looking for people who are flexible and
are able apply a range of skills to complex and changing situations. Specific technical skills and
knowledge were much less important than a ability to analyse and resolve problems or unexpected
situations as they arose. Recent events such as the foot and mouth, and BSE crises, and the downturn
in tourism following high profile terrorist attacks confirm just how important these skills can be when
events in the environment result in sudden shifts in consumer demand.

When managers were questioned on the advantages of employing a graduate they focused on features
that are best described as the qualities of graduateness, such as intellectual ability, powers of analysis,
speed of thinking, the application of a range of ideas and concepts, and the ‘fresh eye’ that graduates
could bring. One manager in the restaurant sector believed that graduates brought a ‘wider vision’ to
the company. The report observed, “hospitality graduates themselves had different views of the
usefulness of their degrees. They valued the general transferable skills which a degree had provided,
and specifically mentioned the work placement experience. Graduates believed that they were more
‘prone to think before acting’ compared to their non-graduate colleagues. Some of them also believed
that having a degree improved their speed of progress and ability to do a job effectively.” (p20) .
Some graduates commented that a degree formed the basis for learning by subsequent experience.
Specific skills that graduates believed they had acquired on their degrees included writing skills,
presentation skills and time management skills. In general, graduates thought that having a degree had
taught them to be more self-disciplined and had increased their self-confidence and motivation. Most
graduates felt that their degree had helped with career progression and had acted as a stepping stone
into their first managerial job.
Although there were some criticism of higher education’s tendency to focus on hotels at the expense
of other sectors, the main report and the six sector reports suggests a positive match between higher
education provision and careers in hospitality management. Indeed, some might conclude that as
these programmes are meeting industry needs they do not need changing. ‘If it ain’t broke don’t fix
it’, to use the well known American phrase. Unfortunately, there are sound academic and educational
issues which now need to be addressed. Both industry practitioners and graduates themselves value
intellectual skills and qualities of the reflective practitioner. Award titles need to reflect a curriculum
that is more concerned with developing theories and laying down understanding of scientific
principles. The subject of hospitality needs to be studies as a social phenomenon so as to better
understand its commercial context. For some the subject is now at a crossroads (Botterill, 2000;
Brotherton & Woods, 2000; Morrison, 2002) and that there is a need to break out from the vocational
action domain (Airey and Tribe, 2000).
Hospitality Studies
The model developed by Airey & Tribe (2000) and displayed in Figure 1 suggests several potential
directions for future development. Clearly the development of ‘reflective practitioners’ is consistent
with the ‘reflective vocational’ dimension of the Airey and Tribe model. One option is to develop a
study programme that increases the theoretical and conceptual underpinning of hospitality activities.
Fundamentally, however, hospitality educators need to develop the academic study of hospitality as a
way of better informing the management of hospitality (Brotherton & Wood, 2000; Morrison 2002).
Morrison (2002:163) says, “If hospitality management research is to progress, those associated with it
must reflect more deeply over its essential nature and practical manifestations”, and Brotherton and
Wood (2000) argue that there is an urgent need for both researchers and practitioners to challenge
complacency and unquestioning mindsets. Morrison (2002:163) goes on to say that as an academic
discipline hospitality, “…may benefit from introspection in the sense that its very epistemological
basis and the conceptualisation of its nature, incidence and forms… to liberate it from current
functionalism.” Whist this paper is largely concerned with programmes of study, the nature of the
academic field of hospitality is at the heart of programmes of study. Fundamentally, hospitality must
be established on a sound social science base. The current preoccupation with management and
relevance to industry is an intellectual cul de sac, or as Botterill (2000:193) describes it, “a closed
expert system in which experts speak to experts in an ever decreasing circle, defending conventional
ways of gaining knowledge.”
In Search of Hospitality: theoretical perspectives and debates (Lashley & Morrison, 2000) opened
some avenues of study linking back into social sciences. Hospitality and hospitable behaviour are a
key aspect of human society and as a consequence, a broad array of social sciences can contribute to
our understanding of the subject. Though some find the line of enquiry somewhat arcane (Slattery,

2002) the study of hospitality from the social and private domains, does have relevance to commercial
practice and hospitality management. Warde and Martins (2000) show that consumers are often
evaluating commercial hospitality settings against expectations gained from private settings, and they
suggest hospitality in the private domain is seen as more authentic. Another recent study of the
emotions of hospitality through special meal occasions (Lashley, Morrison, & Randall, 2003) suggests
that the relationship is more complex. Findings show that the language of private hospitality is used to
evaluate feelings in commercial hospitality, being made ‘to feel at home’, ‘the host made us feel
welcome’ and ‘there was a homely feeling to the setting.’ However, people will choose either private
or commercial settings for their special meal occasions depending on what they want from the
occasion. Lynch and McWhannel’s (2000) excellent work on ‘commercial homes’, also provides
some interesting insights into the relationship between commercial and private hospitality within this
under researched but highly significant sector. Bed and breakfast and guest house settings embrace the
commercial, the private and social domains of hospitality and include some important tensions that
need to be understood in this important segment of tourism provision. The study of hospitality in its
various domains (Lashley, 2000) has direct relevance to the commercial provision in the hospitality
industry, and social scientist provide valuable insights as ways of thinking about and analysing the
world.
Selwyn (2000), for example, gives some valuable insights into the anthropology of hospitality. This
allows future managers to appreciate the different cultural perspectives on hospitality and the social
significance accorded to hospitality and hospitableness in different societies and at different times.
Similarly Telfer’s (2000) work on the ‘philosophy of hospitality’ provides valuable perspectives on
the topic and also on how philosophers develop ideas that can improve reflection amongst
practitioners. Walton’s (2000) The British Seaside: Holidays And Resorts In The Twentieth Century
presents another example of an insightful account of the social, political, economic, and technical
influences that led to the growth and decline of British seaside holiday resorts. Managers of the future
need this sense of history and the forces at work in society that a social historian engages.
These are just some of the avenues opened up in the book providing opportunities for educators to
build a more analytical framework from which to study the management of hospitality operations. So
if hospitality education is to be located in the more ‘reflective vocational’ domain of the Airey &
Tribe (2000) model, there is ample material to draw upon. The work of sociologists, social historians,
anthropologists, philosophers, social psychologist, and organisational behaviouralists all have
contributions to make that enhance our understanding of the concepts and theories that influence both
hospitality organisations and the contexts in which they operate. Theory aids reflection and informs
practice (Kolb, 1983), thereby reinforcing the development of the reflective practitioner and providing
the flexible mindset capable of reading and responding quickly to change in the environment.
In fact we could go further, Tribe (2002) suggests that tourism educators need to go beyond the
concept of the reflective practitioner so as to develop ‘philosophical practitioners’. Using the two
continua supporting the model in Figure 1, Tribe argues that there is a need to engage reflection and
action, as well as vocation and liberal dimensions in education programmes. This approach has the
virtue of producing more rounded graduates. It suggests a powerful means of releasing hospitality
educators from the tyranny of relevance.
Educators should not be afraid to follow studies that may not appear directly relevant to the subject
specialism. Nor should they be afraid to describe themselves as intellectuals. Their duty is to develop
in students a strong spirit of enquiry that will support a commitment to life long learning. If this goal
is achieved, graduates continue to develop, learn and adapt to changing circumstances throughout
their lives. This point is fundamental to the purpose of education and the educator’s duty to students.
Most educators enter the profession because they have a commitment to knowledge and want to pass
on this enthusiasm to others. Although preparing people for particular occupations educators should
not forget their duty to students as individuals. The tyrants of the relevant should not be allowed to
deflect them from responsibilities to empower students through education and the pursuit of
knowledge.

Similarly educators need not be afraid to express professional judgements about the nature of the
curriculum and the sort of people required for the hospitality industry. The tyrants of the relevant want
hospitality education to be tied to ‘bench mark statements’ (QAA, 2000) and other supposed
predictors of the knowledge and skills possessed by hospitality graduates, as though they were ‘cup-a-
soup’ mangers, instantly industry-ready on graduation. They see higher education as just another
supplier, requiring product specifications so that employers know what they are getting. The problem
with this view is twofold. Firstly, judgements are always historical and usually influenced by the
commentators own working context. So the fact that Hawkes and Slattery criticise higher education
for quite different reasons is a product of their mutual inability to see the bigger picture and the array
of interests that educators service. Hawkes criticises higher education for too little attention to
operational and technical skill development, whilst Slattery’s concern is that there is too much and not
enough preparation for the boardroom.
The second problem is that tyrants of the relevant do not always know what it is that they do not
know. Their perceptions of the skills needed and the qualities required of managers are limited by the
boundaries of their own knowledge. A recent research project exploring skill shortages and skill gaps
in Manchester’s tourism sector (Lashley, Thomas & Rowson, 2002) identified a number of undeclared
and latent skill gaps amongst hospitality managers facing recruitment and retention problems. Not one
of the interviewees recognised their own skill deficiencies in labour management practices or in the
skills needed to develop Manchester as a quality tourism destination. Rowley et al, (DfEE, 2000)
make a similar point in their study of hospitality skills. They suggest that there was no evidence of a
deliberate reluctance or unwillingness to report skill deficiencies, rather they were a result of
managers’ own limited perceptions. They went on to say, “We found few managers who thought
outside the traditional modes of operating, or anticipated how new technology could and would
impact on their business in the medium-to-long term. There was a widespread failure to appreciate the
importance of foreign language skills in this tourist related industry. All of these deficiencies reflect
the most fundamental deficiency of all: managerial skills at all levels.” (DfEE, 2000: 12)
In these circumstances educators need to take the lead and make some judgements about the
curriculum, skills and mindsets that they are trying to develop based on professional judgement and
research. They have to resist being entrapped by the overly slavish commitment to the relevant, and
develop approaches that are required by graduates as citizens, empowered individuals, and as
employees and employers in hospitality management roles.
Tribe’s notion of the ‘philosophical practitioner’ is an extremely attractive one. It suggests an

attention to the personal needs of individuals and the development of the qualities of graduateness that
industry will need in the future. Tribe’s concern is for the development of tourism practitioners who
will make up a “creative and reflective workforce to further the debate about the destiny of the
tourism world, and an active workforce to create a tourism society that has been deeply thought
through.” (2002:354). These words might easily be adapted to express ambitions for hospitality
graduates. They act as an alternative strategy to the tyranny of relevance and imply educators might
advocate a “critical social science whose aim is to transform” (Botterill, 2000: 194).
The study of philosophy, sociology and social psychology are topics that need to be included in
hospitality management education. Philosophy teaches individuals various ways of thinking and
analysing situations. Sociology develops an understanding of society and the social forces that shape
events and social psychology helps explain behaviour of individuals, groups and organisations. A
similar case could be made for teaching art and drama to those destined to hospitality occupations.
That said, the key point is the need to focus on the education of rounded flexible, intellectual young
men and women who will bring both critical thinking and a life long commitment to learning to their
working lives. Ultimately it is these qualities of graduateness that are required by all involved.
This section has suggested a number of possible ways that hospitality education can escape from the
tyranny of relevance. An essential first step is to move away from hospitality management as a title

for these awards, sections, departments, and professional bodies. ‘Hospitality studies’ allows a more
rounded study of hospitality and thereby better informs the study for hospitality. This title suggests a
more all embracing definition if we allow ‘of and for’ dimensions. It resolves the somewhat false
dichotomy of hospitality management or hospitality studies (Taylor and Edgar, 1996), because the
study of hospitality allows for a general broad spectrum of enquiry and the study for allows studies
that support the management of hospitality. A comparison with ‘business studies’ reveals a similar
approach in the provision. Some content develops critical and analytical skills whilst other elements
deal with the more pragmatic topics concerned with managing businesses.
Conclusion
It is not surprising that hospitality management education has been ‘a contested terrain’. Its origins in
a diverse yet rather under-educated industry has meant that a number of self appointed commentators
have called for higher education for the hospitality industry to be carved in their own image, and
many have remained suspicious of graduates and theorising in general. The consequence is that
courses in hospitality management tend to be ruled by a sort of crass pragmatism summed up Airey
and Tribe’s phrase. Paradoxically, this somewhat slavish concern for industry relevance is neither in
the long-term interest of the industry nor of the graduates as future managers and citizens.
Two recent reports provide a systematic understanding of the current features of hospitality
management education and the impact of a higher education on careers. The first report describes
programmes that are in effect applied management studies with a significant proportion of laboratory
work performed in specialist areas through which students develop technical and operation skills. This
report also showed that programmes involve a high degree of contact with industry through formal
work placements, and through informal student experiences in part-time and holiday employment.
The second report looked at management careers and the impact of a higher education on careers. It
revealed increasingly sophisticated management structures within the industry with growing use of
graduates at all levels of the organisation. It also showed the key benefits of employing graduates
were in the ways of thinking and the transferable skills they brought with them. Most importantly,
many interviewees commented on the need for future managers to be flexible and able to ‘think out of
the box’. Both reports do however confirm that hospitality management programmes are locked in
culture of pragmatism that creates an inadequate base for the academic development of hospitality as
a field of study.
This paper argues that hospitality educators need to develop courses that move away from the
somewhat restricted programmes concerned almost exclusively with subjects deemed to be relevant to
hospitality management. A more explicit concern with developing students’ intellectual abilities will
better serve both the industry and them as individuals. Whether educators choose to articulate this
through the metaphor of the ‘reflective practitioner’ or the ‘philosophical practitioner’ a change of
title to hospitality studies allows the study of hospitality that better informs the study for hospitality.
Fundamentally, engagement with the study of hospitality through an array of social science
disciplines will secure a more substantial foundation on which to study for hospitality management.
References
Airey, D., & Tribe, J., (2000) Education for Hospitality, in Lashley, C., & Morrison, A., eds In Search
of Hospitality: theoretical perspectives and debates, Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann
Barron, P., & Arcodia, C. (2002) Linking learning style preferences and ethnicity: International
students studying hospitality and tourism management in Australia, Journal of Hospitality,
Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, 1(2), 1-13.
Botterill, D., (2000) Social scientific ways of knowing hospitality, in Lashley, C., & Morrison, A., eds
In Search of Hospitality: theoretical perspectives and debates, Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann
Botterill, D., (2002) Tourism Studies and Research Quality Assessment in Universities, Journal of
Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, 1(2), 1-6.

Brotherton, B., & Wood, R., (2000) Hospitality and Hospitality Management, in Lashley, C., &
Morrison, A., eds In Search of Hospitality: theoretical perspectives and debates, Oxford:
Butterworth-Heinemann
Morrison, A., (2002) Hospitality Research: a pause for reflection, International Journal of Tourism
Research, 4, 161-169.
Charlesworth, Z., (2003) The influence of culture on learning styles, Eighth Annual Conference
Proceedings European Learning Styles Information Network, Hull: University of Hull, 103-113.
Commonwealth Department of Education, Science and Training (2002). Higher Education
Institutions In Australia, http://www.dest.gov.au/highered/ausunis.htm, Site Visited 6.5.03.
Council for National Academic Awards, 1992, Review of Hotel and Catering Degree Courses,
London: CNAA.
DfEE (Department for Education and Employment), (2000) Employer Skill Survey: Case Study
Hospitality Sector. London: DfEE.
Hawkes, G., (2003) Passing on the fulfilment, Hospitality Review, 5(1), 12-17.
Henley Centre (1996) Hospitality into the 21st century: a vision for the future, Joint Hospitality
Industry Congress.
Higher Education Funding Council for England, (1998) Review of Hospitality Management, London:
HEFCE.
Higher Education Funding Council for England, (2001) Getting Ahead: graduate careers in
hospitality management, London: HEFCE.
Honey, P. and Mumford, A. (1986). The Manual of Learning Styles 2nd Edition. Maidenhead,
Berkshire UK, Peter Honey Publications Ltd.
Honey, P. and Mumford, A. (2000). The Learning Styles Questionnaire: 80 Item Version.
Maidenhead, Berkshire UK, Peter Honey Publications Ltd.
Hospitality Training Foundation, (2000) Skills and Employment Forecasts 2000, London: Hospitality
Training Foundation
Hospitality Training Foundation (2002) Labour Market Review 2002 for the Hospitality Industry,
London: HtF.
Lashley, C, (1999). On Making Silk Purses: developing reflective practitioners in hospitality
management education: International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 11(4),
180-185.
Lashley, C., & Barron, P., (2003) The Learning Style Preferences Of Hospitality Management
Students: observations from an international and cross cultural study, Eighth Annual
Conference Proceedings European Learning Styles Information Network, Hull: University of
Hull, 411-426.
Lashley, C., & Morrison, A., eds In Search of Hospitality: theoretical perspectives and debates,
Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Lashley, C., Morrison, A., and Randall, S., (2003) Hospitality as an Emotional Experience: exploring
special meal occasions, Twelfth CHME Research Conference Proceedings, Sheffield: Sheffield
Hallam University, 285-302.
Lashley, C. & Rowson, B. (2000) Wasted Millions: staff turnover in the licensed retail sector, Ninth
CHME Research Conference Proceedings, Huddersfield, University of Huddersfield, 230-242.
Lashley, C., & Shaw, M., (2002) The effects of learning styles on student achievement in HE and the
implications for curriculum design, development and delivery, Seventh European Learning
Styles Information Network Conference Proceedings, Ghent: University of Ghent, 386-399.
Lashley, C., Thomas, R., & Rowson, B., (2002) Employment practices and skill shortages in
Manchester’s tourism sector, Leeds: Leeds Metropolitan University.
Litteljohn D and Morrison J. (1997) Hospitality Management Education Report, Council for Hospitality
Management Education
Lynch, P. & McWhannel, (2000) Home and commercialized hospitality, in Lashley, C., & Morrison,
A., eds In Search of Hospitality: theoretical perspectives and debates, Oxford: Butterworth-
Heinemann.
QAA (Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education) (2000) Subject Benchmark Statements fro
Hospitality, Leisure, Tourism and Sport, Gloucester: QAA.

Selwyn, T. (2000) An anthropology of hospitality, in Lashley, C., & Morrison, A., eds In Search of
Hospitality: theoretical perspectives and debates, Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Slattery, P. (2002) Finding the hospitality industry, Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism
Education 1(1), 6-12.
Taylor, S. & Edgar, D., (1996) Hospitality Research: the Emperor’s new clothes? in International
Journal of Hospitality Management, 15(3), 211-227.
Telfer, E. (2000) The philosophy of hospitableness, in Lashley, C., & Morrison, A., eds In Search of
Hospitality: theoretical perspectives and debates, Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Thomas, R., Lashley, C., Rowson, B., Guozhong, X., Jameson, S., Eaglen, A., Lincoln, G., Parsons,
D., 2000, The National Survey of Small Tourism and Hospitality Firms: 2000 – Skills Demand
and Training Practices, Leeds: Leeds Metropolitan University.
Tribe, J. (2002) The Philosophical Practitioner, Annals of Tourism Research, 29(2), 338-357.
Walton, J. (2000) The British seaside: holidays and resorts in the twentieth century, Machester:
Manchester University Press.
Warde, A. & Martens, L. (2000) Eating Out: social differentiation, consumption and pleasure,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

_________________________________________
Is Tourism Education In Brazil

Sustainable?
Sergio Leal
Buckinghamshire Chilterns University College
UK
_________________________________________
Abstract
Tourism higher education in Brazil has grown considerably over recent years, mainly because of the
liberalisation of the education sector in the country and because of the perceived potential level of
development of the activity. However, quantity is being prioritised in several situations, threatening
the continuity of the provision of tourism higher education as well as graduates’ employability. The
acknowledgment by all stakeholders that the offering of higher education in tourism has changed
dramatically and that a change of attitude is needed will determine whether it will be sustainable in
the future.
Keywords: Tourism education; Brazil; sustainability; government policy; demand versus supply
Introduction
The main objective of this paper is to discuss some of the most relevant issues related to Tourism
Higher Education (THE) in Brazil. Instead of giving immediate solutions to the problems that arise
from this discussion, it is aimed at presenting the current situation of THE in Brazil and analysing
how sustainable it is.
THE in Brazil commenced in the early 1970s, with the creation of the country’s first tourism
programme (Trigo, 1991). Since then, the number of courses has grown considerably, especially
during the 1990s, when it grew over 900%, reaching a total of more than 250 programmes (Teixeira,
2001). Although these numbers already showed a significant change in the offering of THE, the
creation of new programmes continued on and on, getting to almost 600 programmes dealing with
some aspect of the tourism activity in August 20041.
This fast growth in the number of institutions offering tourism programmes at the tertiary level in
Brazil – and its impacts to THE providers, to tourism graduates and to the tourism sector – is the main
focus of this paper. Some of the key issues discussed are:
• Level of quality Æ regarding curriculum; the teaching and learning processes; the
available resources; the assessment of THE providers.
• Demand versus supply Æ number and structure of institutions offering THE; entry
requirements for new students; level of employment of graduates, need of skilled
human resources in the sector.
• Government Policy Æ the liberalisation of higher education that took place in the
country in the 1990s; the proposed regulation of the jobs in the tourism sector.
1
Information obtained at http://www.educacaosuperior.inep.gov.br/ in August 25th, 2004. It is important to note
that not all programmes are in tourism only; a number of them are in hotel management, hospitality,
gastronomy, leisure and others.

Sustainability In The Education Sector

To start with the analysis of the issues presented above, it is necessary to understand what is meant by
sustainability in the education sector in this paper. The concept of ‘sustainability’ was disseminated
in the 1980s by the World Commission on Environment and Development, known as the Brundtland
Commission. The well-known report ‘Our Common Future’ states that sustainable development is
the “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs” (WCED, 1987:43).
In the context of education, in this paper, the term ‘sustainability’ is being used in relation to the
development of graduates as well as to Higher Education Institutions (HEIs). Tourism students in
Brazil, according to Mota (2003), are already facing difficulties in finding companies willing to let
them develop their internship, which is a formal part of all tourism curricula in the country. Also,
most of the students that are undertaking their internship are underpaid, or not paid at all, sometimes
taking the jobs of more experienced employees (Mota, 2003). HEIs are also facing a very competitive
market, with the numbers of students falling drastically (Ansarah, 2002). This situation, according to
Mota (2003), may be the first signs of the private education sector in Brazil getting to the maturity
stage of their life cycle. If planning for sustainable development does not take place soon, many HEIs
will face the decline stage and will, eventually, have to bring their activities to an end.
Mota (2003) initiated the debate on the sustainability of the THE sector in Brazil. According to her, a
major study of the tourism sector in Brazil has to be undertaken in order to estimate its level of growth
and to quantify the need for skilled human resources for the ‘industry’, i.e. planning is essential for
the success of THE. However, such type of study demands political willingness as well as a great
amount of money and time.
The Provision of Tourism Higher Education in Brazil
Higher Education in Brazil

Higher education is offered by four different types of HEIs in Brazil: isolated ‘Faculties’ (generally
located in small campuses and offering few programmes); ‘Integrated Faculties’ (composed of two or
more isolated faculties and offering a larger number of programmes); ‘University Centres’ (located in
larger campuses and offering a great variety of programmes); ‘Universities’ (located in one or more
large campuses and offering a great variety of programmes, including research ones). Another
characteristic of ‘Universities’ which differentiates them from the other institutions is their objectives.
According to Menezes (1996: 9, cited in Fernandes, 2001), “Besides the provision of higher
education, [universities are responsible for] the promotion of culture, the making of science and the
development of technology”.
The four types of HEIs presented above can be either public or private institutions. However, most
‘Universities’ are public whereas the others are mostly private. For the sake of this study, HEIs are
not differentiated, including all, public and private, institutions that offer tourism (or tourism-related)
programmes.
Tourism Higher Education in Brazil

The first tourism programme in Brazil was launched in the city of Sao Paulo, in 1971, as a response to
the increasing need for skilled human resources for planning the development of tourism in the
country, once the government had decided to devote its attention to the sector with the creation of
EMBRATUR – acronym in Portuguese for the Brazilian Tourism Enterprise (Trigo, 1991).
Ansarah (2002) highlights four distinct phases of the provision of THE in Brazil:
1) The 1970s were marked by the establishment of the first programmes;
2) The 1980s suffered the impacts of the economic crisis that the country was facing and
many HEIs were forced to bring their activities to an end;

3) The 1990s represented a milestone in the offering of THE with the liberalisation of the
education sector;
4) Nowadays, in the early 21st century, the number of programmes is already high and the
main issues are concerned with quality rather than with quantity.
The liberalisation of the education sector was a strategy applied by the government to democratise the
access to higher education. Once the number of vacancies in public HEIs was not enough to offer
places for all post-secondary students, the Ministry of Education (MEC) decided to authorise the
opening of new private institutions. This, and other structural changes in the education sector in
Brazil, was made by the New Education Principles and Guidelines Act (LDB – acronym for Lei de
Diretrizes e Bases, in Portuguese), put into practice in 1996. Although the offering of higher
education was expanded, several researchers criticised this approach, where quantity was prioritised
(Fernandes, 2001).
Since then, the number of tourism programmes has grown considerably. In 2002, for instance,
Ansarah (2002) listed 339 tourism and/or hotel management programmes and 48 business
programmes with emphasis in tourism and/or hotel management being offered in the country.
According to Teixeira (2001) the number of tourism and hotel management programmes grew,
respectively, 900% and 1,757% over a ten-year period. Nowadays, in 2004, there are almost 600
programmes in the country.
Regarding this extreme growth in the provision of THE in Brazil, Knowles et al. (2003: 47) comment:
“The main purpose for the opening of tourism/hospitality courses in Brazil […] was
market demand. However, such demand was explained in various forms. There is a
demand related to market potential perception. Another form of demand is explained
through the regional tourist potential, where there is a growing need for labour.”
Tourism Higher Education Sustainability in Brazil

A critical analysis of some of the most important issues regarding THE in Brazil is presented below.
Level of Quality
The first aspect of the level of quality discussed in this paper is the curriculum. All curricula in Brazil
have to follow the MEC’s Curricular General Orientations. Based on the core curriculum
propositions, each HEI develops its own curriculum, taking into consideration the reality of the region
where the programme is to be offered. This approach sets some limitations for innovation, once HEIs
may be forced to keep some of the subjects that are not appropriate for achieving their goals, whereas
other important subjects for the reality of their location do not fit in the Ministry’s propositions.
Another important aspect of the level of quality of THE in Brazil is the teaching and learning process.
Padilha and Leal (2004), on a case study about the perceptions and practices of tourism lecturers,
identified that most teachers do not have a background in education and limit their practices to what
seems to be the best approach to teaching. Although the study was based on the perceptions and
practices of the lecturers of only one institution, the possibility of becoming a lecturer with just an
undergraduate degree in any field of study makes this approach very common throughout the whole
country. Few tourism lecturers in Brazil have obtained formal ‘training’ regarding the teaching and
learning processes.
Also, the small number of qualified teachers can be compared with the situation of the USA in the
early stages of the offering of THE, where ‘preferring’ a lecturer with an earned doctorate was
enough. Nowadays, finding a lecturer who already ‘has’ a PhD degree has become essential, a
minimum requirement. Goeldner (2001), during a speech at the First Pan-American Conference
“Latin American Tourism in the Next Millennium: Education, Development, and Sustainability”,
which was held at Panama City in 1999, made a comment on this situation in the USA:

“In the last 24 university position announcements I have received, 21 required an earned
doctorate, two preferred a doctorate and one required a master’s degree. A decade ago you
would have found the advertisements saying that they preferred a doctorate, but today the
qualifications are much more rigorous than a decade ago.” (p. 102).
Brazil is still far from the latter stage, only a few tourism graduates hold a PhD in the country
(Ansarah, 2002).
The country also lacks good quality resources which deal with the Brazilian tourism reality. A large
amount of textbooks have been published since the growth in the number of HEIs offering THE took
place in the late 1990s. However, once again, quantity was prioritised and the quality of several texts
is questionable (Leal, forthcoming). Furthermore, there are only three or four nationwide, peer-
reviewed, journals on tourism in the country. Since the number of Brazilian students able to read and
understand in English is not very representative, the international resources – textbooks, journals and
conference proceedings – are not easy to access. Only recently some publishers have started to launch
translated versions of the work of well-known international authors. Hence, from a vast array of
resources available to students, few have the desirable level of quality.
When it comes to judging the quality of higher education providers, the MEC is the responsible
government body. Currently, they are developing a new form of assessment, where HEIs will be
visited by a commission to evaluate the physical structure of the buildings, the libraries’ catalogues,
lecturers’ publications, among other criteria. Depending on the results of the first assessment, HEIs
will be revisited every year, every two years, every three years or every five years. The present
assessment is very similar, but includes students` examinations as well.
Demand Versus Supply

The number of institutions offering THE in Brazil has grown to an extent never seen before.
Although it may be beneficial for rising the level of the quality of services, as Ryan (1995) indicates,
tourism, as most activities, needs a solid base of frontline workers in a greater number than highly
skilled managerial ones. This means that more secondary level (technical) schools are needed in a
larger extent than HEIs, which are aimed at training students for management positions.
It is important to bear in mind, though, that the tourism sector needs skilled human resources and that
tourism education is a possible answer to this. However, it is necessary to concentrate actions in all
education levels, and not only at the tertiary one. While the number of programmes at the bachelor
level has grown considerably over the last decades, there are few research programmes (only two PhD
programmes and five MPhil ones) and secondary schools are offering training for the tourism sector.
The offering of THE in private HEIs is making it easier for students to get to higher education.
Because the new institutions need students’ tuition fees to survive the entry requirements are not as
demanding as the ones in the most traditional public universities. As a result, the best students get the
chance of studying in the best institutions whereas the less competent ones are forced to study at
private HEIs.
One of the main problems this situation generates is an overall lack of confidence in tourism
graduates. Many companies make generalisations that all HEIs and graduates are not prepared for
taking a position with them and people with other backgrounds than tourism are getting the jobs in the
sector. Therefore, the level of employment of graduates either in the tourism sector or in any other
area is not very high. Although it is an important issue, no major study has been taken in the country
so far, inhibiting a more detailed analysis of the situation.
Government Policy
The liberalisation of the Brazilian higher education that took place in the 1990s represented a
breakthrough in the offering of THE in the country. The government’s objective of democratising

higher education might have been achieved, but at a very high cost. Since then, the quality of HEIs
and graduates, not only in tourism, has fallen.
The lack of continuity is also a major problem in Brazilian politics. Whenever a new political party
takes power, much of what has been done by their opponents is left behind. The same applies to the
education sector, where new policies and acts change the nature of the offering of programmes,
institutions’ assessments, requirements for becoming a lecturer, etc.
Another important issue linked with the world of politics is the proposed regulation of the jobs in the
tourism sector. For over a decade, professional associations (such as ABBTUR – acronym in
Portuguese for the Brazilian Association of Bachelors in Tourism), tourism lecturers, students and
politicians have been trying to restrict the jobs in the tourism sector for those with a degree in this
area. This is seen by those that support the proposition as a guarantee to the future employment of
graduates as well as to the proper development of the activity in the country. So far, the propositions
have been rejected by the federal government because, in their view, since unemployment is a major
problem in Brazil, regulating jobs in this sector would represent fewer opportunities for those looking
for a job that do not hold a tourism degree.
Final Comments
The issues previously discussed may represent a threat to the sustainability of THE in Brazil since the
future generations of students may be unable to find jobs in the tourism sector at the same time that
many HEIs may be unable to continue offering THE, due to the ever fewer number of students
looking for such programmes.
The situation may be, however, overcome if market research takes place to identify the potential level
of employment in the sector. Also, planning has to ensure that the sector is provided with skilled
workers at all levels, which means a larger array of programmes, not just bachelor level.
The question of sustainability of THE in Brazil will continue until either the sector starts absorbing
the workforce of graduates or tourism programmes come to an end. What will determine the final
outcome is the consciousness of all stakeholders in THE.
References
Ansarah, Marília G. dos R. (2002) Formação e capacitação do profissional em turismo e hotelaria:
Reflexões e cadastro das instituições educacionais no Brasil. Sao Paulo: Aleph.
Fernandes, Maria Inês A. (2001) O abandono das instituições: construção de políticas públicas e
universidade. Revista de Psicologia da USP, 12(2), 11-28.
Goeldner, Charles R. (2001) Tourism Education: North American Experiences. Journal of Teaching
in Travel & Tourism, 1(1), 97-107.
Knowles, Tim, Teixeira, Rivanda M., Egan, David. (2003) Tourism and hospitality education in
Brazil and the UK: A comparison. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality
Management, 15(1), 45-51.
Leal, Sérgio R. (forthcoming). O que são, para que servem e quais são os principais periódicos em
turismo no Brasil e no mundo? Book chapter prepared for publication in Trigo, Luiz G. G.,
Panosso Netto, Alexandre (eds.). Editora Roca: Sao Paulo.
Mota, Keila C. (2003) Concepção de um Planejamento Sustentável da Educação Superior em Turismo
e Hotelaria no Brasil. Turismo em Análise, 14(2), 103-126.
Padilha, Maria Auxiliadora S., Leal, Sérgio R. (2004) Concepções e práticas de ensino e de
aprendizagem de professores do curso de bacharelado em turismo: um estudo de caso. In
Proceedings of the 12° Encontro Nacional de Didática e Prática de Ensino (CD-ROM).
Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná: Curitiba.
Ryan, Chris (1995) Tourism courses: a new concern for new times? Tourism Management, 16(2), 97-
110.

Teixeira, Rivanda M. (2001) Ensino Superior em Turismo e Hotelaria no Brasil: Um estudo

exploratório. Turismo em Análise, 12(2), 7-31.
Trigo, Luiz G. G. (1991) Cronologia do Turismo no Brasil. CTI/TERRA: Sao Paulo.
World Commission on Environment and Development. (1987) Our Common Future. Oxford
University Press: Oxford.

_________________________________________
Rationalising a Tourism Curriculum for

Sustainable Tourism Development in Small
Island States: A Stakeholder Perspective
Acolla Lewis
University of West Indies
Trinidad
_________________________________________
Abstract
Tourism is the “lifeblood” of the majority of Small Island States (SIS) in the Caribbean.
Economically, it sustains these island economies. From a socio-cultural standpoint, the negative
consequences of tourism development can cause irreparable damage to the culture and natural
environment of these islands. Nowhere is the need for a sustainable approach to tourism development
more apparent than in these fragile economies. This paper addresses the question 'what is an
appropriate tourism curriculum for SIS in the Caribbean?” If the tourism curriculum is to contribute to
the development of tourism in a sustainable manner that benefits the wider society, then the
individuals in that society should have a voice in what is considered important for that curriculum.
This paper seeks to analyse the local context within which the tourism curriculum is to be developed;
examine the role of the stakeholder in curriculum decision-making; and discuss the findings from a
stakeholder enquiry conducted in the Caribbean.
Keywords: Tourism, Curriculum, Stakeholders, Vocational, Liberal Education
Tourism Education for Sustainable Development

Governments in Small Island States (SIS) in particular are recognising tourism as an export industry
that generates foreign exchange, creates jobs and encourages economic diversification. These islands,
characterised by their smallness and geographic isolation have been historically reliant on traditional
industries such as agriculture and fishing for their economic survival (Freitag, 1994; Hall and Page,
1996). However, tourism has rapidly moved into the mainstream of economic development tools that
many of these governments are using to reduce their country’s reliance on traditional industries. The
SIS in the English-speaking Caribbean, the focus of this paper, exemplify this.
Conventional mass tourism has dominated the region over the past thirty years. This form of tourism
can largely be characterised as undifferentiated products, origin-packaged holidays and a heavy
reliance upon developed markets such as the United States, Canada and Britain. During the last
decade in particular the industry has been encircled by mounting environmental, socio-cultural and
economic problems that threaten its future growth and have initiated a move towards a more
sustainable approach to tourism development. Hayle (2002) argues that sustainability for Caribbean
tourism can be grouped into two main issues: the preservation of its environment and the development
of its people. It is the latter that has assumed prominence among academics and practitioners alike.
Education has been identified as a critical element to achieving sustainable tourism development in
the region. Accordingly, the role of well-educated, trained and motivated hospitality and tourism
professionals becomes crucial to the industry’s success (Baum and Conlin, 1995).

In response to the rapid rise in tourism demand in SIS and the acknowledgement of a need for tourism
education, a number of Institutes for tourism education were established in many SIS, namely in the
South Pacific (King, 1994), the Caribbean (Charles, 1997). Suffice it to say, in the establishment of
many of these Institutes, Theuns and Go (1992) note that ‘Western’ models have been imported
without taking sufficient account of the needs of the local tourism sector and the existing social,
cultural and economic framework of the host country. In essence, Theuns and Go (1992) argue that
what has resulted is a proliferation of course outlines that are geared towards the management of
western style hospitality and tourism facilities in a ‘Third World’ setting, that are essentially confined
to rather narrowly defined business-oriented professional training.
Small Island States present a distinct context for tourism education. The components of the tourism
system of SIS show greater internal sensitivity than those of developed mainland destinations
(Howell, 1987). First, SIS are more significantly impacted by the negative influences of tourism
because of their size and the frequency and intensity of their interaction with the visitors (Baum and
Conlin, 1995). Second, for the majority of these islands, particularly in the Caribbean, tourism is their
main or sole earner of foreign exchange and the industry thrives on a fragile resource base, the natural
environment. Third, the attitude of the locals towards tourism development is significantly influenced
by their colonial history. Fourth, SIS are in a general sense tourist receiving destinations supplying
primarily hospitality-based services. These are some of the issues that tourism educators in SIS need
to be aware of and to which the tourism curriculum needs to respond.
It is against this background that that the fundamental question that this paper seeks to address is what
is an appropriate tourism curriculum for SIS in the Caribbean that can contribute to sustainable
tourism development in the region? The challenge that presents itself is the development of a tourism
curriculum that responds to the challenges and threats posed by globalisation and places the
curriculum in the socio-economic and cultural context of the island destination. In order to meet this
challenge, a stakeholder informed approach has been adopted that takes into account these factors
influencing tourism curriculum planning and development in SIS. A stakeholder informed approach
advocates consultation with a wide array of individuals in the local society who are influenced by and
who can influence the direction of tourism curriculum decisions at the destination. The rationale here
is that the different groups in the local society indicate the values and needs of the society, they speak
for the culture of the destinations and they reveal the general attitude of the locals towards tourism
development. Consultation with this broad cross-section of individuals allows tourism educators in
SIS to make better-informed tourism curriculum decisions that respond to the interests and needs of
the tourism industry and the wider society.
The purpose of this paper is threefold. First, the discussion begins with an analysis of the local context
within which the tourism curriculum is to be developed. It then continues with an examination of the
tourism curriculum and the role of the stakeholder in curriculum decision-making. The paper
concludes with a discussion of the findings from a stakeholder enquiry conducted in three Caribbean
islands on the most appropriate tourism curriculum for SIS in the Caribbean.
Sis: A Distinct Context For Tourism Education

The curriculum must be context related and not context bound (Smith and Cooper, 1999). In
agreement, Hegarty (1990:41) aptly stated:
“Educational programmes for development must be placed in the context of their
societies’ needs and be interconnected with well conceived development plans. …The
onus is therefore placed on the hospitality and tourism education programmes to
demonstrate that knowledge benefits not only the individual who acquires it, but also
the society of which he or she is a part.”
Small Island States share features and experiences that set them apart from more developed mainland
destinations. The distinct context of SIS is captured in the differences in the role of tourism in the
economy and the resources upon which the industry is dependent. In terms of the former, the tourism

industry in many SIS, particularly in the Caribbean, is the mainstay of the local economies with a
significant degree of foreign ownership. As Mather and Todd (1993:11) highlighted, “there is
probably no other region in the world in which tourism as a source of income, employment, hard
currency earnings and economic growth has greater importance than in the Caribbean”. In the region,
the share of tourism in GDP ranges from a third to a half for most islands. In employment terms, the
tourism industry generates, directly and indirectly, one in every four jobs in the region (Caribbean
Tourism Organisation, 2001). Transnationals have capitalised on the continuous growth in the global
tourism industry and the opening up of the majority of these indebted small island economies.
Because of the monopolistic controls exerted by these companies over the ownership and
organisational structure of the tourism sector, the tourism industry in SIS replicates problems of
dependency, internal disarticulation and foreign exchange leakages.
With respect to the physical and human resources, Baum and Conlin (1995) note that the small scale
of an island’s physical resources cause it to be far more susceptible to the negative effects of mass
development and greatly increased usage which tourism brings. A large part of Caribbean tourism is
of the traditional sun-sea-sand type tourism. Environmental pressures threaten this key selling point
on which Caribbean tourism depends. Further to this, the nature of tourism development in the
Caribbean is clearly heavily influenced by the colonial history of these islands. The legacy of slavery
underpins much of contemporary Caribbean culture and the expression of it pervades many aspects of
tourism. The Caribbean, because of its location, attracts guests mainly from North America and
Canada, with a smaller percentage from Europe. The vast majority of these tourists are white.
Tourism therefore is an industry where oftentimes black workers serve a white clientele. As a result,
the distinction between service and servility is difficult to maintain, given the history of race relations
in this area.
Conceptualising the Tourism Curriculum: the Stakeholder’s Perspective
A Framework for Analysis

It is with this understanding of the economic and socio-cultural environment in the Caribbean that
tourism educators are challenged to develop timely and relevant tourism curricula that are context
related and not context bound. Tribe (2002) provides a useful framework within which the aims (and
content) of the tourism curriculum can be classified and analysed. Tribe’s (2002) idea of curriculum
space is based on the premise that there is a vast expanse of knowledge from which tourism
educators/academics can define what constitutes a tourism degree. He describes this expanse of
tourism knowledge as curriculum space that contains the range of possible contents of a curriculum.
In his words:
“The curriculum can be filled with different knowledge, skills and attitudes. Students
embarking on tourism courses take different educational journeys according to the way
in which their curriculum has been framed. Different framings mean that students will
exit tourism courses with a variety of perspectives, attitudes and competencies.” (Tribe,
2002:340)
The point about curriculum space is that there is a range of possible influences from different
stakeholders with diverse interests that may seek to exercise their influence (to varying degrees) over
curriculum content. Therefore, the argument is that the tourism curriculum represents a contested
space. As Tribe (2002) intimates in the above quote, this contest arises because there are a range of
possible curricula that might be formed by placing a curriculum frame over different parts of
curriculum space, and different interests will favour different framings.
This idea of curriculum framing was developed by Bernstein (1971:50) who explained the term as
“the degree of control teacher and pupil possess over the selection, organisation and pacing of
knowledge transmitted and received in the pedagogical relationship”. The argument here is that the
process of defining the content of the tourism curriculum entails some degree of framing, where areas

of curriculum space will be included, and others excluded. The eventual resting place of the
curriculum will depend upon the influence exerted by the key stakeholders in tourism education.
Tribe (2002) divides curriculum space into four quadrants. These are vocational action, reflective vocational,
reflective liberal and liberal action. This framing in curriculum space can be seen in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Curriculum Space
Vocational Liberal
Action Action
Reflective Reflective
Vocational Liberal
Source: Adapted from Tribe (2002)
A tourism curriculum framed to the left of curriculum space emphasises vocational education. The
key aim of a vocational education “is to produce graduates who can be readily recruited to the labour
market, and who can make a positive contribution to profitability or other aims of tourism
organisations.” (Tribe, 2000:10). The key attributes of vocational education are those of utility and
relevance. The emphasis here is on the needs of the tourism industry and how graduates can be
adequately prepared in terms of knowledge and skills to meet these needs.
The aims of the curriculum in this part of curriculum space can be considered as primarily work-
centred where the focus is on enabling students to become operational, and make a smooth transition
into the world of work. Under a vocationalist curriculum, tourism is viewed as a phenomenon that
should be organised and managed in such a way that it brings profit to tourism businesses and
satisfaction to the paying tourist. Thus, there is a narrow concentration on consumers and producers.
This concentration on productivity and profitability can mean that a view of the wider phenomenon of
tourism, embracing the critical and ethical, is lost. Vocational tourism education is divided into
vocational action and vocational reflection.
A tourism curriculum that focuses on liberal education is framed to the right of curriculum space.
Liberal education embraces three main ideas, the uncovering of ‘the truth’, scepticism about things
and the search for the ‘good life’, all of which are relevant to tourism (Tribe, 2000). A liberal tourism
curriculum firstly provides students with a holistic understanding of tourism as a phenomenon and not
simply as an industry. It ensures that the student’s knowledge range of tourism is broad and coherent
encompassing an understanding of issues such as consumer wants, supplier expertise, host
communities, the place of government, aesthetics, environment and values in general. Secondly, it
encourages students to adopt a critical perspective on the tourism knowledge gained, as Barnett
(1990) intimated in his idea of higher education. Thirdly, a liberal tourism curriculum seeks
emancipation from the taken-for-granted ideology within which tourism operates. As indicated earlier,
the predominant ideology is one where tourism is conceived of as a phenomenon which should be
organised to bring profit to the organising enterprise and satisfaction to the paying tourist. This
ideology advocates some values and ignores others.
“A liberatory tourism curriculum would seek first to identify the social interests which a particular
form of knowledge is serving and secondly to identify alternative social interests and the knowledge
that might best serve them.” (Tribe, 2000:19). Students are encouraged to consider alternative tourism
scenarios such as tourism and the environment, tourism and politics that focus on the wider issues in
the society. In contrast to vocational education, tourism in the liberal sphere is seen as a phenomenon

to be analysed thereby embracing the critical and the ethical. Here there is the emphasis on the wider
societal aims of the tourism curriculum.
Curriculum Space and Stakeholder Influences

Stakeholders can be seen to have two main roles in the educational process: first to influence the
strategic direction of education via curriculum planning; and second, to measure performance, in
particular through the quality management process (Cooper and Westlake, 1998). It is the former
argument that is the focal point of this discussion. Within the context of tourism education, a
stakeholder approach means any group that can influence or is influenced by tourism curriculum
decisions should be involved in its planning. Contrary to the industry-led approach to curriculum
formations adopted in North America and the UK, this approach promotes collaborative planning
incorporating the interests of a wider group of stakeholders in the respective islands.
Tribe (1999) delineated a number of groups that have an interest in and may seek to exert their
influence over the tourism curriculum. This is depicted in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Curriculum Space and Influences
Accommodation Students Interest Group L Local Community

Sector
Attractions Environmentalist
Sector Curriculum Space
(All Tourism Knowledge)
Academics
(Business Subjects) Academics
(Critical Subjects)
Professional Bodies Transport Government Interest Group K

Sector
Source: Adapted from Tribe (1999)
Tourism Industry Courses
Critical Tourism Courses
He argues that stakeholders have different interests that can influence the framing of the tourism
curriculum. To the left of curriculum space he identifies different industry employers, professional
bodies, students and academics rooted in business departments with commercial interests that promote
a vocational tourism curriculum. To the right are the influences of environmentalists, other interest
groups, the local community and the government that encourage a liberal tourism curriculum with a
more open agenda for tourism studies. Based on the surrounding influences, the curriculum can be
framed in one of the four quadrants of curriculum space as indicated in Figure 2.
Methodological Approach
A stakeholder enquiry was conducted in three Caribbean islands, Jamaica, Barbados and the Bahamas
to elicit stakeholders’ views on tourism curriculum development. Central to the study was the
diversity of these stakeholder groups and how their perceptions of tourism and tourism education,
their interests, expertise and needs are seen to have a significant impact on tourism curriculum
decisions. The researcher was particularly interested in how the stakeholders understand tourism
development in the island economies and how they think tourism education can engage in that

development through the tourism curriculum. This study sought to understand the tourism world and
tourism purposes through the eyes of these stakeholders. Thus, the subjective views of these diverse
groups formed an integral part of the analysis. The stakeholders were encouraged to contribute to the
construction and selection of the most appropriate knowledge for the tourism curriculum in SIS. In
this situation, the social world is actually seen as the subject with a voice of its own. It is in light of
this that the guiding principles of the interpretive paradigm- the need for meanings and interpretations
and the importance of the active role of the participants in the research, more naturally suited the
purposes of the study.
The stakeholder groups identified in the literature as relevant to tourism education include tourism
academics, students, tourism employees, industry, professional bodies, pressure groups, parents, the
local community and government. Two representatives from each of these groups were selected from
each of the three territories. Based on the purpose of the study, that is, to uncover and describe the
participants’ perspectives on specific issues, a series of semi-structured, in-depth interviews were
conducted with the participants over a two-month period. The collected data was analysed using the
‘Framework Method’ of analysis as developed by Ritchie and Spencer (1995). This method involves a
five stage process of familiarisation with the data, identifying a thematic framework, indexing,
charting and mapping and interpretation of the data.
A Context-Related Tourism Curriculum
The Local Context

The stakeholders were asked to address two key issues. First, they were asked to share from a
personal perspective their views on the main priorities with tourism development in the respective
islands. The rationale given is that stakeholders are members of the local society and they are able to
indicate what is of value and what interests should be served by the tourism curriculum. This question
unearthed a number of economic, socio-cultural and environmental issues for the attention of tourism
educators in these island economies. A Barbadian transportation official captures the economic
importance of tourism to that island as well as the others when he noted, “it’s the number one industry
and has been for many years. Everything depends on it. If it slips we all feel it”. A Jamaican student
explains further “right now that (tourism) is the section that is bringing in most of the money to the
country due to the fact that manufacture, agriculture and industry are declining.”
One of the common socio-cultural concerns among the stakeholders is the influence of the influx of
foreign values. A Bahamian representative from a professional body explicitly stated, “People are
concerned that we are becoming a bit too influenced by the American society. Our ethics are going
under the carpet, we forget our principles, the basic values, the things that make up the moral fibre of
our society.” A Barbadian student summed up the situation accurately when she commented, “I think
we try to develop Barbados through tourism but then in developing it we kind of push away our
culture. We want it to look more business-like or North American.” This notion of ‘pushing away of
one’s culture’ was alluded to by Voisey and O’Riordan (2001) where they observed that the entire
face of destinations change to accommodate the metropolitan tourists to the extent that the local and
the foreign cultures are indistinguishable.
The implication here, as noted by a Barbadian tourism employee, is a sense of a “loss of identity” and
as an academic observed, “an erosion of some of our cultural diversification.”
On the environmental front, a representative from the interest group in Barbados asked a pertinent
question:
“Are we developing in such a manner that future generations will be compromised? If
we continue to develop and continue to put increased pressure on our natural resources,
both land and marine, what will we have to sell?”
The diagram in Figure 3 shows a summary of the key issues raised by the stakeholders and how they
can influence the framing of the tourism curriculum. The intention here is not to locate the issues in

the four parts of curriculum space. Instead, the focus is on the emphasis in the curriculum, the need
for a vocational and/or liberal emphasis in tourism curriculum formations. To the left of curriculum
space, the economic benefits to be derived from tourism development; the concern expressed by the
stakeholders over a lack of training and the implications of increased competition in the tourism
industry globally point to the need for a vocational emphasis in the tourism curriculum. To the right of
curriculum space are the economic, socio-cultural and environmental issues that signal to the need for
liberal education in the curriculum.
Figure 3: The Local Context and Curriculum Space
The Local Context
Vocational Liberal Action

- Economic Benefits Action - Environmental
- Increased Competition Impacts
- Lack of Training - Lack of Planning
Reflective Reflective
- Foreign ownership - Foreign Ownership
Vocational Liberal
- Cultural Erosion
There are two important points that can be noted from the stakeholders’ views on tourism
development in the islands. First, they signal to educators that globalisation threatens to undermine
the economic and cultural fabric of the tourism society in the islands. They indicate that the efficiency
and continued profitability of tourism businesses is pivotal for the economic survival of the islands.
They warn that a lack of planning can cause irreparable damage to the natural environment. These
issues indicate what is important and the interests to be served by the tourism curriculum. They
encourage tourism educators to analyse and question the relevance of the aims of the tourism
curriculum within a broader context. More specifically, what is significant about these issues is that
they enable educators to determine where emphasis should be placed in the curriculum. Thus, an
appropriate tourism curriculum for the Caribbean is one that acknowledges and reflects these issues
through its aims and content.
Curriculum Aims and Content

This then brings to the fore the second issue, the stakeholders’ views on the aims they deem
appropriate for the tourism curriculum. For the three islands under study in the Caribbean, the
consensus among the stakeholders is that the tourism curriculum should embrace both the vocational
and liberal elements in formulating the aims of the tourism curriculum. Thus, the primary aims of the
tourism curriculum in the Caribbean should be twofold. One, it should prepare students to deliver
better tourism services in the islands, services of a high quality, with a high level of professionalism
that reflect a positive attitude towards the industry. Two, it should prepare students to contribute to the
creation of an improved tourism society in the islands. A tourism society where the development of
tourism is planned, there is proper stewardship of the natural resources and the local culture is
preserved. In other words, students must be prepared to work in tourism and for tourism.
The main aims identified by the stakeholders can be summarised as:

To prepare students for key managerial roles in the tourism industry.
To prepare students to develop and impart quality service.
To develop transferable skills.
To develop the student’s ability to think flexibly and critically.
To gain a holistic understanding of tourism.

To develop a practical understanding of preserving the natural environment.

To enable the student to understand his/her role in national development.
To prepare students to contribute to the overall planning of tourism development.
What is significant to note from these suggested aims and from the overall discussion is the fact that
the stakeholders recognise that tourism is more than an industry that needs to be managed. The first
four aims emphasise the preparation of students for effectiveness at work in the industry. The latter
four aims reveal the liberal agenda of the curriculum and point to the importance of students adopting
a critical stance towards tourism and also developing a practical knowledge of dealing with the key
issues regarding sustainable tourism development in the islands. The core areas identified to be
included in the content of the curriculum further exemplify the focus of the aims delineated by the
stakeholders.
But crucially, what is not reflected in this summary is the underlying focus of the aims, which was
vividly captured in the stakeholders’ responses. For the stakeholders, the ultimate purpose of the
tourism curriculum, the factor that is underpinning these aims, is this notion of the betterment of the
society in terms of the improvement of the quality of life for the locals. To quote a Jamaican
academic:
“For me, the main aim of a tourism degree is for the student to understand his/her role
in national development. Tourism is not the end. Tourism is one of the means to an
end. The end is to improve the quality of life of the people.”
The emphasis is not on the students’ career prospects, which was the priority in the study conducted
by Airey and Johnson (1999), but on how the students can be adequately prepared to contribute to the
sustainable development of tourism in the islands in such a way that it benefits the locals. This is the
crucial difference between the aims of the majority of ‘Western’ tourism curricula and those that
should guide the development of tourism curricula in the Caribbean context.
The stakeholders were further asked to indicate the core areas/courses/modules that should be
included in the content of the curriculum. The suggested areas are summarised and displayed in
tourism curriculum space in Figure 4.
There is a direct correlation and consistency between the identified aims and the suggested courses.
The main vocational aims identified by the stakeholders include the preparation of managers/leaders
and entrepreneurs for the industry, graduates with practical skills, an emphasis on service quality and
the development of critical thinkers. The core courses in the vocational part of curriculum space spell
out these aims. The focus here is clearly on the industry and how this knowledge can enable students
to contribute to the profitability and efficiency of tourism businesses hence the inclusion of areas such
as information technology, human resource management, business development and marketing.
Likewise, the liberal aims including a holistic understanding of tourism and the preservation of the
islands’ resources are reflected in the courses in the liberal part of curriculum space. Here the focus
shifts from the tourism industry to the wider issues in the society. The courses identified by the
stakeholders point to the need for the students to understand the wider tourism phenomenon. These
areas emphasise the point made earlier that tourism is a phenomenon that needs to be managed as well
as analysed. The inclusion of these areas in curriculum content enables students to engage in that
critical analysis of tourism in the islands from an environmental, political and socio-cultural
standpoint.
More significant to note here is the stakeholders’ perspective on the tourism knowledge that should
constitute the tourism curriculum. Although there seems to be an apparent emphasis on industry
courses, what is significant is the fact that tourism knowledge in the curriculum for the Caribbean
embraces the whole field of tourism studies, both tourism business studies and non-tourism business
studies (Tribe, 1997). This is in contrast to tourism education in the UK in particular that seems to be
revolving around business interdisciplinary knowledge (Cooper et al, 1994; Airey and Johnson, 1998).

What is significant about this balance of knowledge in the tourism curriculum in the Caribbean is that
the student is offered more than a partial knowledge perspective that limits and constricts
understanding of the tourism phenomenon in the islands. This balance in knowledge enables students
to better analyse the tourism phenomenon in the islands and places them in a better position to make
informed decisions as potential leaders regarding the growth of tourism.
Figure 4: Curriculum Content
Vocational Action Liberal Action
Tourism Marketing Tourism & the Environment

HR Management Planning and Development
Business Development Sustainable Tourism
Foreign Languages
Entrepreneurship
Quality Service
Information Technology
Problem Solving Tourism & Politics

Creative Thinking Culture & Heritage
Reflective Vocational Reflective Liberal
Conclusion
At the outset of this discussion, the question was asked, what is an appropriate tourism curriculum for
SIS in the Caribbean? This question was posed against a backdrop of the realisation by island
governments of the increasing importance of tourism education to the sustainability of tourism in the
islands. Consideration of what is important, what is of value, what should be given priority in the
development of the tourism higher education curriculum in an island context has been little
considered by educators in the establishment of tourism programmes in many SIS.
The results of the stakeholder enquiry indicate that an appropriate tourism curriculum for the
Caribbean is one that satisfies three criteria. One, it aims to deliver better tourism services as well as
contribute to the creation of a better tourism society. Two, it responds to the key issues with tourism
development in the islands. Three, it is informed by the viewpoints of a wide cross-section of
stakeholders in the local society. The position adopted by these stakeholders on the main criteria for
the tourism curriculum supports the argument by Burke et al (1990) that the purpose of a tourism
degree should be to develop broadly educated students who can be knowledgeable about and
responsible in tourism development as well as occupationally functional in tourism. There is a clear
bridging of the divide between the vocational and the liberal, which according to Pring (1995)
impoverishes the experience of the students. The suggestion by the stakeholders is a balancing of the
vocational and the liberal, which produces a well-rounded graduate. Furthermore, the consideration of
both the liberal and the vocational element in the curriculum overcomes the problem of a partially
framed tourism curriculum.
The findings from this study have altered my outlook on the role of tertiary tourism education in an
island context. Tourism curriculum development is more than planning and developing a programme
for academic study. Given the pivotal importance of tourism to the island economies, the role and
purposes of tourism education take on a new meaning that spans beyond the confines of the classroom

and the work environment in the industry to embrace wider economic and socio-cultural issues that
are important in the development of tourism and affect the livelihoods of the locals in the society. In
approaching tourism curriculum decision-making in the Caribbean, educators must be aware of the
fact that what is appropriate for the tourism curriculum is directly linked to what is important for
tourism development in the islands. Therefore, stakeholder involvement in curriculum decision-
making has to be a central part of the whole curriculum development process if tourism education is
to contribute to the sustainable development of the tourism industry in SIS.
References
Airey, D. and Johnson, S. (1998) NLG Guideline No. 7: The Profile of Tourism Studies Degree
Courses in the UK: 1997/98. London: National Liaison Group for Higher Education in Tourism.
Airey, D. and Johnson, S. (1999) The content of degree courses in the UK, Tourism Management,
20(2), 229-235
Barnett, R. (1990) The Idea of Higher Education. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Baum, T. and Conlin, M.V. (eds) (1995) Island Tourism: Management Principles and Practice.
Chichester: John Wiley.
Bernstein, B. (1971) Classification and Framing, in M. Young (ed), Knowledge and Control. London:
Collier Macmillan.
Burke, J.F., Hawkins, D.E. and Schulman, S.A. (1990) So you want to teach tourism? Hospitality
Research Journal, 14(2), 685-687.
Caribbean Tourism Organisation (2001) Working Document for the Regional Summit on Tourism.
Available: http://www.caricom.org/tourismdocuments.htm.
Charles, K. (1997) Tourism Education and Training in the Caribbean: Preparing for the 21st Century,
Progress in Tourism and Hospitality Research, 3, 189-197.
Cooper, C., Shepherd, R. and Westlake, J. (1994) Tourism and Hospitality Education. Guildford:
University of Surrey.
Cooper, C. and Westlake, J. (1998) Stakeholders and Tourism Education, Industry and Higher
Education, April.
Freitag, T. (1994) Enclave Tourism Development: for whom the benefits roll? Annals of Tourism
Research, 21(3), 538-554.
Hall, M. and Page, S. (eds.) (1996) Tourism in the Pacific: Issues and Cases. London: International
Thomson Business Press.
Hayle, C. (2002) A Seamless Education and Training System for Caribbean Tourism Human
Resource Development in Jayawardena, C. (ed.) Tourism and Hospitality Education and
Training in the Caribbean, Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press
Howell, R. and Uysal, M. (1987) Tourism Education for developing countries, Tourism Management,
8(1), 62-64.
King, B. (1994) Tourism higher education in island microstates: The case of the South Pacific,
Tourism Management, 15(4), 267-272.
Pring, R. (1995) Closing the Gap: Liberal Education and Vocational Preparation. London: Hodder
and Stoughton
Ritchie, J. and Spencer, L. (1995) in Bryman, A. and Burgess, R. (eds.) Analysing Qualitative Data.
London: Routledge.
Smith, G. and Cooper, C. (1999) The Challenge of globalisation from theory to practice: Competitive
Approaches to Tourism and Hospitality Curriculum Design: the case of the International
School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Puerto Rico. A paper presented at Latin American
Tourism in the Next Millennium: Education, Investment and Sustainability, Panama City,
Panama.
Theuns, H.L. and Go, F. (1992) “Need Led” Priorities in Hospitality Education for the Third World,
World Travel and Tourism Review, 2, 293-302.
Tribe, J. (1997) The Indiscipline of Tourism, Annals of Tourism Research, 24(3), 638-657.
Tribe, J. (1999) The Developing Curriculum. Paper presented at the NLG Annual Conference,
University of Luton, December 1st, 1999.

Tribe, J. (2000) Balancing the Vocational: the theory and practice of liberal education in tourism,
Tourism and Hospitality Research, 2(1), 9-25.
Tribe, J. (2002) The Philosophic Practitioner, Annals of Tourism Research, 29(2), 338-357
Voisey, H. and O’Riordan, T. (2001) Globalisation and Localization in O’Riordan, T. (ed.)
Globalism, Localism and Identity. London: Earthscan Publications.


_________________________________________
Current Issues in Tourism Education: The

Case of Slovenia and the Faculty of
Economics, University of Ljubljana
Tanja Mihalič
University of Ljubljana
Slovenia
_________________________________________
Abstract
The Faculty of Economics at the University of Ljubljana (FELU) is the biggest post-secondary school
in Slovenia. Tourism studies are just one of its programmes, although the tourism studies have a
tradition extending back more than 40 years. The FELU will start the new Bologna programmes in the
2005/2006 academic year and the tourism programme will be offered at both under and postgraduate
levels. This paper examines the implications of the Bologna Declaration for higher education in
Slovenia, namely at the FELU. First, a short description of Slovenian tourism and the current tourism
higher education is given, followed by a presentation of new tourism programmes available at the
FELU. The main objectives of the Bologna higher education reform are discussed from the point of
view of the FELU.
Keywords: Tourism, higher education, Bologna declaration, Faculty of economics, University of

Ljubljana, Slovenia.
Introduction
According to the Bologna Declaration (The European Higher Education Area, 2004), the EU is
witnessing growing awareness in large parts of the political and academic worlds, industry and the
public at large of the need to establish a more complete, transparent and comparable higher education
area, especially as regards the situation in South-East Europe. Thus, the main objectives of the
Declaration, namely setting common standards and principles for higher education (hereinafter ‘HE’)
across Europe, should be taken into account by European states’ HE institutions. Several European
countries have accepted the invitation to commit themselves to achieving these objectives by signing
the Declaration.
Slovenia became an EU member in May 2004 but, in reality, a process leading towards higher quality,
more transparent and internationally comparable HE programmes and standards started soon after
1991 when Slovenia became a new independent state. This process was intensified by EU educational
exchange programmes for non-member countries in which Slovenian educational institutions took
part. Implementing the Bologna Declaration in the Slovenian HE system is seen as another step
towards a more internationally known, comparable and competitive educational system, as well as
part of the obligation given when the Slovenian government signed “the most important and wide-
ranging reform” declaration.

The Faculty of Economics at the University of Ljubljana (hereinafter ‘the FELU’) is the largest post-
secondary school in Slovenia. Tourism studies is just one of its programmes, although the tourism
curricula have a tradition extending back more than 40 years. The FELU will start the new Bologna
programmes in the 2005/2006 academic year and the tourism programme will be offered at both
under- and postgraduate levels.
This paper examines the implications of the Bologna Declaration for higher education in Slovenia,
namely at the FELU. First, a short description of Slovenian tourism and the current tourism education
is given, followed by a presentation of new tourism programmes available at the Faculty of
Economics, University of Ljubljana. The main objectives of the Bologna HE reform are discussed
from the point of view of the FELU.
This paper was written in the middle of the 2004/2005 academic year, when old tourism programmes
were in the progress at the FELU, albeit updated to the greatest possible extent. At the same time, the
University of Ljubljana had already approved the FELU’s new so-called Bologna programmes and it
was expected that the final approval needed from the Slovenian government would be given before
New Year 2005. Further, it was expected that the new programmes would start in the 2005/2006
academic year.
About Slovenia and its Tourism

Slovenia is a transition country that was established in 1991 by the proclamation of independence and
separation from the socialist Yugoslavia. Development of the country’s tourism industry is seen as a
serious economic development opportunity, as in many other transition countries. Slovenia is a small
country with a surface area of half the size of Switzerland (20,256 km2), a population one-third that of
Switzerland’s (2 million) and a GDP per capita of EUR 12,000. Slovenia became an EU member in
May 2004. Slovenia already has a relatively developed tourism infrastructure and tourism tradition
that stretches far back in history. The Lipica white horse stud farm was founded in 1580, the Rogaška
spa is more than 330 years old, one of UNESCO heritage sites Postojna cave has been open to tourists
for 180 years while coastal tourism in Portoroz has been organised for over 120 years (Sirše, Mihalič,
1999: 34). After the serious drop in tourism flows to Slovenia due to the proclamation of
independence and the short war against the Yugoslav army in 1991, tourism in Slovenia is once again
on an upward trend. Foreign tourism earnings are about EUR 1.1 billion and make up about 10
percent of Slovenian exports. In 2002 Slovenia recorded more than 2 million tourists and 7.3 million
overnight stays; 1.3 million of these were foreign visitors who made 4 million overnight stays (SURS,
2004).
Slovenia has about 150 hotels, 5 casino companies, 5,000 restaurants, inns, bars and cafes and around
52,500 people are employed in tourism. The concentration of capital in some hotel firms started to
take place after 2000, however today the majority of the about 150 Slovenian hotels are medium and
small-sized companies. The travel agent and tour operator sector is dominated by a few big tour
operators and many small travel agents. Air transport used to be heavily monopolised by the national
air company Adria Airways and a small number of foreign ‘classic’ airliners and, consequently, a
share of tourist air traffic took advantage of the cheaper air connections available at neighbouring
Austrian and Italian airports. Nevertheless, in 2004 Slovenia received its first low-cost connection to
London (EasyJet) that substantially boosted the number of visitors coming by air. Other low-cost
connections are expected to follow and to make Slovenia even more easily accessible by air. Slovenia
has kept its role as a road transit country for European tourism flows leading towards the Croatian
Adriatic coast, which have in recent years recovered due to the stabilised political situation in the
Balkans.
Post-Secondary Tourism Education in Slovenia

At present, Slovenia has three universities (the Universities of Ljubljana, Maribor and Primorska),
along with post-secondary educational institutions that are not part of any university, as well as some
public and private schools and programmes. Post-secondary tourism studies started in 1961 at two

universities (Ljubljana and Maribor), following the Swiss and Austrian school of tourism thought.
Many new tourism schools and programmes have been established since 1991 and, in 2004, about 450
new students entered tourism programmes at HE institutions.
Table 1: HE Tourism Programmes in Slovenia, enrolments in 2004
No. of full- No. of part-time

Education* Degree time students students
1 3 4 5
Three- or four-year post-secondary programmes Bachelor 160 240
Postgraduate one-year specialisation programme, Specialisation 30
Tourism postgraduate two-year master’s of science Master’s 10
programme
Doctoral programme Doctoral 5
Total 160 285
*In Slovenia, two year post-secondary tourism educational programmes also exist. Since the Bologna
declaration refers only to programmes which are at least 3 years in duration, these programmes are not shown in
the present paper. About 600 tourism students enrolled into these catering and tourism programmes in 2004.
Source: Research Tourism Education in Slovenia, 2004
The bachelor programmes listed in Table 1 are primarily in economics and business administration
and refer to those that offer more than 25 percent of tourism-related classes such as Tourism
Management, Tourism Marketing etc. (VPŠ, 2004). In Ljubljana and Maribor students acquire more
general knowledge in economics and obtain a degree in economics, whereas at the Tourism College in
Portorož the degree is in tourism and several subjects are related to tourism and hospitality such as
Culinary, Catering Management, Hotel Management, Gambling etc. (Turistica, 2004). Internships in
the tourism industry form part of these programmes. At the same time, some university faculties offer
optional tourism-related subjects such as Tourism Geography at the Faculty of Arts, Tourism and
Recreation at the Faculty of Sports, Tourism Economics at the Faculty of Economics and Tourism and
Recreation at the Biotechnical Faculty (not shown in Table 1).
Two tourism specialisation programmes are designed for the holders of three-year vocational degrees
and offered by the University Ljubljana and the University Maribor. At present, there is only one
tourism programme at master’s level. It is offered by the FELU as a sub-programme within the
Economics Programme. Students may also choose a tourism-related master’s thesis. Such a thesis is
also possible at other university faculties in Slovenia. Some offer individual optional tourism-related
subjects at master’s level, and/or send their master’s students to take some tourism-related subjects at
the FELU and promote combined mentorship through two institutions in order to satisfy the
multidisciplinary requirements of tourism research. Knowledge from geography, sociology, cultural
heritage or spatial planning has been combined with management, economics and marketing in
master’s theses in the last few years. At present, master’s programmes at Slovenian universities
require a four-year bachelor degree; they last two years and are academic. The one-year postgraduate
specialisation programmes are more ‘professional’.
Doctoral candidates are required to hold a master’s degree (equal to an M. Phil) and earn a doctoral
degree by defending their doctoral thesis only. All Slovenian university faculties may allow a PhD
thesis that also refers to tourism. In the thirty-year period of 1960-1991 just four tourism-related PhD
degrees were completed while, after 1991, along with the establishment of more tourism schools and
programmes there has been a growing need for more academics holding a doctoral degree. In the last
few years Slovenia has seen four doctors completing their PhD research in tourism and there are
currently at least five more of such theses in preparation. Like at the master’s level, doctoral research
may be monitored by two mentors from two different universities, as in the example of a sport- and
tourism-related thesis undertaken through the faculties of economics and of sport.

He Tourism Programmes at The Faculty of Economics, University of Ljubljana

The Faculty of Economics (FELU) is one of 20 faculties at the University of Ljubljana. Of the 35,000
students attending the University, more than 25% study economics and business at the Faculty of
Economics: 8,000 at the undergraduate and 1,000 at the postgraduate level. The orientation to
knowledge, quality and the international dimension of the FELU’s mission and vision are shown in
Figure 1.
Figure 1: The FELU’s mission and vision statement

Mission
The FELU creates and disseminates knowledge to enable students' successful entry into the business world and
offers a rewarding investment opportunity to the business community.
Vision
The FELU will join the ranks of the top quality European Schools of Business and Economics by building upon
its unique expertise in the economies of both Slovenia and South East Europe and by maintaining its high
standards of academic rigour in teaching and research, thereby enhancing the contributions of its undergraduates
and graduates to the national and international economy.
Source: Mission and Vission, 2004.
Among other programmes, the FELU offers education for tourism professional and managerial
functions. As part of the 3-year undergraduate programme (Business School), the undergraduate
Tourism Programme offers general economic and business knowledge and ‘tourism classes’, as
shown in Table 2. In 2004/2005 the FELU had about 130 undergraduate tourism students in all study
years.
Table 2: Tourism and tourism-related subjects, FELU programme 2003/2004
GRADUATE (3 year tourism programme, Business School) POSTGRADUATE (1 year specialisation programme)
Introduction to tourism Core Courses
Tourism business Research Methods in Tourism
Tourism marketing Tourism Business
Tourism ecology Tourism Economics and Policy
Sociology in tourism IT in Tourism
International Business in Tourism
OPTIONAL SUBJECTS– for non-tourism 4 year university Elective Courses
undergraduates
Tourism Economics Sustainable Tourism
Environmental Economics in Tourism (in English) Tourism Geography
Cultural Heritage
POSTGRADUATE (2 year master programme) Tourism Management
Tourism economics Operations Management in Tourism
Economics of tourism enterprises Tourism Entrepreneurship
Management in tourism Hotel Business
Sociology of Tourism Business of Tour Operators and Travel Agents
Tourism policy Tourism Law
Tourism Marketing
OPTIONAL – for non-tourism postgraduates Tourism Accounting
Tourism Economics and marketing
Source: FELU internal materials, 2004.

At university level (at present a 4-year bachelor programme), only 2 optional tourism classes are
offered: Tourism Economics (in Slovenian) and Environmental Economics in Tourism (in English). In
2004/2005 about 80 students from other non-tourism programmes are taking these tourism classes as
optional subjects. In addition, about 20 foreign exchange students participate in the only tourism
English class available. The post-graduate specialisation tourism programme for 2004/2005 has
enrolled 15 students, in the master’s programme there are about 20 students, while at doctoral level
two tourism-related PhD researches are in progress. In Slovenia two other centres offer graduates
some partly competitive tourism studies: the University of Maribor and Turistica in Portorož. There
have been some attempts to establish a foreign tourism school department in Slovenia, as well as
attempts for joint tourism programmes with foreign universities but, at present, they have not
succeeded in attracting enough students, partly due to the high tuition fees.
New Bologna Tourism Programme at the FELU

Slovenian HE in tourism is in a transition process. At the moment programmes have been redesigned,
trying to meet globalisation/ integration challenges in HE. New tourism programme at the FELU will
consist of general subjects in economics including Microeconomics, Accounting, Management,
Macroeconomics, Statistics and will offer many tourism and tourism related subjects, such as
Introduction into tourism, Tourism economics, Tourism marketing, Sustainable tourism etc., as shown
in Table 3.
Table 3: Tourism and tourism-related subjects of Bologna tourism programme at the FELU (proposal,
20.11.2004)
GRADUATE (3 year tourism programme) POSTGRADUATE (2 year tourism programme)
Introduction into tourism Tourism eonomics
Management of tourism enterprises Environmental eonomics in tourism
Tourism product development Yield management and decision making in tourism
enterprises
Tourism marketing Destination management
Sustainable tourism Tourism Law
E-marketing in tourism Environmental management in tourism
IT in tourism Human resources in tourism
Tourism dvelopment Accounting in tourism
Tourism history Tourism policy
Tourism Management Tourism and EU
Research methods in tourism
Tourism planning OPTIONAL – for non-tourism postgraduates
Tourism economics and policy
OPTIONAL –non-tourism undergrads Research methods and tourism satellite accounts
Tourism Economics
Source: FELU internal materials, 2004.
Slovenian education institutions are trying to internationalise their programmes, foster student and
professor exchanges, arrange joint programmes with foreign universities, as well as international co-
operation in curriculum development and research and to meet the requirements of the Bologna
Declaration – “the most important and wide-ranging reform of higher education in Europe…” (The
European Higher Education Area , 2004).
The Bologna Declaration generally lays down the following objectives considered to be of primary
relevance for establishing the European area of higher education and promoting the European system
of higher education world-wide (The European Higher Education Area, 2004):

1. Promoting the transparency and comparability of qualifications: adoption of a system

of easily readable and comparable degrees, including through implementation of the
Diploma Supplement, in order to promote European citizens’ employability and the
international competitiveness of the European higher education system.
2. Standardisation of the HE system in Europe: adoption of a system essentially based on
two main cycles: undergraduate and graduate. Access to the second cycle shall require
the successful completion of first-cycle studies, lasting a minimum of three years. The
degree awarded after the first cycle shall also be relevant to the European labour market
as an appropriate level of qualification. The second cycle should lead to a master’s
and/or doctorate degree as in many European countries.
3. Establishment of a system of credits – such as in the ECTS (European credit transfer
system) – as a proper way of promoting the most widespread student mobility. Credits
can also be acquired in non-higher education contexts, including lifelong learning,
provided they are recognised by the receiving universities concerned.
4. Mobility of staff, students and researchers between European HE institutions:
promotion of mobility:
for students: promotion of access to study and training opportunities and to related
services; and
for teachers, researchers and administrative staff: recognition and valorisation of
periods spent in a European context researching, teaching and training.
5. Quality assurance: promotion of European co-operation in quality assurance with a
view to developing comparable criteria and methodologies.
6. Joint curricular development, integration and co-operation: promotion of the necessary
European dimensions in higher education, particularly as regards curricular
development, inter-institutional co-operation, mobility schemes and integrated
programmes of study, training and research.
Promoting the transparency and comparability of qualifications

One strong requirement for designing the new programmes at the FELU was international (EU)
comparability. The new programmes are based on comparisons with different programmes at selected
European universities. Knowledge and skill outcomes should be internationally comparable and
understood. The FELU has already introduced a diploma supplement that accompanies the degree
certificate and details the content and nature of the completed programme in a Bologna-standardised
format.
Standardisation of the HE system in Europe

The existing Slovenian HE system is based on two main cycles of study: undergraduate and
postgraduate. At present, the FELU offers 3- and 4-year undergraduate programmes, the first is
followed by a 1 year period of specialisation and the second by a 2-year masters programme. The new
first-cycle degree will be 3 years in duration, followed by a two-year second-cycle masters degree, all
of which brings the 3+2 formula to a reality.
Another change in HE refers to masters studies. According to the already adopted new Slovenian HE
regulation, the new Bologna masters profile is ‘professional’, not academic. The existing postgraduate
specialisation programmes are expected to disappear, but there is no replacement for the academic
master. It will be a challenge to determine how far the new programmes will move towards an
academic or more practical orientation. Calls for more practical tourism studies, presently quite strong
in Slovenia, have influenced the new legislative profile of a master. Universities have been seeking to
firm up their co-operation with industry in order to be recognised as industry-relevant in order to
boost the employability of their diploma holders. Although one might agree that it is necessary for
these programmes to be more entrepreneurial and more industry-oriented, the need to differentiate
between the different profiles of masters degrees, such as an academic versus a professional or
specialist MBA (Tauch, Rauhvargers, 2002: 19), should also be recognised in Slovenia. In reality, we
assume that different tourism masters programmes will use the curriculum space in different ways.
Thus, some may offer more theoretical and research subjects and aim to develop reflective liberal

issues, while others may choose more vocational-action and professionally-oriented subjects. More
professional masters may boost the relevance of such graduates for the industry’s routine jobs at lower
and medium levels, while graduates of more academically-oriented masters with their developed
reflective thinking could be more appropriate for jobs in upper management, project leadership,
consulting, development, research and academic teaching. Nevertheless, according to various
legislation Slovenia seems to be losing its traditional master (M.Phil)–doctoral path towards a Ph.D.
degree, how doctoral studies will apply to the new-look environment is still not clear.
Establishment of a system of credits

The qualitative and quantitative comparability of tourism programmes enables the free transfer of
information, methodology and people: teachers, researchers and students. The quantitative aspects of
the ECTS, already part of EU SOCRATES exchange programmes, have been adopted for
international exchange and are currently used for the recognition of subjects taken at the host
institution by the home institution.
The FELU’s new Bologna programmes are based on the ECTS, revealing the workloads of different
subjects and the other study obligations of students. More effort will be needed to entirely apply this
common means of quantifying study so that it becomes fully understood by students and teachers.
Mobility of staff, students and researchers between European HE institutions

Although situated in a socialist country for several decades the FELU still maintained a relationship
with many academic institutions in economics and business administration areas around the world.
The first institutional agreement, signed with Indiana University (USA), dates back to the 1960s.
During the 1980s, the FELU signed bilateral agreements for academic co-operation with a further 13
foreign universities that promote researchers’ and teachers’ exchanges. The take-off phase of
internationalisation started after independence was attained in 1991, mostly through participation in
various international programmes and projects designed for post-socialist economies by the European
Union. Within the framework of EU-sponsored programmes such as TEMPUS, PHARE, CEEPUS
and PRAGMA, the FELU intensified its international (primarily European) co-operation in research,
increased professor and student exchanges and enabled the transfer of new educational techniques and
new curriculum development. In early 1999 the Republic of Slovenia became eligible to participate in
the SOCRATES/ERASMUS programme. This further intensified student and teacher exchanges and
most graduates had to be fluent in English. Although most lectures are held in the Slovenian language,
guest professors lecture in English.
Although there is heated debate about using English as a teaching language in Slovenia as it may be
inappropriate for the FELU’s national role, internationalisation has already forced the FELU to offer
some subjects in the English language as part of its regular programme beginning in the 2001/2002
academic year. Unfortunately, so far the FELU only has one English tourism class at university level
and this is insufficient to attract exchange programmes focused primarily on tourism with tourism-
specialising universities. For the future we are developing new programmes offering more English
tourism subjects as school-specific subjects. In the meantime, foreign students are forced to study
tourism subjects individually, with the assistance of a professor which does not facilitate the
exchanging of ideas and thoughts among foreign and local tourism students and simultaneously offers
much fewer ‘international’ benefits for all parties. Further, the ‘language’ issue may also influence the
exchange of incoming professors at undergraduate level. But the situation at the graduate level is quite
different, as much of the literature is in English.
Finally, due to the much greater interest of our students in studying abroad than foreign students’
interest in coming to Ljubljana the school faces the challenge of achieving a balance in student
exchange programmes and, consequently, ensuring that exchange programmes will be continuous and
that the exchange is a true partnership with the participating school. The problem of uneven exchange
interest is more evident with British universities whereas the exchange shows an incoming surplus
with Mediterranean countries.

Quality assurance
In many countries the introduction of new degree structures and programmes goes hand in hand with
the implementation of new quality assurance mechanisms, often in the form of accreditation (Tauch,
Rauhvargers, 2002: 24). Since this is not the case in Slovenia, the FELU feels it is necessary to apply
for accreditation with foreign, including non-European, agencies. Since 1999, the FELU has been
involved in the process of the international educational accreditation of economic schools EQUIP
(European Quality Improvement Programme) and has applied for another American accreditation
AACSB. Further, the tourism-specific TEDQUAL accreditation for undergraduate and postgraduate
programmes was obtained in 2002.
Accreditation schemes are an appropriate tool to help our school re-engineer the processes in line with
internationally recognised standards, utilise the international quality tools for self-assessment and
quality improvement, subject the processes at the FELU to an independent professional review and
obtain feedback from experts, and to benchmark the FELU against institutions that have already
achieved excellence in teaching and research in related fields. (The EQUIP Self-assessment Process at
the FELU, 2001: 1).
The general goals of tourism certification are similar to the general goals of EQUIS accreditation. The
WTO’s THEMIS certification process can primarily be seen as a special-field international quality
standard for the FELU’s tourism programme. In general, the certification system evaluates six
processes: the employers (society and industry); the students; the curricula (pedagogical system); the
faculty; infrastructure and management (WTO, undated: 1). The FELU decided to apply for
accreditation in order to gain the obvious benefits of an education certification process such as
improvements in quality in the areas of management, curricula and responsiveness to student and
industry needs.
Joint curricular development, integration and co-operation

The Bologna Declaration seeks to foster the European dimension of HE, through ways including
collaborative curricular development, inter-institutional co-operation, mobility schemes and integrated
programmes combining study, training and research (Stone, 2004: 3). The already mentioned EU
programmes in which the FELU is taking part also foster such co-operation and exchange. Slovenia,
as a member-state, is also eligible for ERASMUS MUNDUS joint degree programmes. A proposal
for a joint tourism degree with three other European universities is being developed.
Involving all stakeholders

A declaration from the 2001 Prague conference added further objectives to the Bologna process,
including the requirement for the involvement of students in the development of studies. At the FELU
we have followed the TEDQUAL principles and involved all stakeholders, e.g. academia, students,
industry and the public sector in the designing process for the new tourism programme. In addition,
the University of Ljubljana has required proof that a similar tourism master’s curricula is taught at
well-known European universities.
Conclusion
The benefits and opportunities stemming from the Bologna objectives are greatly needed at the FELU.
The FELU intends to boost its international profile. Internationalisation (including ‘European-isation’)
in terms of qualifications and programme comparability and quality is one of the dominant topics at
the FELU and is to be realised in both teaching and research areas.
Tourism studies as part of FELU studies are part of the FELU’s internationalisation and ‘Bologna-
isation’ process and must simultaneously develop its own tourism-specific instruments and
connections. On one hand, TEDQUAL certification is one such tourism specific instrument that helps
to achieve some Bologna aims such as quality assurance and involving all stakeholders in the
educational development process. Further, to achieve some of the other Bologna objectives in the
tourism field discussed above, the intensified mobility of tourism staff, students and researchers
between European tourism HE institutions is needed. Appropriate changes within tourism

programmes at the FELU, such as the development of new English tourism subjects, are already
taking place, while joint curriculum development and joint degree tourism master’s programmes are
being prepared.
However, many of these developments are recent and the amount of work that remains to be carried
out should not be underestimated. All aspects of the School will need to be further internationalised if
the FELU is to assume any significant position within the international community (EQUIP, 2001:
36). The improved quality performance of the FELU will boost the quality of its tourism studies and
vice versa: both international tourism certification and recognition will benefit the international
position of the institution as a whole.
References
EQUIP (2001) Report of the Peer Review Committee, URL: http://www.ef.uni-si/intranet/dokumenti ,
retrieved: 11.06.2001.
FELU (2004) Internal materials, Faculty of Economics, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana..
Sirše, J., Mihalič, T. (1999) Slovenian tourism and tourism policy : a case study. Rev. tour., 54(3), 34-
47.
Stone, C (2004) The Implications of the Bologna Process for Tourism Masters Programmes,
unpublished paper, University of Sunderland, Sunderland.
SURS (2004) Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Slovenia, SURS, Ljubljana, URL:
http://www.stat.si/letopis/index_vsebina.asp?poglavje=27&leto=2003&jezik=si, retrieved
20.8.2004.
Tauch, C., Rauhvargers, A. (2002) Survey on Master Degrees and Joint Degrees in Europe, European
Commission, Brussels.
'TEDQUAL. At Last, a World Quality Standard for Tourism Education', (1999), Tedqual, 1(1). 8-9.
The EQUIP Self-assessment Process at FELU (2001), URL: http://www.ef.uni-
si/intranet/dokumenti, retrieved: 11.06.2001.
The European Higher Education Area (The Bologna Declaration) (2004), URL:
http://www.coe.int/T/E/Cultural_Co-
operation/education/Higher_education/Activities/Bologna_Process/Bologna_Declaration.asp ,
retrieved 25.11.2004.
Turistica (2004), Turistica, University of Primorska, Portorož, URL: http://suzi.turistica.si/turistica/ ,
retrieved 10.08.2004.
VPŠ (2004). Visoka poslovna šola. Faculty of Economics, University of Ljubljana, URL:
http://www.ef.uni-lj.si/studij/Vps.asp , rRetrieved 10.08.2004.
WTO, (undated), TEDQUAL Certification System, Manual of Procedures, (WTO, THEMIS, Madrid).


_________________________________________
How Valuable Are Tourism Degrees? The

Views Of The Tourism Industry
Petia Petrova and Peter Mason
University of Luton
UK
_________________________________________
Abstract
As a result of the UK government policy on higher education, the HE sector is expanding,
participation is widening and the number of graduates is growing. These developments are also
reflected in the growth in numbers of tourism undergraduate degrees. Yet, the increase in tourism
degrees outstrips the general trend in higher education. Furthermore, tourism degrees are labelled as
vocational, and this assumes that they are geared towards the tourism industry. But is this indeed the
case? What does a tourism employer think a degree in tourism should achieve? Where do they see the
benefits of tourism degrees and what are the shortcomings? The answers to these questions are
expected to provide a better understanding of the value and relevance of tourism degrees to the
tourism industry, and contribute to the ongoing discourse between tourism educators and the tourism
industry about the purpose of university education – the ‘training’ versus ‘education’ debate. The
research, on which the findings were based, was largely exploratory and is part of an on-going PhD
study. In depth, semi-structured interviews with tourism industry mangers/representatives were
conducted, using a snowball sampling strategy (Miles and Huberman, 1994). The preliminary findings
indicate a mixed perception of tourism degrees - a lowering of the standards in higher education was
referred to, indicating low recognition of vocational degrees, and tourism degrees in particular.
However, a number of interviewees did not consider tourism degrees to be sufficiently vocational and
industry focused. The paper provides explanations of these findings and implications, particularly for
those involved in delivering tourism degrees, are further explored.
Keywords: Tourism Higher Education, Tourism Employment, Graduate Employment, Vocational

Education
Introduction
According to the Department for Education and Employment the twofold increase between 1979 and
1996 of the number of graduate entrants to the labour market outstrips the numbers of traditional
graduate job openings (1998, as cited in Lee-Ross 1999). Within tourism, the number of
undergraduate courses has grown from two in 1972 to 77 in 1997, well beyond the rate of growth in
the industry in general and its needs (Ryan 1995; Airey and Johnson 1999; Kusluvan and Kusluvan
2000). In 2001 there were 80 institutions offering degrees with ‘tourism’ in their title, including eight
‘old‘ (pre-1992) universities (Busby, 2001). UK universities are overwhelmingly promoting their
tourism degree courses as vocational and leading to employment (Airey and Johnson 1999). It is
therefore not surprising that tourism courses are increasingly popular among students (Airey and
Johnson 1999; Leslie and Richardson 2000).
But despite the fact that according to Stuart-Hoyle (2003:53) “the most common purpose of tourism
undergraduate programmes is to prepare students for work in the tourism industry (two-thirds of all
programmes)” a considerable percentage of the tourism graduates face difficulties in securing
employment upon graduation in their related industry. This trend contradicts the general

development/government policy in higher education, which is largely geared to employability and

economic benefits – both to the graduates and to the wider economy.
According to the Dearing report (1997), a degree is largely aimed at employment and contributing to
the economy. So, if the purpose is to “inspire and enable individuals ..., so that they grow
intellectually, and are well equipped for work, can contribute effectively to society and achieve
personal fulfilment” (HEPI 2003:32), has the above been achieved in the case of tourism degrees?
How can this be assessed? One approach is to ask tourism employers their views. According to them
has this been accomplished? What does a tourism employer think a degree in tourism should achieve?
Where do they see the benefits of tourism degrees and what are the shortcomings? The answers to
these questions are expected to provide a better understanding of the value and relevance of tourism
degrees to the tourism industry, and contribute to the ongoing discourse between tourism educators
and the tourism industry about the purpose of university education – the ‘training’ versus ‘education’
debate.
At present the following trends are being reported in the literature regarding the employers’
perceptions of tourism degrees. The rapid expansion of tourism courses has resulted in a lack of
uniformity and standardisation of those courses (Airey and Johnson 1999), which has contributed to
confusion among employers about what is on offer (Evans 1993), and increased the obstacles facing
tourism graduates in the labour market (Airey and Johnson 1999). Tourism employers are not
convinced tourism graduates can meet their requirements, therefore limiting the future career
prospects of tourism graduates (Baum 1995; Amoha and Baum 1997; Thomas and Long 2001).
Undergraduate tourism degrees are “not used systematically by employers to regulate recruitment and,
although employment relevance is claimed for the curriculum, subsequent professional training does
not presuppose it.“ (Busby and Fiedel 2001:518). Yet there is little research aimed at discovering
employers’ views on HE and Tourism Degrees in particular.
Method
As little research has been conducted into the value of tourism degrees to the tourism industry in the
UK, the research here is largely exploratory; hence an inductive approach was adopted, using
qualitative techniques. In such instances, qualitative research can be a source of ideas, insights and
new perspectives upon a problem, which is required to gain a better understanding of an issue that is
not widely researched (Ryan 1995). Peacock and Ladkin (2002:397) suggested specifically the use of
interviews as the method of data collection “in order to understand the industry-education
relationship, in-depth qualitative research may be more appropriate than the survey approach. This
would support using interviews as the method of data collection.” Therefore in this study (part of an
ongoing PhD research), interviews with tourism managers and employees were conducted to discover
the factors that may ultimately influence whether they will or will not choose to employ tourism
graduates.
As this study was exploratory, it was considered appropriate that semi-structured interviews would be
used. The first stage of the interviews was open-ended. It gave the opportunity for the interviewees to
talk in general about their career, their perception of how successful it was, and the factors affecting
their career progression over time. This allowed the interviews themselves and the issues they raised
to inform the direction of the study, addressing one of the major disadvantages of highly structured
studies - "finding what is expected and/or settling upon an explanation too early." (Frankel and Devers
2000:268). The second part of the interviews ensured that the investigation covered a number of areas,
considered important in the literature, in understanding the graduate employment phenomena in
tourism industry, and relating to the objectives of this study.
Sampling
In this study, a combination of snowball (cascade) and purposive sampling (Miles and Huberman,
1994) was used. The original key informant identified potentially information rich sources, and
facilitated with securing access. After those people were interviewed, they themselves suggested
further participants in the study. Two of them specifically suggested further contacts that could bring

alternative views to the research, thus, addressing the common problem in snowball sampling of
representativeness, where respondents identify similar cases (Saunders, Lewis et al. 1997). However,
none of the interviewees from the snowball sample were involved in any cooperation with universities
providing tourism education. Therefore locating a case that could represent a different view of the
education-employment equation was considered. As a result Katy and Mark were contacted.
All the interviewees were presented with a ‘confidentiality and anonymity’ statement. To conform to
these arrangements, pseudonyms of names and organisations are used in this research. Each interview
lasted between 40 minutes and 2 hours, generating large amounts of rich data. The interviews were
tape-recorded, to enable the researcher to re-examine this data at a later time. Prior consent was
secured, before the audio recordings began. It was therefore decided that the ability to re-examine the
data in detail much outweighed "the main disadvantage of audio-visual records" (Frankel and Devers,
2000:117) - the overwhelming amount of material they contain and their potential intrusiveness. The
interviews were transcribed verbatim, saved and coded to ensure accessibility, confidentiality and
safety (Froggatt, 2001).
The sample included the following sources (see Figure 1).
Figure 1: Interviews
Pseudonym Position Organistion Status
Ann Training and Development Manager Charter Airline A left 2002
Betty Head of Cabin Services Charter Airline A left 1985
Charlie Customer Service Officer Charter Airline A left 2002
Emma Change and Control Manager Tour Operator A Current
Frank Deputy Managing Director Charter Airline A Current
George HR Director Charter Airline A Current
Iva Director of Human Resources Leisure Corporation A Curent
(via e-mail)
Jenny HR Director – Rewards, Leisure Corporation B Current
Katy Training Manager Ground Handling Agent A Current
Mark Associate Director of Business Travel A. Current
Distribution Strategies
Findings
Benefits from tourism degrees

The headings used in presenting of the results are based either on the questions asked at the interviews
or arose from the data itself. I asked the interviewees what they thought a tourism degree teaches as
well as what they considered the benefits from studying tourism at degree level. To most interviewees
a degree in tourism should achieve an all-round knowledge of the industry. For example, according to
Betty – former Chief Stewardess at Charter Airline A, a degree should:
“… teach all aspects of the businesses, you know (sic) marketing, people's aspirations
as to where they want to go on holiday, the finance side, business plans…”
Mark also referred to knowledge of the tourism industry and reflected the above views:
“I think Tourism is a little like Geography as a subject, it is a composite moving lots of
different things through. So I think what you are looking for, if it is at degree level, you
are looking for an understanding how the industry works, an understanding of the basic
trends of the industry, the main drivers, it is important- An understanding if you like of
the stages of development in the main market. That kind of awareness is probably most
important.”

Similarly, Ann expected that the benefits from a tourism degree to be: “I think the benefit for you, to
an employer, from someone with a degree would have greater all-round knowledge, perhaps a
rounded knowledge of the industry.” It was clear that knowledge of the industry was expected by the
employers to provide the major benefit from employing a tourism graduate. According to several
respondents (Ann, Catherine, Katy) another benefit from employing a tourism graduate is that they
are expected to have “good potential” and “good career prospects”. However, Kate was the only one
who said that she would give a clear advantage to holding a tourism degree at an interview process:
“If I have somebody who has a degree in Mathematics, or a person that has done a degree in leisure
and tourism, and there was not much between them, I would take the leisure and tourism.”
The most prominent advantage of a tourism graduate as seen by the employers is their dedication,
commitment, and interest in the industry: “I would immediately think that someone who has taken
the time to do a degree in tourism is pretty certain that they are going to have a career in that area.”
(Ann). These views were also reiterated by George, Kate and Mark. For Emma holding a tourism
degree also meant that:
“I think that if anybody studied an amount of time in that subject and they still want a job
in that environment or industry, (that) demonstrates you have got a passion for it, a
commitment to it… So that demonstrates they have an interest in that area and also they
have knowledge of it, and that is very useful, people come in and know what to expect.”
Frank also spoke of the commitment of tourism graduates: “That these people have got a real interest
in a particular vocation, a particular area ensuring that that person is more likely to stick to their job.”
Overall, the dedication and commitment to the industry shown through dedicating years of ones life
studying tourism, was one of the major benefits of holding a tourism degree.
The commitment of the students, however, is outside of what a tourism degree entails. And to the
interviewees the actual content of a tourism degree seemed of little value. Frank for example, could
see no benefit for his business from tourism degrees: “ Tourism (degree) in aviation really does not
contribute a great deal.” When asked ‘do you see any benefit from having a tourism degree both for
the students and for your organisation?’ after a long pause George answered: “Not particularly, not in
the airline business, not from my own perspective.” But both Frank and George added that there
might be some relevance to other parts of the industry:
“It is not related to the reality of the aviation. I think it is far more the tourism side of it…
Most of those people are going into travel agencies and I think you would find within
Tour Operator A, a lot of people in Travel Agency A and in Tour Operator A (both part
of the same travel group) have tourism degrees. But I do not think many of them in
aviation.” (Frank)
Emma, confirmed that: “Yes we (Tour Operator A) have a number of people that work currently in
Change Control and do have those degrees.” Overall the employers considered that tourism students
will have an all-around knowledge of the industry, will be committed to working in the area and will
possible enjoy good career prospects. The employers, however, saw little benefit from employing a
tourism graduate, as they did not believe a tourism degrees can contribute to their particular business.
There was an indication of sectoral differences, which is going to be further explored in the later
stages of this PhD study.
Exposure to Tourism Degrees and Graduates

While discussing the fact that they do not see any relevance of tourism degrees, it became obvious
that the interviewees had little exposure to tourism degrees. For example, George, the HR Director at
Charter A simply asked: “What does a degree in leisure cover?” and when asked what about tourism
education at University, Ann responded: “You need to tell me about it.” Betty also shared that: “I
have no first-hand knowledge of what it (the degree) actually achieves.” Catherine also said that she
does not know much about tourism degrees, and she does not know what the syllabus is. Frank also

concurred that he does not know what the content of tourism degree includes: “I have not really come
across them much.”
The employers also had limited exposure to tourism graduates. Catherine had worked with graduates,
but not tourism graduates. Her impression of graduates is that they “wanted to run before they could
walk”. “Where I have worked a lot of the university students that come in they are very academic, but
they have not perhaps got the skills in a workplace - that comes with time and maturity isn’t it?”
(Catherine). Frank also held unfavourable views of tourism students and graduates. He has never met
a tourism graduate, but gets loads of contacts from students doing their dissertations, which has given
him the impression that: “They really horrify me with the lack of understanding that their tutors have
got, in the industry and the questions that they are asking. I stopped seeing them many years ago,
because I have found that they really did not know what they are talking about in aviation terms. And
that their tutors really did not know much about the business either.” He also believed that
“Academia, academics do not always understand industry”, and further went on to comment “And I
think some of these placement people have sometimes a funny view of what the industry is about.”
Mark also talked about the industry – education relationship: “While I never quite understand why the
academic tourism industry is so separate from the tourism industry. It is completely separate. It is like
a world in its own. That I never quite understood, because it seems to me that tourism is essentially
you are talking about kind of vocational type of study - tourism degree.” Indeed, there was little
indication of any co-operation between the industry and the interviewees, with the exception of Kate
who was involved in such a co-operation with a local University. Therefore the views of the
interviewees, it appears, were not based on direct experience. The data suggested that those views
may be based on external factors such as media, government policy in higher education, and the
debate about vocational degrees. The influence of the government policy in higher education on the
views of the employers was suggested by the fact that the interviewees clearly distinguished in their
mind between a ‘traditional’ or a ‘vocational’ degree.
Perception of Tourism Degrees and the Government Policy in Higher Education

There was a clear difference between employers’ views of what a tourism degree should achieve, and
what degrees in general should achieve. The expectations of a tourism degree were very specific –
linked to skills, employability and detailed knowledge of the industry. The employers’ answers to the
question – ‘What do you think a degree in general should achieve?’ were different – they went beyond
the mere vocational aspects of education (see Table 2). The employers believed that a
general/’traditional’ degree should contribute to the development of the ‘individual’. While tourism
degrees were not expected to contribute in this respect. At the same time the ‘training of the mind’
was what was desired for a graduate level position. “If you look at the graduates from Oxford and
Cambridge, they are not vocational, but companies like to take them because the training of the mind
that they can do things well outside the particular degree specialisation they gave them.” (George).
This may indicate that tourism graduates may be less likely to secure a graduate training position
upon graduation compared to ‘traditional’ graduates. Furthermore, one respondent also commented
that businesses would be basing their selection for a graduate training programme on the status of the
university. The results shown in Table 2 may mean that the employers want tourism degrees to be
more vocational, so that students can contribute to entry-level positions, but they do not believe that
tourism graduates can contribute much to graduate training or line management positions. However as
shown above employers have had little contact with tourism graduates or degrees, so the reasons for
their perceptions may not be directly linked to the degrees themselves.
The different expectations put to tourism degrees, may be explained with the recent developments in
the government higher education policy – mainly the 50% target for those aged 18-30 to benefit from
higher education by 2010. All of the interviewees welcomed the fact that university education is now
open to everybody. They all supported the fact that if one is of a good intellectual level s/he should be
allowed to study, regardless of their background. “You want the people who have the intellect, and for
whom an intellectual training is going to be beneficial. You want them to get through, whatever
background they come from.”

But in general they did not support the ‘50%’ policy. George commented that the trend to: “equate
this to that has lead to confusion. I think in the old structure in the UK of the O Levels, the GCSEs
and the degree was actually a very clear standard that people understand. I mean at the end of the day,
I think the A level and degree process is an academic process. It is trying to stretch and develop
intellect and minds. And acquiring business or vocational skills is a different part of the equation.”
Table 2
A DEGREE SHOULD ACHIEVE A TOURISM DEGREE SHOULD ACHIEVE
Individual related attributes Individual related attributes
Developing a rounded individual
Developing the mind
Self discovery
Developing social skills
Developing political views
Developing social independence
Independent thinking
How to applying yourself
Work related attributes Work related attributes
Prepare them for the ‘real world’ Understanding of how the industry works
Transferable skills Understanding of the main drivers in tourism
Specialising in a subject industry
Background information Planning
Degree should be industry based Marketing
Teamwork Every aspect of the tourism industry
Degree should be for those who really want it Ability to hit the ground running
Customer motivation
Finance side
History of the industry
Working knowledge of the industry
Understanding the stages of development in the
market.
Discussion
Employers want tangible vocational benefits or real academic degrees and they believe the current
government policy in HE, especially the 50% pledge is not the best solution, but rather it should be
focusing on the earlier stages of education and on differentiating clearly between the different types of
education. All interviewees welcomed widening participation/access to those who can benefit, but
believe that 50% is too high a number, and they do not consider vocational degrees to be academic
enough or to provide any particular advantage to the graduates in securing ‘traditional’ graduate jobs.
At the same time the employers believe tourism graduates lack the particular skills needed to enter
employment in the industry.
In effect tourism degrees have lost on both counts. This may be partly due to existence of two types of
tourism curriculum “one which is essentially vocational and designed around industry needs, and an
‘academicist’ curriculum which ‘brings an awareness of a wider set of activities which constitute
tourism’s wider society and world’.” (Stuart 2002:14). In that case it is not surprising that there is a
state of confusion and scepticism amongst employers of what a tourism degree entails - on one hand
employers consider these degrees are not academic enough and on the other hand they think they are
not sufficiently vocational. However, some of this scepticism may be due to some inherent problems
in the tourism industry, where “Training is not seen as an important contributor to competitiveness
and profitability; Second, few barriers to entry mean that specialist qualifications are not a
requirement; Third, managers in the tourism industry who have often not had a higher education
themselves tend not to value educational background” (Peacock and Ladkin 2002:395).

Conclusion
The data indicates a mixed perception of degrees indicating that in the eyes of employers there is
indeed a two-tier system. Some interviewees talk of lowering the standards in higher education,
indicating low recognition of vocational degrees, and tourism degrees in particular, while others do
not consider tourism degrees to be sufficiently vocational and geared to the tourism industry. Despite
these trends there is still strong demand for tourism degrees and commitment among students to
pursue a job in their related industry (Petrova 2001), compiling further the possible problems tourism
graduates face upon graduation. Therefore the author can conclude by adding to Hjalager’s (2004:32)
suggestion that “students should be told from the start that there is no such thing as a pre-programmed
‘tourism career’ ”. Students should also be told that at entry level their potential manager may not
attribute any advantage to their degree, as it is about personality and interpersonal skills, not
qualifications, while graduate level jobs may be unattainable, as vocational degrees are at a
disadvantage when competing with highly recognised ‘traditional’ degrees.
References
Airey, D. and S. Johnson (1999). The content of tourism degree courses in the UK. Tourism
Management 20: 229-235.
Amoha, V. A. and T. Baum (1997). Tourism education: policy versus practice. International Journal
of Hospitality Management 9(1).
Baum, T. (1995). Managing Human Resources in the European Tourism and Hospitality Industry - A
Strategic Approach. London, Chapman & Hall.
Busby, G. and D. Fiedel (2001). A contemporary review of tourism degrees in the United Kingdom.
Journal of Vocational Education and Training 53(4): 501-522.
Evans, J. (1993). Current Issues: The tourism graduates: a case of overproduction. Tourism
Management: 243-246.
Frankel, R. and K. J. Devers (2000). Study design in qualitative research - 2: Sampling and data
collection strategies. Education for Health 13(2): 263-271.
HEPI (2003). HEPI Inaugural Lecture, 18 February, 2003.
Hjalager, A.-M. (2004). Global Tourism Careers? Opportunities and Dilemmas Facing Higher
Education in Tourism. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education 2(2).
Kusluvan, S. and Z. Kusluvan (2000). Perceptions and attitudes of undergraduate tourism students
towards working in the tourism industry in Turkey. Tourism Management 21: 251-269.
Lee-Ross, D. (1999). HRM in Tourism and Hospitality: International perspective on small to medium-
sized enterprises. London, Cassell.
Leslie, D. and A. Richardson (2000). Tourism and cooperative education in UK undergraduate
courses: are the benefits being realised? Tourism Management 21: 489-498.
Peacock, N. and A. Ladkin (2002). Exploring relationships between higher education and industry: A
case study of a university and local tourism industry. Industry & Higher Education (December
2002): 393-401.
Petrova, P. (2001). Tourism students career expectations and aspirations: An examination of
attitudes, perceptions and expectations of current undergraduate tourism students at the
University of Luton of tourism degrees and tourism careers. Department of Tourism, Leisure
and Sport Management. Luton, University of Luton.
Ryan, C. (1995). Current issues: Tourism courses: a new concern for new times? Tourism
Management 16(2): 97-100.
Saunders, M., P. Lewis, et al. (1997). Research Methods for Business Students. London, Pitman
Publishing.
Stuart, M. (2002). Critical influences on tourism as a subject in UK higher education: lecturer
perspectives. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education 1(1): 5-18.
Stuart-Hoyle, M. (2003). The purpose of undergraduate tourism courses in the United Kingdom.
Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education 2(1): 49-64.
Thomas, R. and J. Long (2001). Tourism and economic regeneration: The role of skills development.
International Journal of Tourism Research: 229-240.


_________________________________________
Practice Paper: Redesigning Seminars to

Enhance Student Learning and Motivation
Nancy Stevenson
University of Westminster
UK
________________________________________
Abstract
Seminars can provide learners opportunities to explore, experience and engage with subject material
and to make connections between theory and practice. They can develop a variety of learning and
transferable skills including research, critical analysis, group discussion and reflective practice and
can also be designed to develop skills in presentation, leadership and group work. However lecturers
across a number of disciplines report recurring problems of lack of engagement and poor contribution
from students in seminars. This paper reports on a project at the University of Westminster aiming to
improve student learning and motivation through the redesign of student seminars.
Keywords: Learning, Motivation, Seminars
Introduction
Seminars are used in conjunction with other methods to support diverse opportunities for students to
explore experience and engage with material. They provide scope to develop academic and
transferable skills and for formative feedback. In theory seminars should turn the focus of learning
away from the lecturer and enable students to develop confidence in their own ability through
reflecting upon theory and case studies and engaging in discussions with their peers. However in
practice, both lecturers and students report recurring problems of poor engagement and contribution.
The Problem
The issue was investigated in the undergraduate tourism programmes at the University of Westminster
in 02-03 during the annual review process. Lecturers were concerned about the poor quality of
discussion in seminars, reporting that many students paraphrased sections of readings and
demonstrated little confidence or understanding of the material. They reported that students often
tried to rely on the lecturer or one or two dominant members of the group to provide the “right”
answers.
The views of tourism students were sought both informally and formally across several modules.
Students were asked about their experience of seminars within one particular module and more
generally in the University of Westminster. They reported that they found it difficult to become
involved in the seminar process; they felt that they did not have the experience necessary to discuss
topics and were afraid of making mistakes in front of their classmates. International students reported
that they had limited previous experience of this type of teaching and found it difficult to gauge how
to interact with their peers and their lecturers in this setting. Other issues identified by all students
were difficulties in engaging with reading matter on unfamiliar topics, the low assessment weighting
allocated to seminar work and seminar assessment weighting being biased towards written work
which gave little incentive to discuss their ideas in class. Finally a number of students complained
about the tendency for some students not to contribute or to make contributions that were perceived to

be irrelevant by the remainder of the group. This was considered to undermine the value of seminars
as a learning exercise.
The Project
A project was set up with the aim of:
• Engaging a diverse range of students and improving their learning and motivation by
o developing an approach to seminars that would encourage structured and
relevant contributions,
o accrediting verbal contribution and encouraging students to listen and actively
engage in discussion,
o providing more opportunities for formative feedback.
• Deepening the learning experience and to make connections between topic areas with
more time to engage with material an reflect upon learning experience by
o developing a series of learning experiences revisiting material in different ways
during the Semester.
The decision was made to review relevant theory, good practice and developmental work elsewhere in
the University and in other Universities and develop a pilot project to implement changes in one
module. This approach had the advantage that ideas could be tested with a small group and any
‘teething problems’ could be resolved flexibly during the process. At the end of the project those
aspects that were successful could be developed for a wider audience.
The Pilot
The decision was made to pilot the project in the Tourism Planning Policy module on the basis that
students expressed problems in engaging with and understanding the subject material. The module
had been designed with lectures to introduce theory, three seminars to foster discussion and then a
small group project where students were required to evaluate case study material using tourism
planning and policy theory. It was intended that seminar discussions would enhance lecture delivery
but in general students had been ill-prepared for the discussion, found it difficult to engage with the
reading material suggested by the module leader, and in some cases had chosen to forgo this part of
the learning process on the basis of the low assessment weighting of this part of the module. The
majority of students came to seminars with a page of notes paraphrasing one or two readings but with
very limited understanding or confidence to discuss that material. The seminars themselves
comprised a series of stilted and forced exchanges that served to reinforce their lack of confidence. In
this way seminars reinforced a surface approach to the subject rather than a method of enhancing or
deepening the learning process.
The pass rates for this module were unacceptably low and students had a superficial understanding of
the subject. Feedback from students identified a number of problems. They reported that they found it
difficult to understand the subject matter because there were too many facets, factors and views about
tourism planning and the reading material contained complex language and jargon. On this basis they
said that it was difficult to motivate themselves to undertake reading outside the class and that, they
did not have the confidence to participate in seminars.
The Review
A wide range of theory and case study material was reviewed with a focus on identifying good
practice in improving learning and motivation in seminars. Hollyforde and Whiddet (2002) suggest
that students’ perception of the complexity of a subject will affect their motivation to actively engage
with that subject. The implication of this is that the module should be designed to resolve negative
student perceptions. In particular consideration is required of the level of support required when
introducing “difficult” guided reading with unfamiliar language or jargon.
Many contemporary researches into learning refer to the three different approaches to learning
developed by Entwistle (1988) which are defined as deep, surface and strategic. Numerous authors

since have carried out studies that aim to develop deep learning including Richardson (2000)
McAlpine (2004). McAlpine (2004) identified 4 factors that would increase the likelihood of students
favouring deep approaches to learning:
“(i) provide clear and explicit explanations
(ii) demonstrate the potential relevance of learning
(iii) offer student choice, and
(iv) structure a reasonable student workload” (p121)
McAlpine (2004) developed a model integrating learning theory including “Schema Theory”
(Ausubel, 1980) which conceives knowledge as a series of interconnected concepts with the
implication that new learning must be related to prior knowledge, “Situated Cognition” (Lave and
Weaver, 1991) which emphasises the social nature of learning and has the implication that teaching
should be directed at motivating and challenging, provide a structure that breaks down the task, allows
the learner to “try” or to apply their knowledge to a problem and provides supportive and formative
feedback. She refers to “cognitive development” (Paiget, 1969 and Vygotsky, 1978) as an
explanation of how learners can think in more complex ways when they are in a supportive
environment. Her work also emphasises the need for students to interact with study material, see a
range of different perspectives and become aware of conflicts and inconsistencies.
Richardson (2000) discussed work by Gibbs in 1992 that identified the characteristics of courses that
encouraged surface approaches to learning. These included heavy workload, high class contact hours,
lack of choice over subjects and method of study and few opportunities to pursue studies in depth and
an assessment system that provided anxiety.
Developing Deep Learning
(a) Providing choice of topic and assessment date

These characteristics were considered when redesigning the module and efforts were made to move
towards methods that would encourage a deeper approach. Specifically the balance between lecturer-
led contact hours and student-led contact hours was reviewed and the module was redesigned to
increase student led aspects. Material was developed on six main topics, each with a separate seminar
presentation deadline, and students were given a certain amount of choice to determine which topic
they would cover in detail. In choosing their topic they also chose their assessment date, which meant
that some made the choice on the basis of their interest in one particular aspect of the module and
others made their choice to time the assessed presentations to fit with other commitments or meet
their needs for early feedback.
(b) Improving opportunities for formative feedback

Seminars were designed to give formative feedback and with a relatively high assessment weighting
in order to increase the level of engagement and support early in the module reduce workload at the
end of the Semester. This was intended to reduce anxiety and give students the sense that they were
building on their existing knowledge rather than creating something completely new at the end of the
Semester.
(c) Increasing relevance

The project aimed to increase relevance by providing more varied opportunities to engage with
material during the module and to make links and create connectivity between the topic areas. It drew
from work from Kolb (1984) identifying four stages of learning, experience, observation and
reflection, generalisation or conceptualisation and testing and aimed to increase the number of
iterations through these learning stages. Warner Weil & McGill (1989), McGill and Beaty (2001) and
McAlpine (2004) highlighted the importance of engagement or performance of understanding to
develop students learning. They stressed the need to foster active learning and to develop critical
thinking and develop a deeper approach to learning. The module was redesigned to provide a variety
of learning experiences around the seminars for each topic. Students were given more opportunities

to interact with material by discussing it with one another and exploring each topic in different
settings.
Stoke (1999) identified the need to develop ‘connectivity’ by creating links between lectures and
creating real experiences and opportunities for participation. Smith (2002) advocates a wide range of
approaches to learning, multiple approaches to assessment and formative assessment as a way of
improving learning. Bearing this in mind the module was redesigned to revisit topics during the
Semester as a way of encouraging students to make connections between them. The redesigned
module aimed to integrate knowledge between topic areas and develop personal relevance and
coherence by allowing students choice in the subject material and approach it in a variety of ways.
Embracing Diversity – Teaching Diverse Methods to Diverse Students

Light and Cox (2001) write about the ‘weave of learning’ identifying a range of ‘life-world’
obligations, interests and concerns “intellectual, personal, social, cultural, ethical, political and
practical” (p45) that affect learning. The ‘life-world’ concept is useful in starting to think about
developing learning in diverse groups. The majority of undergraduate tourism students at the
University of Westminster have not been educated in the UK; the student group includes many mature
students with obligations outside the University and all students juggle full-time study with paid
employment. This diverse group has different experiences and expectations of education and the idea
of ‘life-world’ highlights the importance of providing a variety of opportunities for learning.
In respect of the project it highlighted the importance of researching what type of barriers exist within
different cultures to different modes of learning. In undertaking research for the project it soon
became clear that international students considered that their educational experiences and cultural
differences impacted on their ability to contribute in seminars. One of the requirements of the re-
designed seminars was therefore the need to provide opportunities to explicitly explain the seminar
‘rules’, to practice discussing ideas in seminars, and to reflect upon the act of discussing ideas in
seminars. This gave students the experience of participating in the seminar within a supportive and
reflective setting. Also in developing seminar presentations and questions for discussion, students
were actively encouraged to interpret material and develop presentation material to reflect their own
experiences and interests.
Implementing the New Approach

A timetable was provided for students at the beginning of the term outlining lecture and seminar
topics and guided reading for the seminars. In the first session six seminar topics were outlined and
the students were given the opportunity to select a seminar group and topic. Once groups had selected
their topics they were given information packs which presented some case study material and
provided a bibliography of further research material including case study research and theory.
Students were advised to use these packs as a basis for further research to prepare a 15-minute
presentation on their topic.
This approach focussed on supporting students to develop better research presentations and seminar
papers based on a series of lectures. Seminar presentations were scheduled throughout the first term.
Each topic was introduced by a short formal lecture to outline the topic, relevant theory, and key
debates and issues. A two-week gap was allocated between the theory lecture for each topic and the
seminar presentation to enable further study and reflection upon the subject. Case study material was
extensively used in an attempt to connect theory and practice.
The approach was iterative and enabled students to revisit topic areas throughout the semester and to
discuss their ideas with lecturers and with their peers. It provided enhanced opportunities for
feedback and self-reflection and enabled students to make links between topic areas.

The Demonstration Seminar

An essential feature of this new approach was a ‘demonstration’ seminar presentation at the start of
the module as a way of outlining what was expected from the audience and the presenters. Students
were given guided reading and asked to prepare a seminar paper and questions for discussion at a
demonstration seminar that would be led by the lecturer. The lecturer gave a 15-minute presentation
on the topic which was followed by a seminar discussion derived from questions that the group had
prepared from the reading. The seminar was followed by an informal session to discuss the roles of
the audience and the presenters and to clarify expectations and misconceptions of the seminar process.
This informal session also enabled immediate feedback to be given on the performance of the group,
and provided ideas to improve performance for subsequent sessions.
The demonstration seminar was designed to tackle student perceptions that tourism planning was a
difficult area of the syllabus. The reading chosen for the demonstration seminar used complex
language and jargon to define phases of tourism planning but its underlying ideas were fairly easy to
grasp. The seminar was used to provide support to comprehend guided reading that they perceived as
difficult and gave students a sense of achievement early in the module.
The role of presenters

The students were given clear roles, as presenters they were required to prepare a seminar
presentation, to develop 2-3 questions and to “host” a discussion on their topic.
The learning activities for the presenters

Three learning activities were around students’ specialist topics. Each required students to engage
with learning material in a variety of different ways which are summarised below.
• Prepare a presentation on topic area:
o Read individually.
o Discuss topic in group.
o Develop a presentation structure and prepare presentation.
o Present findings.
• Lead a seminar discussion group:
o Field questions from an audience.
o Ask questions of audience.
• Write up (individually):
o Collate notes and ideas.
o Undertake further research.
o Write up for formal assessment.
The role of seminar participants

As audience members they were required to prepare a short summary paper of at least one of the
guided readings and 2-3 questions for the discussion. They were advised to take notes from the
presentations and be prepared to discuss the material presented.
The learning activities for the participants

Five learning activities were designed to follow each lecture, each requiring each student to engage
with the material in a different way. The activity and nature of student engagement are summarised
below:
• Guided reading:
o Read, think, take notes and ask questions.
• Preparation of short seminar paper and discussion questions:
o Summarise guided reading.
• Listen to presentation:
o Listen, take notes, think, prepare questions.
• Participation in seminar discussion group:
o Listen, think, discuss, ask questions, answer questions.

• Revision for exam:

o Think, process and collate information.
Summary of the Key Features of the New Approach

There were a number of aspects of this approach that had a major role in its success.
1. The emphasis on developing a clear and explicit explanation of what was required and was
taught during the introductory lecture and in the demonstration seminar and discussion. The
demonstration seminar clarified what was expected and enabled students to ask questions
about their roles.
2. The variety of the learning experiences provided and the sequencing of those experiences.
Topics were introduced and material was explored in a standard sequence throughout the
module to develop a sense of familiarity and confidence.
3. The relatively high assessment weighting given to the seminar presentations and discussion.
This emphasised the importance of the seminar process in learning and required students to
actively engage with material from the beginning of the module rather than at the end as the
assessment deadlines loomed.
4. The development and support of the group element of the seminar presentation through the
introductory lectures/discussions, choice of groups/topics and provision of information packs
which encouraged the use of real world topics and up to date case study material. The team
dynamic was developed further by all student seminar presentation material being made
available on ‘Blackboard’, the virtual learning environment. This meant that the group built
up an extensive study resource throughout the semester.
5. The development of an in-depth study enabling students to develop expertise and confidence
in one topic area and to apply key ideas to other topic areas.
Outcomes
The outcomes of this approach were positive feedback from staff and students and improved
marks/pass rates for the module. Students reported increased interest and understanding of the
subject; they liked being able to choose their group, topic and timing of presentation; they considered
that some of the reading material for the module was ‘harder’ than others but felt they had learned
more than in many other modules and they reported effective group working. Students reported that
engagement with this material gives them more confidence in other modules. The project provided
evidence of deeper understanding of the topic, of the ability to make connections between topic areas
and with learning in other modules. At the end of the module students were able to discuss and
evaluate the relationship between case study research and theory and to demonstrate understanding of
topic areas that enabled them to perform well in assessments. Another outcome was a dramatic
improvement in attendance at seminars.
Improvements for Next Year

The project was successful, with the seminar element of the module becoming much more important
as way of supporting and developing learning and providing formative feedback. However elements
of the review were too cautious and further changes will be made in the forthcoming year. These
include:
• Student will be given more control to determine the direction of the assignment. The
seminars will be based from guided reading and group work but then individual
students will have considerable scope to write this up to reflect their own interests.
• The assessment of this module will be redesigned to more accurately reflect the effort
and learning of each of the assessed elements. It is proposed to increase the weighting
of the seminar element to emphasise the importance of this part of the module
• It is proposed to make more extensive use of ‘Blackboard’ as a learning resource and
set up discussion groups.

References
Entwistle (1998) Approaches to Learning and Forms of Understanding in B. Dart and G Boulton-
Lewis (eds) Teaching and Learning in Higher Education. Acer Press.
Hollyforde and Whiddet (2002) The Motivation Handbook. Chartered Institute of Personnel and
Development
Light G & Cox R (2001) Learning and Teaching in Higher Education. Paul Chapman Publishing.
McGill I and Beaty L (2001) 2nd Ed Action Learning. Kogan Page.
McAlpine L (2004) Designing learning as well as teaching Active Learning in Higher Education
5(2):119-134 ILTHE.
Richardson J (2000) Researching Student Learning Open University Press.
Stoke M (1999) Chapter 17 What is teaching for Understanding in Eds Leach J and Moon B Learners
and pedagogy. Sage.
Warner Weil S & McGill I (1989) Making Sense of Experiential Learning. Open University Press.


_________________________________________
Making Personal Development Planning

Work for Tourism Students, Staff and
Departments
Mark Stone
University of Plymouth
_________________________________________
Abstract
This paper builds on the results of trials and embedding of Personal Development Planning (PDP)
within the tourism curricula at the University of Plymouth; work to formalise and structure personal
development within the planned curriculum including the creation of a PDP system specification and
benchmarking it with existing developments; content analysis of student reflective writing gathered
from PDP assignments, used to gain a deeper understanding of student engagement with PDP
including the emerging undergraduate vocabulary/language of PDP; guidance material produced for
staff at the University of Plymouth by the author in collaboration with the Head of Education
Development.
Keywords: Personal Development Planning, PDP, Reflection, Progression
Introduction
The term ‘PDP’ has gained currency in the UK based on the recommendation of the 1997 National
Committee of Enquiry into Higher Education, chaired by Sir Ron Dearing, that all students should
have the opportunity to engage in ‘Personal Development Planning’. HEFCE has set a target date of
2005 for the institutions it funds to give their students this ‘opportunity’. PDP at the University of
Plymouth has not replaced or superseded all previous skills development and vocational strategies and
approaches. Rather, PDP has added to, refined and extended the work. However, a specific new
development has been the explicit nature of the practice including a mission to both explain to and
engage with students.
While the aims of any educational development may be highly laudable, the proof of their worth is in
the value they provide to end users; students, graduates and the organisations that employ them.
While aiming to fulfil end user needs, PDP must also be manageable for the university; including how
it fits with the internal and external quality measures by which it is judged.
Personal Development Definitions and Drivers

PDP definition and objective (Guidelines for HE Progress Files, 2001)
Definition: “a structured and supported process undertaken by an individual to reflect upon their own
learning, performance and/or achievement and to plan for their personal, educational and career
development.”
Objective: “to improve the capacity of individuals to understand what and how they are learning, and
to review, plan and take responsibility for their own learning …”

PDP Developments in England must fit with the following drivers / agendas
• Subject Benchmark Statements
• Programme Specifications
• Progress Files
• National Qualifications Framework
• Codes of Practice
• Academic Review
• Programme specifications give intended outcomes of the course in terms of:
o Knowledge and understanding that a student will be expected to have upon
completion
o Key skills: communication, numeracy, information technology and learning how to
learn
o Cognitive skills, such as an understanding of methodologies or ability in critical
analysis
o Subject specific skills, such as laboratory skills
PDP and skills development

Skills development is not new to HE but PDP helps to move from a largely implicit approach to skills
and incorporates explicit skills development into the curriculum. Honeybone, Blumhof, Hall and
Palmer (2001) tell us explicit skills can be development through:
• Awareness: increasing awareness of importance of skills
• Articulation: providing the language to articulate skills
• Advancement: encouraging the advancement of skills
The PDP employability skills agenda covers:

• Traditional intellectual skills
• ‘New’ core or key skills including ICT
• Personal attributes deemed to have market value
• Knowledge about how organisations work and how people work within them
Pedagogic Underpinnings of PDP

Models of PDP are rooted in the designer’s pedagogic view of the learning processes and the
appropriate role for student and academic. Key influences on the pedagogic underpinnings of PDP
include:
• Constructive Alignment (Biggs 1999)
• The Kolb Cycle (1984)
• Self-Directed Learning Cycle: Adaptation of Kolb Petty (1998)
• Socio-constructivism: following Kolb (Cowan 2002)
The pedagogic approach used in Tourism at the University of Plymouth was:

• Vocational and employment focused
• An outcomes based approach: including both academic and skills development
• Reflective:
o What was my plan?
o What have I learnt?
o How can I use this now and in the future?
o What should I do next?
• Continuing Professional Development focused: applying learning to a context or future plans.

• Holistic: making linkages across modules and including embedding non academic content.
Constraints, Barriers and Challenges
Implementation of PDP has encountered significant constraints and barriers including:
• Perceived PDP enhancement at the detriment of the existing subject focus.

• Perceived PDP challenges to the ‘traditional’ view of higher education.

• Problems of terminology.
• Problems of transference - student and data.
• Problems of development - resources and progression.
• Problems of assessment, especially reflection.
• Problems of curriculum design.
• Problems of student and staff engagement.
Key challenges
• Overcoming attitudes based on previous experience both good and bad.
• Integrating PDP within the curriculum.
• Clarifying and agreeing the learning processes that underpin PDP.
• Resolving how PDP fits into both virtual and face to face learning environments.
• Ensuring PDP makes sense to students and is a valuable part of their learning.
• Getting the participation of all students for an appropriate amount of time.
• Ensuring ownership of the process by students and staff.
• The level of PDP granularity - e.g. getting the volume and level of detail right.
• Tacking student progress.
• Linking PDP to a final university wide ‘Profile’.
• Delivering and supporting PDP without a huge staff workload increase.
• Designing PDP that can be organised, quality controlled and reported on by managers.
Integrating PDP at Different Stages of the Curriculum Development Cycle

One way to determine a strategy for implementation will be where the course or scheme is in the
cycle of review and approval. Different stages offer different challenges and opportunities; e.g.
working with PDP:
1. After recent degree scheme/course review or approval.
2. Between degree scheme/course approval and review.
3. When reviewing or approving a new degree scheme/course.
When developing or adopting a PDP system or approach there are a number of fundamental decisions
to be taken. By working through these issues and making choices that suit the academic and resource
context a baseline PDP specification will be created. This specification can then be used to develop
your own system or to assist with evaluating existing systems or approaches for their applicability and
adaptability to your situation:
1. When and where is your PDP going to benefit the student?
2. Will your PDP be embedded within the curriculum or independent of it?
3. Will your PDP be voluntary or compulsory?
4. Will your PDP include some form of assessment?
5. Will your PDP be process or evidence driven?
6. What will be the role of technology within your PDP?
Our choice was to build on embedded PDP activities, make it compulsory, assess it and use
technology – particularly in years one and two. Research suggested that optional take up of PDP
without some form of initial enforced engagement was very poor.

Research and Development Process 2002 - 2004
Summary research and implementation plan:

• Establish methodology, evaluation strategy and identify collaborators including learning
technologists and the careers service.
• Defining an operational PDP definition.
• PDP literature including personal effectiveness and the flexible graduate.
• Establish relevant institutional drivers.
• Reviewing PDP work undertaken within the university of Plymouth and other bodies
including the Centre for Recording Achievement.
• Determining an appropriate operational PDP model for the faculty modular degree scheme
• Determining appropriate recording protocols.
• Determining an appropriate support structure including the role of tutors and technology for
the management and organisation of PDP.
• Pilot a system PDP with 160 year one students.
• Establishing a working model that could evolve along with the faculty modular degree
scheme.
• Producing an embedded exemplar PDP system for the university.
• Embed PDP data gathering to facilitate further educational development.
An outline PDP specification was worked up. This was used to analyse and judge the potential use of
existing systems. The aim was to find an existing PDP solution that could be bought into or adopted.
Visits and interviews involving eleven PDP ‘systems’, seven institutions and numerous individuals
over a six month period in 2002 helped refine the specification. However, disappointingly no one
system met our needs. A key finding was that many institutions seemed to be going out of their way
to make PDP and PDP systems more complicated than we felt was necessary.
Piloting and Feedback 2002/3

PDP was trialled within a 10 credit ‘core’ IT module. 160 students (including Tourism students)
engaged in PDP through a variety of exercises including a library assignment, skills tests and careers
quiz’s, culminating in a final reflective report summarising their current position, detailing their
development plans and giving outlines of their future aims. The trial PDP was objective focused,
built on:
• 5 x subject specific course objectives (one from each pathway)
• 6 x level 1 Graduate Attribute and Skills (GAS)
The aim is of integrating PDP as a mainstream part of the curriculum was assisted through the
identification of ‘PDP friendly modules’ which were either:
• Modules designed to use or interact with PDP features or resources – e.g. a module assessment
contains an element of PDP activity within it.
• Modules designed to support skills development, extend induction activity or provide an
integrating or employment focus which uses or incorporates PDP processes.
Feedback and dialogue

Tracking student progress was essential to the development of the PDP process. Feedback involved
the use of open questions about module objectives, exercises and format. Twenty groups of 4-5
students were questioned throughout the module as terminal feedback would have missed too many
students. This was because the module design allowed students to complete the module early if all
course work was handed in, marked and of a passing standard. This work was helped by a weekly
one hour lecture/workshop session followed by one hour supported help in a computing suite. A wide
range of staff were consulted and developments disseminated in collaboration with the University
Educational Development teams and PDP working group. All year tutors, course leaders and

representatives from library and computing services were invited to join the workshops where a good
lunch was provided!
Key student feedback

• No students questioned the PDP concept in terms of its usefulness or relevance, but many were
worried it would be too taxing in terms of time and effort and that it may distract them from their
‘core’ subject/s.
• 15 students thought the exercises ‘too easy’ and wanted more ‘in depth’ feedback on the content
of their submissions (They felt too much concentration and feedback was placed on the IT and
PDP process - these were mainly students who were keen on the idea of PDP and/ or those that
had engaged in similar types of activity before).
• 10 students asked how they could receive further support if they wanted to continue engaging
with the PDP for their personal development after the module finished.
• No students complained of ‘pointless exercises’ used to show IT competence, as had been
received in the past.
• The briefing session at the start is vital, late starting students felt at a disadvantage.
• The integration of the library induction assignment was generally well thought of (apart from
some technical/typographical inconsistencies), especially that it could be started early (given out
during induction).
• The fact that library assignments were marked by the library team was well received and helped
to give students a sense of partnership between lecturers and library staff.
• A mixture of electronic and paper based hand in, worked well for the students in understanding
systems early on.
• The rapid marking of assignments was greatly appreciated and the thing mentioned by almost all
students (most assignments were marked within 48 hours).
• Students welcomed the chance to submit assessments prior to the deadline for feedback and
resubmission if required.
• A surprising proportion of students completed and submitted additional voluntary exercises
contained within the PDP (60% did at least one extra item).
• 12 technical or logistical criticisms were received, mainly relating to saving data from an online
testing programme and problems with Acrobat on some PCs.
• The module was not discussed at course committees; normally a sign that the module is well
organised and working within student expectations.
Problems encountered
• A technological solution for direct data entry straight into a database was designed but not
completed by computing services for the start of the year.
• Database scalability issues may affect future data management plans.
• Students tend to think in whole module or assessment terms; therefore the evidence provided is
often too large or not specific enough.
• Trying to create minimal systems that suit a wide range of users.
Lessons learnt
The change from the highly successful 10 credit pilot to a 20 credit module resulted in a loss of pace
and immediacy. For most students, the pilot module only ran for 8 weeks of the 12 week term;
students had to start and work hard on PDP immediately; but were free at the end of term to focus on
other studies.
Students could hand in work at any stage up until the assessment deadline and it would be marked and
if necessary or desired, resubmitted. The intense front-loading suited PDP well however produces an
intense staff workload to achieve an effective speed of response (e.g. marks and feedback within 72
hours). Taking PDP work into a second term reduced student urgency and focus.

Giving students too much time to think about their learning in year one resulted in a significant
minority overstressing about how much time to spend on their work; “if I’ve got six weeks to do this,
it must be more complicated than it seems.” With shorter deadlines many students would still have
found the work difficult and they might have still complained but they would have done it and they
would have got their results back and then they would have been able to move on.
The plan for next year is to have a 6 or 8 week burst in term one and then that module will then
disappear off the timetable for the rest of term so that students can concentrate on the other modules
and then they come back to PDP at the start of the second term with another 6 or 8 week burst of
activity. This structure works for both students and staff in a modular structure.
Setting the academic level of PDP work is fraught with difficulty; if it is too easy, students are not
stretched, if it too onerous it may not be making a contribution to their learning and also distracting
them from other aspects of their courses.
The development of PDP is seen as an evolving one built on the results of pedagogic research,
feedback and experience. Selected employability and research materials have been piloted this
academic year to lay the foundation and act as a pilot for a second year/ stage PDP module.
The resulting PDP model

Each course has six 60 credit pathways each of which is divided into three long and thin 20 credit
modules; one in each stage. One of these pathways is a ‘PDP’ which integrates all courses. The
model takes students from planning in year one, to a portfolio focus in year two and to independent
study in the final year:
• Year 1 focuses on PDP plus IT and learning skills.
• Year 2 focuses on PDP plus employability and research skills; generic research and data handling
skills are taught using data related to employability including graduate destinations and graduate
salaries.
• In the final year, PDP is not a taught component of the course being the honours project /
dissertation module.
Figure 1: How the PDP modules sits within a three year, 360 credit undergraduate degree
Pathway Stage 1 module Stage 2 module Stage 3 module

60 Credits 20 Credits 20 Credits 20 Credits
Personal Development PDP 110 PDP 210 PDP 310

Modules and overall Personal Development: Personal Development: Personal Development:
pathway objective Learning Research and Honours Project
Employment Skills
Integrate subject specific knowledge and transferable skills to develop a specialism

in depth, conduct a research investigation, and effectively report the findings
By the time they get to year three, the regular exposure to PDP processes and resources will mean
students are familiar with them and are utilising them for a number of different purposes. The key
third year relationship is between student and supervisor. However, the PDP website contains
resources that will be useful to student in both their project and in their preparation for entry into
work; for example:
• Employability guidance and preparation.
• Goal setting.
• Learning styles.

In addition the research skills support material used in the year two PDP module are available for
review and consultation.
PDP resources and support

The best PDP support and resources model found was developed by the TLTP Keynote project. It
was accessible, had a good structure and some useful resources covering many aspects of PDP. This
template was then adapted for our needs. A significant amount of the original Keynote material was
used along with home-grown materials including numeracy diagnostic tests and material from other
bodies and institutions such as the Department of Education.
To make it technically straightforward but mainly for pedagogic reasons, we aimed for simplicity;
therefore we pared-down the design and stripped-out unnecessary student activity while building in
maximum choice and a range of supporting resources. After piloting we then pruned further.
Staffing
In term one, the PDP 1110 module is delivered by two lecturers, two post-graduate demonstrators and
speakers from the university careers, library, computing and learning skills teams. The lecturer roles
are divided between running whole group interactive workshops and marking/giving feedback. The
postgraduates are there to support students in dedicated computer lab sessions; this is especially useful
for the IT aspects of the module.
In term 2 the responsibility passes to the year tutors; a lecturer with responsibility for a significant
module for a year group and course. As the whole course year group will see that member of staff
regularly, they are well placed to handle questions or concerns about the academic year. Some year
tutors use a portion of their lectures for PDP guidance and questions; to drip feed input rather than run
dedicated PDP sessions. Other staff book formal PDP sessions as a timetabled event or in response to
particular group issues. Year tutors needed and wanted training in how to guide and manage these
situations best; especially over the marking of PDP assignments.
This involvement in marking a 2000 word reflective assignment on an aspect of their course is vital to
gain tutor understanding, engagement and ‘buy in’ to the PDP process. It also helps students to align
PDP activity with the course they came to university to study; many students do not react well to
activities they see as generic or free standing from their course. PDP moves from process to content
through the year; term 1 is more about process and term 2 is more about content. The module is front
loaded; students do more in term 1 than they do in term 2 (where the core of the year tutor time is
allocated).
Year tutors, covering between 20 and 50 students each get a workload allocation for their PDP
contribution. This has been popular as previously the tutor role was not timetabled and therefore
often a significant but hidden workload. Staff and students told the PDP development team that staff
teaching core subjects had always born the brunt of student questions (on any subject); the year tutor
role formalises this work. Tutors still have additional personal or pastoral care responsibilities that
can not be planned for or timetabled. The low level of workload allocation for the tutor role is a
significant concern to some staff and potential threat to the effectiveness of the PDP system.
Tutors have struggled to get group tutorials to work in the past, but PDP has given these sessions
greater focus and structure; especially the assessment structure. However it does mean that tutor
sessions need to be more planned and organised. While tutors are still going to get students knocking
on their door at odd times, they can now refer non urgent or generic questions to the next PDP
session.
The PDP design has tried to address the motivations of those involved and the pressures they are
under.

Assessment lessons learnt

One PDP assignment proved to be a stumbling block; students were asked to reflect on all [five] of
their course pathways (excluding PDP). The result was an overly complex and repetitive assignment.
This alienated the students as they found themselves reflecting in too little detail about too many
things.
The original plan was to ask students to choose two or three or three pathways to write development
plans for because there are always things within a course that students are either more interested in or
that they are struggling with. For some staff, resistance to student choice was due to the desire to
gather good student data set to underpin pedagogic research or teaching practice.
In the future we would like students to pick two or three course objectives and two or three GAS to
focus their work, rather than produce a plan for all. It does not instil the process as valuable but leads
students into a repetitive process. The aspect of choice in personal development is also an important
one.
In year two students should make choices from those pathways and GAS not addressed in year one.
Embedding, Integration and Development

To facilitate future adaptation / customisation, PDP resources are not embedded in modules nor are
modules embedded within the PDP system; they are kept separate - a stand alone PDP resource that
can be utilised in a number of different ways by different user groups.
A principle is that new users can add additional resources for their students or customise existing
ones. Staff can guide or map for students, those areas of the site they wish them to use, however all
resources are available for all users. Therefore every group of new users enrich the overall set of
resources. Over time it is hoped a user group may emerge.
Potential future developments

• Create or integrate a CV resource base / builder incorporating a log of CPD activity including
course, employment and personal experience.
• Provide further advice on the assembly of evidence.
• Develop a student upload of work / evidence to an online storage facility.
• Create a portfolio of supporting documents and examples of work including assignments and
exercise from the PDP that could be held by the university beyond graduation or burned onto a
CD for the student to take away on graduation.
• Link to ‘Modules’ (micro-modules) on Numeracy, Writing and Plagiarism.
• Link to the student ‘profile’ initiative including automatically incorporated course information
and an annotated GAS map.
Recording achievement
Year one students are asked to indicate the appropriate evidence of their development while doing
their planning; but not to submit it; a dry run for year two, when more evidence is required. In year 2
students are guided to think about the evidence they have accumulated to demonstrate their
development.
Recording achievement is a difficult area for some students, as their perceptions are based on school
or other experiences that have convinced them that PDP is all about writing everything down. The
key is assisting students to build a body of evidence that fits their experience and their aspirations.
Our model is working on a database approach with a highly constrained amount of space within
which to store evidence. We are trying to work at a level of detail below that of the assignment. The
plan is to map what the student has done against the evidence they have and to be able to print a
summary as an adjunct to a CV. This would outline Graduate Attributes and Skills in a course and

personal context as well as detail modules completed, along with evidence of knowledge and skills
deployed. Students, academics and employers need a tightly defined, readable and easily updated
document.
Minimalism is the challenge, how to get the smallest possible unit of data which provides meaningful
evidence. We are planning a database with fields limited to parts of a larger file or assignment;
therefore the summary of PDP evidence for the year could be no bigger than 2 to 4 megabytes.
Moving a lot of data will always present problems regardless of format; however, using an
international standard, such as an XML database will assist with data transfer and interoperability.
Scalability and transferability

PDP systems operating within one part of one organisation may not be economically sustainable;
however, monumental single or multi institution systems can alienate users. It is when systems and
approaches come together with a critical ‘mass-market’ that models may emerge with applicability
across a range of situations. PDP is no an exclusive HE activity! Our PDP has been designed to
support fully embedded or freestanding approach with only minor tweaking.
Whatever the level of operation help is required to ‘market’ as a concept and system to staff and
students. It takes time for staff to understand how to interact with PDP and harder still to embed PDP
within large or even small scale curriculum design. At the University of Plymouth a set of PDP
standards have been adopted and a set of PDP guides produced (Stone & Burkill 2003/4):
01: Introduction to PDP
02: Curriculum design and PDP
03: Working with PDP; questions for…
04: Strategic PDP Questions
05: Explaining and promoting PDP to students
06: Finding out about PDP: resources and examples
07: Supporting the Use of Electronic PDP (ePDP)
The hardest PDP development issues are how to:

• Embed PDP systems and activities.
• Get staff to see PDP as contributing to the learning experience and their teaching and not as extra
work.
• Engage students with PDP without detracting from their subject.
• Adding PDP friendly activities to modules while not detracting from such work within modules
where it already exists.
Curriculum design is at the root of all these issues; this includes the logistical aspects of curriculum
development and the pedagogic literacy required to design elegant solutions.
PDP Research
A programme of content analysis research is underway to further inform the curriculum and to better
judge the level of student personal development and academic progression. This study will explore
the reflective writing of students related to personal development including their previous experiences
and projections of their future plans/expectations. The research methodology chosen to further this
work was Content Analysis using an adaptation of a model used at Colorado State University (Anon
1997-2004).
The initial Personal Development research objectives / questions are aimed at better understanding
how:
• Students engage with personal development.
• Personal development can best be managed and supported.
• Personal development can best be integrated into a Higher Education curriculum.
• Personal development links to the development of ‘graduate-ness’.

• Personal development relates to graduate career development and employability.
Content Analysis methodological approach

Conceptual analysis has been used to establish the existence, and to a lesser extent, the frequency of
concepts represented by phrases, sentences and paragraphs within the analysed text. The approach
taken within this study also includes an element of Thematic Analysis. An initial sample set of 122
first year undergraduates within a modular degree scheme were surveyed. Data was gathered as part
of PDP assignments, therefore the response rate was 98%. Students were asked to respond to open
ended questions targeted at generating comments covering a range of personal development
experiences and opportunities including projections of their personal development plans and
expectations.
The resulting responses were then coded following the eight steps for conducting conceptual analysis
indicated by Carley (1990):
1. Decide the level of analysis - work with groups of words or phrases.
2. Decide how many concepts to code for - using pre-defined and ‘developed’
concepts/categories to focus on patterns that are indicative of the research question/s: the
codes chosen and sample reflective comments are outlined below.
3. Decide whether to code for existence or frequency of a concept/category - the focus has been
blocks text relating to ‘developed’ concepts/categories.
4. Distinguish among concepts and level of generalisation:
• Level of generalisation was initially high.
• Inclusive approach - all potential positive evidence included.
• A second iteration culled data offering no clear evidence of student reflection related to
the particular concept/category.
• A final iteration culled all but the strongest evidence.
5. Develop rules for coding the text - based on the level of personal development maturity and
the corresponding academic level.
6. Decide what to do with irrelevant information - no material has been eliminated as irrelevant,
text has only been treated as irrelevant to the particular round or stage of coding being
undertaken; data remains available for subsequent re-examination.
7. Code the text - using N6 content analysis software.
8. Analyse the results of the conceptual analysis - to suggest trends and questions for further
study using relational content analysis.
Framework method analysis (Ritchie & Spencer 1994) was used to evolve the concepts/categories.
Mental Models
This study aims to build the foundations for two mental models:
• The link between and contribution of personal development (PDP) to the achievement of
‘graduateness’.
• The relationship between personal development (PDP) and the progression of undergraduate
students through the ‘levels’ of their education.
“Mental models are groups or networks of interrelated concepts that are thought to reflect
conscious or subconscious perceptions of reality. According to cognitive scientists,
internal mental structures are created as people draw inferences and gather information
about the world.” (Anon 1997-2004).
As part of this process Relational Analysis will be used to:

• Further examine the relationships among the concepts/categories identified within conceptual
analysis.
• Go beyond the presence of data aligned to concepts/categories by exploring the relationships
between the concepts identified.
• Look for semantic, or meaningful, relationships among the individual concepts/categories.

Initial Findings – Coding and Analysis of Student Reflective PDP Writing

Shown below are sampled student quotes from the Content Analysis described above, mapped against
the initial set of personal developmental concepts/categories:
Able to recognise own current level of development

“Before attending university I believed my level of literacy to be of a high standard, yet now I'm
at university it has become clear that this may not be so. …I'm finding it more difficult to
understand the work of others e.g. articles in journals. I can confidently express my ideas and
thoughts, it only becomes difficult when I'm not 100% certain of what my idea is in my own
mind, and find it easier to explain if the recipient has a basic understanding of what it is I'm
writing.”
“I am able to analyse numeric data and draw conclusions from it as I enjoy problem solving. To
a certain extent, I am quite capable in presenting information in the form of charts, tables and
graphs. I may come across some minor obstacles as I haven't used those forms of software
recently.”
Able to recognise personal development opportunities

“This assignment to improve my computer literacy skills and I feel that it has made me more
confident when using computers. To meet GAS level 1 I feel that I need to spend more time
orientating myself around a computer, becoming more proficient with the applications I intend
to use and not being "flustered" by having to ask for help if and when it's needed.”
Able to plan and take responsibility for own development

“One area I need to improve on is expressing myself more clearly because sometimes in
assignments and when talking to people I feel as though if I had said something else it would
make more sense. To develop these skills I feel I should spend more time going through pieces
of work and seeing how I can change word, sentences or paragraphs to make them easier to
read. I also find when reading other peoples work that they could have expressed themselves
differently to get the point across more clearly.”
Able to demonstrate / exemplify personal development

“…one of the main emphasis's of the Nutrition module is to learn how to eat a healthy balanced
diet, before I started this mini pathway I thought that I led quite a healthy life, well it turns out
that it wasn't so healthy after all! Not only do you need to eat healthy, your life style has to be
healthy as well e.g. lots of exercise and a well balanced diet, not dieting! Because of this
knowledge, I now attend circuit training twice a week and try not to waste my money on junk
food! One of my friends was trying to loose weight but was stupidly dieting too much and not
taking in essential nutrients, she was doing no exercise at all. I explained to her what I had
learnt and now she attends circuits with me and consumes a balanced diet. Therefore, I also feel
that this mini pathway has enabled me to help other people, which I find very satisfying.”
Able to demonstrate / exemplify developing GAS in action / use

“Two future assignments ...will require need to undertake involvement in group presentations.
With the experience I have gained in group work from my business module assignments, is that
I will choose my team members very carefully and make sure that all work to be done is
organised in an appropriate structure. This will also determine whether choosing your own
team members is more effective than teams being put together for us. Within these two next
assignments I will make sure that tasks are delegated in order for workload to be fair. It is
important that myself and the other team member who compiled most of the work for
assignment two, to be more supportive in order for a greater level of involvement. Although it
is important to have effective leadership it is also of importance to have a balanced consensus
from all group members, therefore gaining a wider base of ideas. By using this approach a
wider number of opinions can be sort in order to achieve more widespread opinions.”

Able to demonstrate/exemplify developing subject knowledge/skills in action /use

“My most recent job (with a large tourist attraction) has given me great insight into both the
Tourism industry, but also into the business world. I learnt many transferable skills, such as
time management, organisational skills, effective communication as well as the importance of
personal development within a company. There were many different people to draw upon as
role model's within the company. My line Manager, had worked her way up through the ranks
at Alton Towers, before becoming Operations Manager.”
Concluding Discussion – and Emerging Mental Model

Analysis of the data offers an insight into an emerging undergraduate student vocabulary/ language of
personal development. A qualitative overview of the student reflective responses shows that the
student reflective commentaries fall all into three stages of personal developmental maturity:
1. Vocabulary/language of Experience
2. Vocabulary/language of Study
3. Vocabulary/language of Practice
The majority of students were able to offer clear and focused reflections on their personal experiences
of development in a wide range of settings/contexts including work, education and personal situations.
Slightly fewer student responses were offered for how they felt their own practice of personal
development had, was and would develop. The evidence provided was less focused and language
used less detailed. However, there is much to be reassured about in the seriousness with which
students write about their personal development. The drive for formalised PDP opportunity in HE
came from the Dearing review and built on a great deal of work in a school context. PDP has been
looked at again within the context of a review of education for 14-19 year olds by Tomlinson et al
(2004). The role and structure of PDP in HE is, as yet, far from settled and not one that can be
managed in isolation. While the efforts of HEIs’ to respond to the original 2005 PDP deadline need to
be reviewed and plans re-assessed in the light of the experience and the reaction of students and staff;
doing so is far from straight-forward in an environment of shifting sand.
References
Anon (1997-2004) Writing@CSU: Writing Guide, Colorado State University:
http://writing.colostate.edu/index.cfm
Anon (2003) Supporting Shared Learning and Transitions across Further and Higher Education - A
Document for Consideration by the Project Steering Committee (UK LP 1.1A) Version 2.
Biggs, J. (1999) Teaching for Quality Learning at University. Buckingham: SRHE and Open
University Press.
Blumhof, J. (2003) Personal Development Planning: the new skills agenda? The National Conference
on Student Progression and Transfer, University of Plymouth
http://www.spat.ac.uk/national.html
Blumhof, J., Honeybone, A. and Hall, M. (2001) Using Problem-Based Learning to Develop Graduate
Skills in Planet, November 2001, Special Edition Two: http://www.gees.ac.uk
Bridges, D. (1994) Transferable Skills: a Philosophical Perspective. Transferable Skills in Higher
Education. Norwich: University of East Anglia
Carley, K. (1990). Content analysis. In R.E. Asher (ed.) The Encyclopedia of Language and
Linguistics. Edinburgh: Pergamon Press.
Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education (1997) Higher Education in the Learning Society (the
Dearing Report). London: HMSO and http://www.ncl.ac.uk/ncihe National /index.htm
Committee of Scottish University Principals (1992) Teaching and Learning in an Expanding Higher
Education System (the MacFarlane Report). Edinburgh: Committee of Scottish University
Principals.
Cowan, J. The impact of pedagogy on skills development in HE .3rd Annual Skills Conference, Skills
2002 UH: http://www.herts.ac.uk/envstrat/HILP/

Gosling, D. & Moon, J. (2002) Southern England Consortium for Credit Accumulation and Transfer
(SEEC) How to use learning outcomes and assessment criteria (London: SEEC).
Honeybone, A., Blumhof, J., Hall, M. and Palmer, J. (2000). Integrating Skills Development with
Academic Content in Higher Education. A Guide to the Work of the Hertfordshire Integrated
Learning Project. Hatfield: University of Hertfordshire http://www.herts.ac.uk/envstrat/HILP/
Honeybone, A. and Blumhof, J. (2002) Developing an integrated electronic system of Personal
Development Planning. 10th International Improving Student Learning Symposium, Brussels
King, A. and Honeybone, A. (1996) Needs before means: the dialectics of learning and technology,
Association for Learning Technology Journal, 4.2.
Kolb, D. (1984) Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. New
Jersey: Prentice Hall
Krippendorf, K. (2004) Content analysis 2nd Ed., New York: Sage.
Macdonald, R. (2001) Problem-Based Learning: Implications for Educational Developers,
Educational Developments, 2.2, May 2001
Petty, G. (1998) Teaching Today .Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes.
Ritchie, J. and Spencer, E. (1994) Qualitative data analysis for applied policy research. In, Bryman, A.
and Burgess, R.G. (eds.) Analyzing Qualitative Data. London: Routledge.
Romiszowski, A. (1988) Designing Instructional Systems. London: Kogan Page)
Stone M. & Burkill S. (2003/4) Personal Development Planning Guides, University of Plymouth.
Tomlinson, M. et al (2004) 14-19 Curriculum and Qualifications Reform, Final Report of the Working
Group on 14-19 Reform (DfE-0976-2004), Annesley: DfES Publications.


_____________________________________________
A Foundation Degree Uncovered:

Packaging a Realistic Programme in
Response to the Widening Participation
Agenda
Marion Stuart-Hoyle
Canterbury Christ Church University College
UK
_____________________________________________
Abstract
This paper investigates the critical issues associated with meeting higher education widening
participation goals in the provision of industry-led vocational qualifications. It focuses upon the
recent design, validation and launch of a part-time only Foundation Degree (FD) at Canterbury Christ
Church University College (CCCUC), whose delivery via residential teaching weeks and the Virtual
learning Environment signals a fresh and workable approach to ‘reaching the parts’ or markets, which
other Tourism degrees cannot reach. Despite all efforts to ensure that the FD was designed in direct
response to the specific needs of Kent’s tourism industry, the paper highlights the problems associated
with securing long-term, meaningful employer support and the implications for this innovative FD
development.
Keywords: Foundation Degrees, curriculum development, widening participation, distance and e-

learning; industry involvement
Introduction
The Widening Participation (WP) agenda has emerged as an integral part of the life of Higher
Education staff at all levels, whether working at the chalk, or ‘Blackboard’ face or in an
administrative role. Sir Ron Dearing’s National Committee of Enquiry into Higher Education,
published in 1997, noted the decline in existing intermediate level qualifications and recommended
that future expansion in HE should be at this level, in the interests of WP. More recently Government
set out its plans for WP in its White Paper for Higher Education in 2002, clarifying its commitment to
“ensure that the expansion (in HE) is of an appropriate quality and type to meet demands of
employers and the needs of the economy and students” (Dfes, 2002: 60). Furthermore, that expansion
was envisaged to be in the form of “two year-work-focused foundation degrees; and in mature
students in the workforce developing their skills” (Dfes, 2002:60). The Higher Education Funding
Council (HEFCE) followed suit in its 5 year Strategic Plan (2003-2008) making WP the focus of one
of four core strategic aims, striving to push forward the WP agenda “in such as way that a person’s
background, and previous educational and life experiences, do not deter them from considering what
higher education has to offer” (HEFCE, 2004:12).
All Higher Education Institutions (HEI) now have WP Strategies that broadly reflect national policy
as above, for example Canterbury Christ Church University College’s (CCCUC) Strategy argues that:

“If students from traditionally under-represented groups are to be attracted and

retained, it is necessary to focus on those cultural changes that may be required for
changes to learning and teaching styles.” (CCCUC Widening Participation Strategy and
Action Plan 2002-2004).
Cultural change in this case has been a slow, relatively painful ‘waking up’ to the reality that the very
students we might need to be reaching, cannot, in fact, attend classes on a regular basis in the
traditional manner and are likely to be in full-time employment. ‘Blended learning approaches’ have
become, therefore, a strategy for reaching previously untapped markets, in the form of online
programmes using tools such as Blackboard or WebCT. Add to this HEFCE’s commitment to
Foundation Degrees that “will play an important part both as the main vehicle for continuing
expansion and in widening participation”, programmes that should be “accessible, flexible and
relevant to employer needs” (HEFCE, 2004:13), and herein lies the trigger for the development of
industry-led, innovative FDs that ‘tick all the right boxes’ with regard to government thinking on
Widening Participation.
This paper seeks to shed some light on the emerging myth that a degree programme that is developed
in response to demand (i.e. employers say it is needed), which fits neatly into an institution’s various
policies, notably that relating to WP, is going to be successful. There are rewards to be reaped from
researching, designing and launching a new tourism programme in response to a genuine claim for its
provision from industry representatives. However, it would be naïve to assume that even a ‘sure
thing’ will go according to plan, as this paper will endeavour to clarify. We will begin by revisiting
the rationale for Foundation Degrees as the ‘way forward’ for expansion of the UK’s HE industry.
The discussion then turns to the relevance of long-running curriculum content debates for programme
development at sub honours degree level before focusing our attentions on the recent development at
CCCUC where a part-time Foundation Degree has been launched, in response to significant industry
demand.
The Rationale for Foundation Degrees

The Foundation Degree was launched by David Blunkett in 2000 with two major aims; “to widen
participation for social inclusion and to increase participation for economic competitiveness”
(Foundation Degree Task Force, 2004: 2). The cynics amongst us might share a view proposed by
Smith and Betts (2003:224) who argue that this launch was much more to do with the government’s
desire to achieve these policies than any attempt to deliver a carefully designed concept which
responded to demand. It is perhaps as a result of this that the public face of Foundation Degrees has
been more than a little murky and, quite frankly, confusing. However, by September 2004, 24,000
students were enrolled on Foundation Degrees (compared with 4,000 in 2001-02) around half of
which are part-time; over 800 Foundation Degrees are on offer across the UK, with full-time
applications up by 50% for 2004/05 (FDTF, 2004:2), reflecting a veritable ‘explosion’ of provision.
One of the defining characteristics of FDs was to be the central role that employers should play in
their design and delivery, engaging them in these processes either through direct consultation or
through relevant Sector Skills Councils (Dfes, 2002: 42). Sheehan, (2004:26) highlights a range of
challenges facing those designing successful FDs, including the need to ensure that employers are
given the opportunity to make “meaningful contributions…for example, (in) course design and
structure, and the mentoring of students during work experience.” The case study presented today
indicates that even with the best will in the world, no amount of employer ‘engagement’ with the
curriculum design and development will automatically result in ‘bums on seats’ with full employer
support. Again, the extent to which the Tourism academic community has really engaged with
industry in the design and delivery of our bachelors degree curriculum is patchy to say the least
(Stuart, 2002).
A further feature of FD development was to be the ‘strategic links…and collaboration between HEIs
and Further Education Colleges (FEC) (Longhurst, 2004:5). FE/HE partnerships in any form are

likely to result in challenges for quality assurance (Smith and Betts, 2003) and for staff development
associated with cultural differences (Lyle and Robertson, 2003). These challenges can be seen all to
clearly in the case study which follows.
According to UCAS in September 2004 under the banner ‘Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure Services’
there were 220 full time and 57 part-time Foundation Degree programmes managed by 86 and 33
institutions respectively, ranging from Universities, to University Colleges, Colleges of Higher
Education and Further Education Colleges. Programme titles range from the basic Tourism
Management, to Golf Course Management, Outdoor Adventure Management to probably the most
popular, Tourism and Hospitality Management. The broad range of programme titles reflects a
similar proliferation over the last 20 years or so at Honours Degree level where programme titles have
exercised our minds (see Stuart-Hoyle, 2003; Airey and Johnson, 1997) and led us to question the
wisdom of overly specific titles which would seem to suggest a plethora of jobs might be available to
successful graduates in otherwise highly specialist, competitive fields.
Curriculum Development and the Relevance of Subject Benchmarks

In 2001 the concept of Subject Benchmarks became a reality after several years of fear and
speculation that they would ‘straightjacket’ academics into delivering a set curriculum (see Botterill
and Tribe, 2000; Stuart-Hoyle, 2004). There were in fact, developed, as a means for academics to
describe the nature and characteristics of programmes in a subject specific manner and perhaps more
importantly, reflected the expectations about the standards for the award of a qualification at a given
level (QAA, 2000). The Benchmarks devised refer to Bachelors degree with honours; in 2002 (check
date) the QAA published its Qualification Benchmark for Foundation Degrees, the key generic
outcomes of which are detailed in Panel 1 below:
Panel 1
Knowledge and critical understanding of the well-established principles in their field of study and the way in
which those principles have developed;
Ability to apply underlying concepts and principle outside the context in which they were first studied, and the
application of those principles in a work context;
Knowledge of the main methods of enquiry in their subject(s), and ability to evaluate critically the
appropriateness of different approaches to solving problems in their field of study and apply these in a work
context;
An understanding of the limits of their knowledge, and how this influences analyses and interpretations based on
that knowledge in their field of study and in a work context
Source: Adapted from Longhurst, D (2004:4)
As yet there have been no attempts by QAA to devise Subject Benchmarks for Foundation Degrees
and it is likely that such a venture would cause great consternation amongst those of us who have
already been charged with the task of launching an FD. This concern would not be, as in the case of
Bachelor Degree Subject Benchmarks, for fear of limiting spontaneity and creativity in curriculum
development, but because of the apparent lack of clarity amongst the very people who are being
charged with their development, of their purpose within HE (for example, their market position in
comparison to the very successful and well established Higher National Diploma). Exactly which
markets are they seeking to target?
As a subject community that has a long established record of cautious, but healthy concern for
tourism’s perceived respectability and strengthening conceptual base, we should perhaps be forgiven
if we are demonstrating signs of apprehension and in some cases, frustration at the prospect of what
appears to be a familiar tale unfolding. This tale is arguably one of unchecked and unstructured

proliferation of programmes that have already prompted the premature closure of otherwise successful
HND programmes and have been the cause of increasing and unwelcome workloads for individuals
who have fallen prey to HEIs desire to expand their portfolio of programmes in accordance with
government strategy.
Having perhaps painted such a negative picture of the status of FD development for our subject, it is
with some trepidation that I go on to ‘Uncover’ the ‘cradle to grave approach’ to developing an FD
package at CCCUC. Hopefully our experiences to date and the lessons learned, shared with you
today, will see you safely on your way, should you choose, or be chosen, to put your best foundation
(degree) feet forward.
Developing a Foundation Degree in Tourism and Hospitality Management

Lyle and Robertson (2003) highlight four strategic considerations that should, perhaps be taken into
account in initiating a Foundation Degree, which are WP, recruitment benefits, establishing a
‘regional presence’ and developing HE-FE links, based upon their experiences of developing Sport-
related FDs at Northumbria University. However, in the case of the FD development at CCCUC, the
key impetus for launching an FD in the Tourism field came initially not as a result of these four
strategic considerations, but from a repeated, formal response from the region’s Tourism industry
(through the Kent Tourism Alliance, KTA) to develop and offer a qualification that would enable
Kent’s experienced employees within the tourism and hospitality industry to ‘upskill’ effectively
whilst remaining in full-time employment. KTA were envisaging a vocationally relevant part-time HE
qualification with considerable academic rigour that was not available at the time through any of
Kent’s HEIs. The four strategic priorities listed above would, however, be ‘magically’ addressed if a
development of this nature went ahead, so it came as no surprise when the University College moved
heaven and earth, (well, at least a significant teaching load disappeared from my timetable, courtesy
of a timely and unusually swift Development Leave) to ensure that the development was progressed
immediately).
In broad terms, there are 4 key stages involved in developing a new programme which are now
explored:
• Consultation/Market Research
• Programme design
• Programme validation
• Launch and recruitment
Consultation/Market Research
Previous research into the role that industry should, and has played, in the development and delivery
of Tourism undergraduate programmes revealed a tendency in a number (but not all HEIs) to pay lip
service to the ‘industry involvement’; interviews with Tourism academics at the turn of the century
revealed a reticence in some cases, to engage with industry throughout the curriculum design,
development and delivery process due to a number of factors (cost, time, ‘nervousness’ about what
industry would actually require). However, a relatively new concept such as the Foundation Degree,
however much this was urged by the KTA, needed to be pursued with caution and it was, therefore,
deemed imperative to consult with the region’s industry in a comprehensive and all inclusive manner.
This would also reflect the DfES’ need to see employers engage in the design of FDs and the
University College’s commitment to work with employers at a local and regional level, in turn,
fostering a closer relationship with the business community.
In January 2003, a day long consultation exercise was carried out at the University College, during
which the two institutions involved in the proposed programme, (CCCUC and the local FE College)
considered a range of programme design, content and delivery issues. The Kent Tourism Academy
(KTAc) whose purpose is to act as a clearing house for all education and training development and
provision in Kent, acted as ‘host’ to the event, which was well received by the 20 tourism/hospitality

businesses around the table, including Hoverspeed, Tourism South East (formerly SEETB), Leeds
Castle, Chatham Historic Dockyards to name but a few). This consultation exercise contributed
significantly to the ultimate design and more importantly perhaps, delivery mode, of the Foundation
Degree. The consultation exercise considered 8 key topics as seen in Panel 2 below.
Panel 2. Foundation Degree-Employer Consultation Exercise-key topics.

The purpose of the new programme
The Sector Skills to be developed
Knowledge/academic development
Mode of Delivery
Assessment methods
Use of mentors
Typical courses
Employer commitment to the programme
The result of this consultation exercise, of many conversations with other tourism industry
representatives and of a systematic ‘trawl’ through existing FDs in the field resulted in the
development of a Part-time only FD in Management of Tourism and Hospitality, which is now
explained with the aid of the programme structure found in Appendix 1.
Programme Design
A student undertaking a Foundation Degree on a part-time basis is likely to have little or no academic
background, heavy work commitments and very specific motivations for study (Sheehan, 2004:26), a
sentiment emphasized by the majority of industry representatives at the consultation exercise. It is for
this reason that the FD at CCCUC needed to be developed in a flexible format, focusing on non-
traditional forms of learning and assessment. It is no coincidence, that this approach ‘ticked yet more
boxes’ from the point of view of fulfilling one of the institutions Learning and Teaching aims which is
to “develop greater flexibility in its approaches to learning in order to address the learning needs of all
students including those studying at a distance from the institution; those on franchised programmes;
and those studying part-time and/or in work-based environments.” (CCCUC, 2002).
Therefore, the model which is found in Appendix 1 is delivered using a ‘blended learning’ approach,
through the use of the Virtual Learning Environment (Blackboard) and residential teaching weeks (2
in each Year). One characteristic of the FD is to “empower people to survive through building self-
confidence, independence, flexibility and adaptability” (Longhurst, 2004:5) and this is believed to
have been achieved in adopting this innovative approach to delivery and learning. This method of
delivery was the brainchild of the employers sitting around the table at the consultation exercise; they
were adamant that this is the only way the programme would be a realistic option for employees, and
that this flexible approach to delivery would receive the employers’ support, critical if the programme
was to recruit.
With regards to the courses offered within the programme, these were designed based upon both the
consultation exercise, (i.e. industry perceived need) and on the teaching team’s research into similar
programmes. The programme structure flows a flexible pathway approach, whereby students follow a
programme of core Business courses, an introductory industry based course and a work based course
in level 1 and can specialise in Tourism or Hospitality Management in Level 2 through their option
courses. Further specialisation occurs in Level 2 through the work-based study course which sees
students capitalising further upon their work experience and developing their research skills.

Despite the fact that this is not an honours bearing award, it is apparent that the two years of study do
incorporate the vast majority of the original National Liaison Groups (NLG) Minimum Core
Curriculum and the more recent Subject Benchmarks for Tourism. This in turn places successful
students in a strong position with regards to honours articulation within 15 months, a requirement of
all foundation degrees, where required by students. It was clear during the consultation exercise that
the employers felt the academic content of the programme should be very strong and that sector
specific skills should be integrated in what they regarded the ‘heavier, but valuable academic courses’.
There has been much discussion at national level about the nature of work-based, work-related or
work-relevant study. In the context of this development it is useful to see the different approaches to
work based learning; the Southern England Consortium for Credit Accumulation and Transfer (SEEC,
2003) uses the term 'work related learning" to distinguish between part-time students already in
employment who may embark upon "work based learning" in their workplace and full-time students
who may be required to undertake "placement learning" as part of a vocational course. The former
clearly applies in this case and it is for this reason that the FD can claim that all the learning is work
based, a distinctive feature or ‘Unique Selling Point’ (USP) of the programme.
Partner/Collaborative Issues – Seeing Through the Politics and Cultural Differences

Lyle and Robertson (2003) are adamant about the importance of the transparency and quality of the
HE-FE partner relationship in developing a new Foundation Degree. In this instance, the FE partner
was working with CCCUC on a Tourism related programme for the first time, an agreement which
took some time as their usual validating HEI ‘up the hill’ had to grant clearance for their collaboration
with the University College. The working relationship throughout the programme’s development and
eventual launch was a good one, characterised by open discussion, clear allocation of responsibilities
regarding the teaching and most importantly of all, a shared belief that the FD was a positive move
towards filling a recognised ‘gap’ in the market.
However, in line with Lyle and Robertson’s advice of 2003, there are a number of issues which could
be described as ‘critical success factors’ when trying to overcome the clear cultural differences
between HE and HE in FE, and these can be summarised as:
1. Always make sure that an Operations Manual is in place (in this case, a
Memorandum of Agreement) that details each institutions responsibilities with regards
to administration and quality assurance processes, to name just two key issues.
2. Ensure that the ‘hidden’ time and effort required to facilitate the design of new
courses is costed in to monies paid to the FE partner, as FE staff are not generally given
‘time’ in their week (when teaching up to 28 hours) to develop new learning materials
and learn new skills such as Blackboard.
Validation and Recruitment… Promises, Promises

Validated in July 2003, the goal was to recruit a modest 15 new students for a March 2004 start
(following a short two day ‘Orientation to Higher Education’ course in February). This unusual start
time was again, at the bequest of the employers who were unanimous in the view that this was the
quietest time within the sector, therefore, a good time to ‘release’ employees for their first residential
week. A month before the start and 14 students in place, raring to go and the first signs that all was
not well began to emerge. One major supporter of the FD felt they could no longer release their
employees from the workplace for the residentials, or pay their fees, as previously promised. A
further employer withdrew support and the programme was suddenly down to 8 students. Both
partners agreed that the programme should be allowed to start with this small cohort, (a clear financial
loss) on the understanding that the March 2005 cohort would have to total 15. What, then, is the
moral of the story? Should we avoid such developments, for fear of being left with a disappointed
group of potential students, as not all HEIs will stomach such financial losses, however strong the
perceived benefits of meeting strategic goals?

Conclusions
It is the clear view of the teaching team and the relevant departments at each institution involved in
this initiative that the FD has, in fact, been a successful project, based upon innovative teaching and
learning methods that are allowing HE to ‘reach’ those parts of the Tourism and Hospitality sector
that have not been reached before. The broader benefits to both institutions in terms of meeting
strategic goals have, to an extent, overshadowed the success of the development from a student and
staff perspective. The current small cohort of students (and their employers) are already reporting the
positive impacts that their learning is bringing to the workplace.
Employer commitment to, and involvement in, Foundation Degrees is imperative according to
government, but as Smith and Betts (2003:236) comment:
“If the Government fails to provide the incentives for employer involvement they will
have failed to learn from the experience of previous initiatives.”
The harsh reality is that however hard we try to make the involvement with employers genuine, and
meaningful (resulting in their feeling compelled to support employees in the form of release to study
and financial contribution to fees), it is impossible to avoid employers retracting their support. Faced
with financial constraints and falling profits, the Human Resource or training budget is the first to
suffer. Unless employers are offered real financial incentives to support and release workers to study,
then this tale will be retold again and again across the sector. Widening participation is all about
encouraging those individuals who would not ordinarily consider entering HE with an opportunity to
do so. Surely it is not about getting their hopes up and dashing them and letting them fall at the final
hurdle because government does not provide the finances required to turn employer support ‘in
principle’ to a reality.
References
Airey, D. and Johnson, S. (1997) The Profile of Tourism Studies Degree Courses in the UK: 1997/8
Summary Report of a study undertaken as part of a MSc dissertation. NLG Guideline No.7 The
Tourism Society: London.
Canterbury Christ Church University College (2001) Widening Participation Strategy and Action
Plan. CCCUC:Canterbury.
Canterbury Christ Church University College (2002) Learning and Teaching Strategy. CCCUC:
Canterbury.
Department for Education and Skills (2002) The future of higher education. London: The Stationery
Office.
Longhurst, D. (2004) Foundation Degrees; Policy, Principles and Practice. Foundation Degree
Forward journal Issue 2: 4-7.
Foundation Degree Task Force (2004). Foundation Degree Task Force Report to Minister – A
Summar.y London: The Stationery Office.
Higher Education Funding Council for England (2003) 2003-2008 Strategy. Bristol.
Lyle, J. and Robertson, K. (2003) A Higher Education Perspective on Foundation Degrees:
Implications for Staff Development and Quality Enhancement In Link 7 Development of
Learning and Teaching in Departments pps 8-10 HEA Network for Hospitality, Leisure, Sport
and Tourism.
QAA (2000) Subject Benchmarks Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Gloucester.
Sheehan, C. (2004) Foundation Degree Models-meeting the Needs of ‘New Generation’ Students,
Link 10 ‘Student Diversity’ pps 26-27 HEA Network for Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and
Tourism.
Smith, R. and Betts, M. (2003) Partnerships and the Consortia Approach to United Kingdom
Foundation Degrees: a case study of benefits and pitfalls, Journal of Vocational Education and
Training. 55(2) 223-238.
Stuart-Hoyle, M. (2004) 1993-2003 Critical Incidents: Tourism in Higher Education, Association of
Tourism in Higher Education, Guideline No.12. Surrey.

Stuart-Hoyle, M. (2003) The Purpose of Undergraduate Tourism Programmes in the United Kingdom,
Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, 2(1), 1-26.
Stuart, M. (2002) Critical Influences on Tourism as a Subject in UK Higher Education, Journal of
Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, 1(1), 1-14.

Appendix 1 Foundation Degree Management of Tourism and Hospitality
Orientation to Higher Education Course

LEVEL 1
CORE CORE CORE CORE CORE CORE

Socio- Human Tourism and
Financial
cultural and Marketing and Resources Hospitality: Work Based
Resource
Psychological Communications and Legal the Business Study 1
Management
Perspectives Issues Environment
20 Credits 20 Credits 20 Credits 20 Credits 20 Credits 20 Credits
PLUS Research Methods (All Students - non classified)

Vocational Language Skills (Optional - non classified)
LEVEL 2**
CORE
Information
Systems and
Incoming
ICT Vocational Transport
Event and
Applications Language Systems and
Access to Honours - non classified ***
Management Domestic
in Tourism Skills* Management
Tourism
and
Hospitality
20 Credits 20 Credits PLUS TWO 20 Credits 20 Credits 20 Credits
OR Option Courses
CORE FROM
Tourism,
Strategic Heritage, Arts
Work Based Sustainability Risk
Hospitality and
Study 2 and the Management
Management Entertainment
Environment
40 Credits 20 Credits 20 Credits 20 Credits 20 Credits
*Those students following a Language in Level 1 would continue their Language Studies in Year ". Those Opting not to
study the Language in Level 1 would take Tourism, Sustainability and the Environment in Level 2.
**All students take the two Core courses PLUS Language Studies OR Tourism, Sustainability and the Environment PLUS
two option courses. Option courses will be subject to student need/demand and staff availability and a maximum of four
option courses would run each year.
***Students can complete an Access to Honours Bridging course in the final term of the programme - this is not credit rated
but allows for smooth progression to Honours level study following successful completion of the Foundation Degree where
appropriate.


Self-Determination Theory in Charting

Students’ Motivation
Jaakko Suvantola
University of Joensuu
Finland
_________________________________________
Abstract
This paper analyses the motivations of the students who participate in the first Master’s degree
programme of recreation and leisure in Finland. The knowledge will be used to facilitate effective
learning and a good completion rate. In the beginning of the studies the students wrote why they
wanted to participate in this particular programme. The central themes were extracted from the
answers. Self-determination theory was used to distinguish between different types of motivations.
While there were signs of intrinsic motivations, the students appeared to be mainly extrinsically
motivated. Most of them expressed the need to get the degree to be able to improve their career
options. The analysis pointed to the challenge to teach in a way that fosters intrinsic motivation.
Keywords: Student motivation, Self-determination theory, Extrinsic motivation, Intrinsic motivation
Introduction
The aim of this paper is to discover and analyse the motivations of the students who participate the
first Master degree programme of recreation and leisure in Finland. The knowledge will be used to
facilitate effective learning and a good completion rate. This is important in the present educational
situation in Finland, where similar master programmes have been burdened with a remarkable drop-
out rate (Puukka, 2004:70). This arises from the fact that higher education in Finland is free, and there
are no financial sanctions for dropping out (I do not intend to imply that higher education should
introduce fees).
The beginning of the Master programme heralds the start of recreation and leisure as an independent
academic field in Finland. The programme is meant for professionals and prospective professionals,
who work or intend to work in the field of recreation and leisure, and who possess a related vocational
degree already. The programme is organised around monthly two-day contact sessions, which
orientate the students to do the home assignments independently between the sessions. A supportive
website is provided with static course materials and guidelines to complete the assignments. Thus, the
completion of the degree involves motivational day-to-day struggles at home where time and effort is
required to complete the assignments. This is motivationally much more demanding than attending
lectures and grinding for exams, which in this programme are kept to a minimum.
A Perspective on Motivation
In the literature on (student) motivation two kinds of motivations are typically distinguished: intrinsic
and extrinsic (Huitt, 2001). An intrinsically motivated person engages voluntarily in an action,
without any external rewards. The action is inherently satisfying without the need to be motivated by
anything else in order to perform it. Extrinsic motivation leads to action that is considered
instrumental in pursuit for a reward offered for that action. Deci and Ryan (1985) held the view that
the dichotomy between intrinsic and extrinsic motivations is not sufficient to explain human
behaviour. They developed the self-determination theory that places motivation on a continuum that

stretches from high to low level of self-determination that spurs the motivation. This is better suited to
illustrate the idea that especially extrinsic motivation is a broad category that entails variations of
autonomy (Deci and Ryan, 2000:71).
Figure 1: The self-determination continuum showing types of motivation with their regulatory styles (adopted
from Deci and Ryan, 2000:72).
Behaviour Self-determined
Nonself-determined
Motivation
Extrinsic Intrinsic
Amotivation
motivation motivation
Regulatory
styles
Non-regulation External Introjected Identified Integrated Intrinsic

regulation
Deci and Ryan (2000) have divided extrinsic motivation into several, distinguishable parts that are
based on the extent of external regulation (Figure 1). Regulation means the reason, the controlling
force, for the motivation. The least self-determined motivations are externally regulated. This is the
kind of extrinsic motivation that has been contrasted to intrinsic motivation in classic behaviouristic
approach (e.g. Skinner, 1953). The next step towards a greater degree of relative autonomy in
motivation is introjected regulation. This is the situation in which one would not want to engage in the
activity, but does so in order to avoid shame, guilt or anxiety, or to attain ego enhancement, such as
pride. An example would be a student who strives for a degree to satisfy the expectations of his/her
parents. I combine the third and fourth kind of extrinsic motivations, namely the identified and
integrated regulation (proposed by Deci and Ryan, 2000), into one as done by Alexandris et al.
(2002). The resulting identified regulation provides the least externally regulated type of motivation.
While the action is not done for its inherent enjoyment, it is considered necessary in order to attain a
goal that the actor identifies as desirable. A student motivated in this way studies for a degree to be
able to pursue his/her chosen career.
Intrinsic motivation is more self-evidently a single, easily definable category. As human beings we
possess a clear tendency towards being intrinsically motivated. Nevertheless, maintaining intrinsic
motivation does require certain prerequisites. Deci and Ryan (2000:68) have identified three
psychological needs behind intrinsic motivation: the needs for autonomy, competence, and
relatedness. Autonomy is the most important of these; without it there is no intrinsic regulation, no
self-determination and thus any motivation present is simply not intrinsic. Competence refers to the
actor’s belief in his/her ability to accomplish the task at hand. This feeling is enhanced by positive
feedback from his/her actions. Relatedness means that the person has a safe social environment. It
provides one with a secure base from which to perform outward reaching action.
What Was Done?

To chart the student motivation I asked the students to write down the reasons of why they wanted to
participate in this particular master’s programme, and to describe what is leisure. The latter task was
given because I initially suspected that the students are drawn to the programme because of the
illusion that it deals solely with tourism. However, it appeared that the students knew so much about
the programme already that the tourism connotation did not appear prominently. Thus their
knowledge rendered the perspective pointless.

From the motivation-related answers of my 36 students, I classified the different motivations and
calculated their frequency. Afterwards I realised that I should also have asked their names on the
papers so that their educational and working backgrounds (which I have from their application files)
could have been used to create individual motivational portraits of each student.
What Was Found?

Figure 2 shows the themes that appeared in the answers of the students. By far the most prevalent
motivations were the ones that can be classified extrinsic. The most frequently cited reason was to get
a degree. Quite a few of the students work already within the field. They are teachers in vocational
institutes or management and worker positions in tourism and hospitality enterprises. Thus they need
the university degree to keep their work, to have better prospects for their careers, or to get a salary
increase. The second most frequently expressed motivation was supplementing previous knowledge.
It seemed to be just another, perhaps more teacher–oriented, expression used to articulate the need to
upgrade a previous degree. The prospect of finding more rewarding work also featured as an
important motivation. Yet, it can hardly be conceptually separated from the above mentioned
motivations. There were only 3 students who did not mention any of these extrinsic motivations.
Figure 2: Motivations for studying in the programme.
Why to study in this programme?

(n = 36)
Qualificatio n
Co mplements previo us kno wledge
B etter/mo re challenging wo rk
Self-develo pment
New perspectives to to urism
New field (in Finland)
Research skills
Research interest (po ssible po stgraduate studies)

Extrinsic motivation
Studying as ho bby
Leisure impo rtant in the future
Change in life
Intrinsic motivation
M o re practical appro ach than in no rmal university studies
Creating netwo rks
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
The most frequent clearly intrinsic motivation mentioned was the need for self-development. Of
those 14 who explicitly mentioned it, all but one expressed also at least one of the above mentioned
extrinsic motivations. From the expressions that accompanied the articulated will for self-
development I could deduct that the expression was there in order to satisfy the teacher. As one
student aptly put it:
“I do need the qualification. But I think that I should put here that I want to develop
myself.”
The meaning of self-development is so broad that it can be used as a handy umbrella term for all sorts
of motivations. Extrinsic motivation to study something does not exclude the chance for self-
development. Thus it is precisely the kind of concept that can be used for expressing positive attitude
that gives the impression of the intrinsic origins of one’s motivation and supposedly pleases the
teacher.

The second motivation which I define as intrinsic was the desire to get new perspectives to tourism. A
complete answer of a student illustrates the need to have new perspectives, but it also refers to
extrinsic motives at the same time:
“I want to broaden my view and expertise from tourism to services that cover the whole
leisure. In programme services mere tourism is far too narrow a concept. And honestly, I
am fed up with the fact that they [employers] always find some woman who almost has a
uni-degree, and who they employ [instead of me] on the basis of equality.”
The students expressed the will to “get a new and coherent picture of leisure and tourism as part of it.”
Working experience in the field has aroused interest in looking at tourism in a larger context of
leisure. My interpretation is that through this expression the students express their will to define the
relationship between their expertise and the society.
I have placed the motivations that appear in the answers on the continuum proposed by the self-
determination theory (figure 3). For the purpose I gave a numeric value to each of the motivations
expressed. The value was my estimation of how strong the element of self-regulation is. Of course,
the value is a coarse approximation, and even the relative order of the motives can be debatable. The
purpose was to create a visual form for placing the findings within the framework of the self-
determination theory. For such a purpose the numeric valuation was necessary. To further increase
the visual impact, the size of the motivation reflects the frequency it was cited in the students’
answers. For the sake of clarity, motivations expressed only by one person have been omitted.
Figure 3: Motivations on the self-determination continuum
The extent of self-determination

Nonself-determined
Self-
determined
External regulation Introjected regulation Identified/integrated regulation Intrinsic regulation
Better/more challenging work New perspectives

Complements previous knowledge
to tourism Self-development
Research interest
Qualification Research skills (possible postgraduate Studying as hobby
studies)
New field (in Finland)

Leisure important in the future
By looking at the figure 3, it is immediately clear that the motivations reside in the no self-determined
end of the continuum, as described in the above discussion. The extrinsic motivations present fall
specifically in the category of external regulation. The need of getting a degree for getting or keeping
a job or a pay rise, or to have a chance for a more rewarding job illustrate the kind of external
regulation that clearly imposes demands that do not arise from within. Complementing previous
knowledge, however, leaves some scope for interpretation, since it can be seen both as just another
expression for need to get a higher degree, or it can state a genuine wish to get new insights and
perspectives. The answers, however, contained primarily elements that refer to the former meaning.
Thus I have placed it on the borderline between external and introverted regulation; between the lines
some answers (like the one already referred to) reveal genuine motivations that relate to ego-
enhancement.
How to Use the Knowledge?

These different kinds of motivations have implications on the way in which the studies should be
designed in order to facilitate the most effective learning possible and to avoid a high drop-out rate. It
is generally accepted that the more self-directed the motivation to study is, the higher is the
expectancy for good learning results (Condry and Chambers, 1978; Lepper, 1988; Lumsden, 1994).
However, for an intrinsically motivated person a single master programme is just another means of
attaining the desired insights. Since the completion of the programme may be incidental in relation to

the goals behind the intrinsic motivation, the threshold for quitting or changing the programme is low
(remembering the Finnish free higher education without financial sanctions for dropping out).
On the contrary, the contexts of the extrinsic motivations presented are so clearly relevant to this
particular master programme (i.e. need for a relevant degree), that they are a better reason to keep up
with the studies than a more general, yet an intrinsically motivated desire for self-development. If the
above holds true, the students in the programme are likely to stick with it, because they have stated
their need for this particular degree. On the other hand, since their motivation is externally regulated,
their strategy for completing the studies is geared towards passing the courses with the least possible
effort (Lindberg, 1998). To avoid this, a way to generate intrinsic motivation to complement the
already existing extrinsic one is needed. This can be done in concordance with Biggs (1999), who
overturns the conventional view of motivation as merely something that precedes learning. He guides
the practicalities of teaching by stating that rather than being a prerequisite for learning, good student
motivation is a result of good teaching.
This leads to the practical question of how to teach so that the learning process itself becomes so
inherently desirable as to provide a self-regulated, intrinsic motivation? Following the guidelines
implied by the self-determination theory, such teaching involves elements that take into account the
three basic needs that foster intrinsic motivations, namely autonomy, relatedness and competence.
In the context of autonomy, Deci and Ryan (2000:70) refer to numerous studies and conclude that:
“…research revealed that not only tangible rewards but also threats, deadlines, directives,
pressured evaluations, and imposed goals diminish intrinsic motivation because, like
tangible rewards, they conduce toward an external perceived locus of causality. In
contrast, choice, acknowledgment of feelings, and opportunities for self-direction were
found to enhance intrinsic motivation because they allow people a greater feeling of
autonomy.”
Of course, following such guidelines strictly is impossible in studies that lead to an academic degree;
deadlines and verifiable evidence of learning must be provided. What can be done is to let the
students do the assignments on the field of their interest. The second way is to replace exams with the
assignments. The necessity of completing an assignment is still an external pressure, but to be able to
complete such an assignment requires real understanding of the topic at hand, not just a random,
haphazard browsing of predictable catches in the textbooks. When this is done through the
programme, the aim is a comprehensive expertise on the chosen field. Such an aim is meant to be, if
not intrinsic, at least introverted.
Relatedness in the programme means that the students should feel to be a part of the programme. This
has proved to be difficult in programmes that are largely run without personal day-to-day contacts
with the teachers and other students (Puukka, 2004). The intrinsic motivation is lowered without such
contacts. The communicational distance to the teachers can create similar symptoms as observed
among children who experienced their teachers as cold and uncaring (Ryan and Grolnick, 1986); the
intrinsic motivation is severely decreased or has vanished altogether. The same can happen without
meaningful communication with the other students. This can be avoided by forming small groups who
work together in completing assignments and who communicate between themselves. The teacher is a
part of the ring and partakes into the discussions. This helps the teachers to be in meaningful contact
with the students without having to be in detailed correspondence with each student separately. The
groups create common reports that are commented by other groups. In this way the students feel that
in their groups they belong to the bigger entity of the whole programme.
The feeling of competence boosts the intrinsic motivation when it appears simultaneously with the
feeling of autonomy. A practical way to provide students with this feeling is to give positive feedback.
To make it more complicated, Deci and Ryan (2000:70) refer to studies reporting that even positive
feedback can diminish the feeling of autonomy, thus also diminishing the intrinsic motivation. A way
to escape from this difficulty is to direct the feedback towards cultivation of the idea that the students

are able to learn and get new insights through their work. If the teacher believes that the students can
do it, they are prone to acquire such a view themselves also. This can be done in pointing out the past
achievements, even the smallest ones, and to emphasise the meaning of small advances. Thus the
learning aims of individual students should be related to their individual capacities (of course, within
the requirements of an academic degree). Another strategy to provide feedback in an easy-going
context is working in the above mentioned small groups. Giving and getting feedback is a normal way
of working in a group. When the feedback comes from a peer with whom a common goal is shared, it
has a natural context that should not interfere with any self-determined motivation.
Conclusion
The self-determination theory was used to chart the motivation of the students in the programme. It
proved useful in organising the motivational orientation of the students. While all teachers face the
challenge of motivating the students, having done this study gives me a more informed view on what
kind of motivation the students already have and what kind of motivation should be cultivated. The
self-determination theory led to the question of how to arouse motivation that departs from the
originally extrinsic motivations that the students possess.
References
Alexandris, K. and Tsorbatzoudis C. and Grouios G. (2002) Perceived Constraints on Recreational
Sport Participation: Investigating their Relationship with Intrinsic Motivation, Extrinsic
Motivation and Amotivation, Journal of Leisure Research 34(3), 233-252.
Biggs, J. (1999) Teaching for quality learning at university. Bury St Edmunds: Open University
Press.
Condry, J. and Chambers J. (1978) Intrinsic Motivation and the Process of Learning. In Lepper, M.R.
and Greene D. (eds.) The Hidden Costs of Reward. New Jersey: Hillsdale, 61-84.
Deci, E. L. and Ryan R.M. (1985) Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior.
New York: Plenum.
Deci, Edward L. and Ryan R.M. (2000) Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic
Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being. American Psychologist 55(1), 68-78.
Huitt, W. (2001) Motivation to learn: An overview. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta,
GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved Aug 23, 2004 from
http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/motivation/motivate.html
Lepper, Mark R. (1988) Motivational Considerations in the Study of Instruction. Cognition and
Instruction 4(5), 289-309.
Lindberg, J. (1998) Oppimaan oppiminen: opas oppimistaitojen kehittämiseen. Turku: Turun
yliopiston täydennyskoulutuskeskus.
Lumsden, Linda S. (1994) Student Motivation to Learn. ERIC Digest. No 92. Retrieved Sep 9, 2004
from http://www.ericfacility.net/ericdigests/ed370200.html
Puukka, Jaana (2004) Vakinaistaa vai ei? Opetusministeriön selvitys rakennerahastovaroin
toteutetuista maisteriohjelmista. Opetusministeriön työryhmämuistioita ja selvityksiä 2004:18.
Helsinki: Opetusministeriö.
Ryan, R. and Grolnick W.S. (1986) Origins and pawns in the classroom: Self-report and projective
assessments of individual differences in children's perceptions. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology 50(3), 550-558.
Skinner, B. F. (1953) Science and Human Behavior. New York: Macmillan.

_________________________________________
Perceptions and Expectations of 1st Year

Students Studying Tourism in Higher
Education
Claire Wellings
University of Gloucestershire
Lyn Bibbings
Oxford Brookes University
UK
_________________________________________
Abstract
This study was conducted with undergraduate students on tourism, and related programmes, at the
University of Gloucestershire and Oxford Brookes University. It aims to identify the motivations,
perceptions and expectations of tourism undergraduates in relation to their programme of study, the
student experience, and future career prospects. This is part of a planned longer-term study which will
span the introduction of the new fees regime in England in 2006, and will seek to measure changes in
student motivations, perceptions and expectations, and the implications of these changes for HE
providers. The study seeks to identify factors regarding graduate employment in tourism, and in the
profile of students which tourism programmes typically attract which may have particular
implications for recruitment and retention and perceived ‘value for money’ after 2006.
Key Words: Students, perceptions, expectations, tourism, university.
Context
In the rapidly changing world of UK Higher Education, the tourism subject community continues to
examine the relevance and attractiveness of its courses to an increasingly diverse student body. In
relation to students’ perceptions and expectations, two particular areas of concern have surfaced:
Firstly, the introduction of tourism as a subject for study earlier in the curriculum, for example
GNVQ, AVCE and now GCSE tourism, has prompted questions about the impact this may have on
recruitment to and delivery of HE programmes. Issues relating to the relationship between schools, FE
and HE providers, and the content and delivery of 14-19 tourism curricula also arise.
Secondly, with the prospect of higher fees from 2006, and possible variable fees thereafter, tourism
educators have expressed concern over the impact of increasing levels of graduate debt on students
typically entering lower paid jobs in the tourism sector. How realistic are students’ perceptions of
careers in the tourism industry, and will generic business or professional programmes with higher
graduate salaries appear to offer a more attractive return on students’ HE investment?
Method
This research is part of a planned longer-term study into students’ perceptions and expectations of HE
tourism programmes, timed to coincide with the introduction of the new fee regime. With some
exceptions (LTSN Student Experience Surveys, Tribe, 2004, Roberts et al, 2003) much of the existing
published research in this area tends to concentrate on student performance and retention, and

represents the views of academics, course design teams or graduate employers rather than students’
perceptions and attitudes. While much student focussed research is being carried out at the
institutional level, and within subject networks, it is still evident that the views of the students
themselves are somewhat underrepresented in published data. Where such research has been
undertaken, it is apparent that high response rates are often achieved, indicating that students are very
happy to tell us more about their experiences of HE. Indeed, as Roberts et al noted, “There is no-one
better able to tell us about the student experience than the students themselves.” (2003: p.9).
Interestingly, the same study showed that demographic variables had less of an influence on student
withdrawal and retention than did student perceptions relating to the first year experience, underlining
the value of pursuing research which focuses on student perception, expectation and experience.
Questions in this study were both factual and attitudinal, providing information on students’ profile
and background, as well as more detailed information about why they chose to study tourism, their
personal ambitions, and their expectations of University life. Level one tourism students from two
similar post-1992 institutions were questioned, and comparator groups of students from related
subject areas (events, leisure and hospitality) were also included so that any individual characteristics
demonstrated by tourism students could be identified. In total, 166 responses were completed. A
summary of key responses from a selection of the 25 original questions follows, excluding those areas
where responses were institution-specific.
Summary of Findings
Gender balance
The Tourism subject area continues to be female dominated, with an average of 83% of female of
students on these programmes. The patterns indicated here are typical of HE programmes in these
subject areas, with tourism and hospitality programmes still attracting a large majority of female
students. Events management, as the fastest growing HE subject in recruitment terms in this area
(UCAS data 2003-4), is also attracting a high proportion of female applicants.
Prior study
Tourism stands out here, as significant proportion (around 35%) of students entering tourism HE
programmes had already studied tourism, compared with only 14% in other related subject areas. The
majority of these had studied AVCE or GNVQ in Tourism. The AVCE Travel and Tourism also
appears to be a ‘feeder’ for events management and, to a lesser extent, hospitality management
programmes, where students’ interest in the subject had been triggered by an events or hospitality
module on the AVCE.
Prior experience
The majority of students on tourism, leisure, hospitality and events HE programmes still enter straight
from full-time study at school or college (around 70% in the case of tourism students). Of all
respondents, tourism students show the lowest levels of full or part-time work experience prior to HE
study, with those not entering straight from full-time education having travelled on a non-working gap
year, rather than combining study or travel with paid work.
The majority of respondents have some relevant prior work experience. In all subjects this was
predominantly in the hospitality sector (restaurants, hotels and bars) but also in public sector tourism,
holiday parks, leisure centres, sports coaching, travel agents, events management and even a bingo
hall. Most respondents enjoyed their experience of working in the industry, and in many cases this
inspired them to take on a higher level qualification to increase their prospects of higher level
management careers. However, when asked about which factors influenced their choice of subject for
HE study, no respondent cited prior work experience in the industry as the primary influencing factor.

Tourism students overall have the lowest levels of relevant prior work experience. Of those with work
experience, most have either full/part-time work in the hospitality sector or a short period of unpaid
work experience as a part of an AVCE award. Very few have any full/part-time work experience in
tourism. This is perhaps reflective of the relative differences in skill level required between hospitality
jobs and tourism jobs for employees in the 16-19 age range, and therefore the lower availability of
paid tourism-related work for younger students. This is in contrast to the high levels of demand for
workers in the hospitality sector, which means that relevant paid work is readily available.
Surprisingly, in this study, the hospitality students had higher exposure to prior work experience in the
tourism industry than the tourism students (with coach companies, airlines and travel agencies).
Additional qualifications
Similarly, tourism and events respondents have the lowest levels of additional qualifications on entry,
and the qualifications gained by the tourism students are of less direct relevance to their programme
of study than in the other subjects. This may be linked to the overall lower levels of work experience
amongst the tourism group, and may also be indicative of the lack of tourism-specific qualifications
available to students in the 16-19 range. In contrast, the leisure and hospitality sectors offer several
practical/skills based qualifications, such as sports-coaching, food hygiene and first aid certificates,
and employees at every level, including casual or part-time staff, are often legally required to have
such qualifications.
The majority of tourism related additional qualifications seem to be specific to roles in the industry, or
even to individual organisations and their operating systems, such as travel reservations and ticketing.
Employers may not be willing to train part-time or casual workers in such systems, and these are
difficult and expensive for schools or colleges provide. Customer care qualifications appear to be one
readily accessible exception to this. Even so, fewer tourism entrants have achieved customer care
qualifications than students in related subject areas.
Personal achievement
Over 40% of all respondents indicated that what they are most proud of in their life so far is getting a
place at University. This is certainly not something that these students take for granted, and in several
cases respondents specified that they are proud to be the first member of their family to get to
University. Interestingly, fewer tourism students than other respondents indicated that their University
place was a particular source of pride and self esteem, with only 28% indicating this as their first
response, compared with over 60% of hospitality students. Perhaps these students had higher
expectations of themselves than those in other subjects, but this warrants further investigation.
Expectations of the University and student experience

In terms of what students hoped to achieve from their time at University, the most common
combination of responses was to get a good degree and make firm friends for life, which shows a
healthy approach to work life balance. The elements of the course which respondents are most
looking forward to are learning about the subject, the placement and practical elements of the course,
such as field trips. While learning about their subject has the highest overall response rate, there is a
significant emphasis on practical elements and work placement.
According to respondents, the most attractive aspects of being a student are meeting new people and
the social life, although tourism students placed significantly more emphasis on gaining independence
than other respondents. This again may reflect the lower levels of prior work experience and higher
levels of entry direct from school/college amongst this group.
Primary concerns about the course relate to assessment, most specifically, examinations. Managing
overall workload is also a worry for many. The dominant concern about being a student is that of
debt, with over two thirds of respondents being very concerned about getting into financial difficultly,
having to work part-time while studying or even having to drop out because of money worries.

Expectations of future employment

In relation to future employment, these students have clear and specific ambitions in life, and
interestingly, the majority see their ‘dream’ future job as being in the field they are studying (the
question specifically asked about their ‘dream’ job, rather than their expected graduate job). They do
not see achieving a higher qualification as an end in itself, as a means to some different end, or in
isolation from their longer-term ambition. There is a direct link between their ultimate ambition and
their current course of study.
Tourism students initially appear to be more diverse in their responses than the other cohorts, with
only around 40% seeing their dream job as being in a travel related role. However, there is also a
significant group for whom owning and running their own business features strongly as a future
ambition and it may be assumed that this could be in the tourism sector. An entrepreneurial spirit is
clearly evident, and those designing and delivering the curriculum need to be aware of this.
Implications for HE Providers
Study of tourism earlier in the curriculum

The differences in levels of prior study and experience amongst entrants to HE programmes indicate
that tourism may now be at something of crossroads in its development. Whereas more ‘traditional’
HE subjects across arts, humanities and sciences, would expect their intake to have studied the subject
throughout school and require ‘A’ level(s) in the subject(s) as standard entry qualifications, newer
subject such as tourism have typically been used to handling entrants with a general, and quite varied,
educational background, but no prior study of tourism. On the basis of this, curricula have been
designed primarily for the ‘intelligent non-specialist’. If over one third of entrants to tourism
programmes, particularly at the new universities, do have prior study of the subject, (often to ‘A’ level
equivalent), the subject community faces something of a dilemma. This is a dilemma which many
providers of postgraduate programmes in tourism have lived with for some time, that is, whether to
seek to be a conversion programme for graduates of subjects other than tourism, or an extension
programme for tourism graduates. In many cases, financial and institutional pressures have lead to the
needs of both types of applicant having to be met within the same postgraduate courses. A comparable
situation is, of course, already familiar to the majority of school teachers faced with mixed ability
classes, but is becoming increasingly familiar to lecturers, as Universities are unable to resource
separate provision, and continue to need every possible student on the programme.
One response to this changing pattern of entry qualification has been the development of more
specialised or ‘niche’ undergraduate programmes in tourism to cater for students who have prior
knowledge, and want to build on this by becoming more focused, rather than studying for a generic
tourism degree. One glance at the course on offer through UCAS demonstrates this increasing
propensity for specialist undergraduate programmes, which may once have been the domain of
postgraduate provision only, if available for study at all. For example: Adventure Tourism, Cultural
Tourism, Ecotourism, European Tourism, Heritage Tourism, International Tourism, Rural Tourism,
Sports Tourism, Sustainable Tourism, Tourism Attractions Management, Tourism Development
Studies, Tourism Marketing and Tourism Anthropology.
Many HE tourism providers of more generic undergraduate programmes in tourism are now also
having to consider whether to accept the challenges inherent in teaching students with no experience
and those with experience together, with the aim of evening out the differences by the end of level
one, or to take the step of separating students into two cohorts on arrival. The latter option may allow
academics to work more intensively with those coming from a non-tourism background to make up
some of the basic ground, while encouraging those with prior knowledge to view their subject in more
depth or to be more critical of what they have learned to date. This approach clearly has resource
implications for those institutions where students are not already of a critical mass to allow for
multiple runs of first year classes, or at least for separate tutorial groups. This may be an investment

that institutions wish to make in order to ensure retention rates by working with different students at
appropriate levels.
Questions remain, however, such as for how long, and for what proportion of the programme this
separate ‘streaming’ is appropriate or sustainable. If the proportion is substantial, this would be
prohibitively expensive for all but the largest departments. It could also have implications for the
perceived equivalence of value of the final awards achieved. For institutions with smaller intakes,
where separate classes may be difficult to sustain, would it be wise to require an AVCE in Travel and
Tourism as an entry qualification, and concentrate solely on those with prior knowledge, or would this
be too big a risk to take in a competitive market place, where every student counts? Perhaps it could
actually become a unique selling point for some programmes seeking to find their niche in a crowded
market, particularly as fees increase. This is a challenging proposition, which although familiar to the
majority of school teachers faced with mixed ability classes, is becoming increasingly familiar to
lecturers, as Universities are unable to resource separate provision, and continue to need every
possible student on the programme.
There are also opportunities evident here primarily for HE tourism providers to work more closely
with FE and school providers of tourism to influence curricula and to ensure quality of provision at all
levels. Building links with FE providers, rather than viewing them from a sceptical distance, is in the
interest of HE institutions.
If the students’ experience of their AVCE, or other tourism study, is positive (as was indicated in this,
admittedly self-selecting, sample) this can be one of the key influences for study at higher level.
While future career prospects and personal experience of travelling were influencing factors in
choosing to study tourism in HE, enjoyment of prior study is the factor over which HE providers
could potentially have the most beneficial influence.
Perceptions and expectations of future employment prospects, HE programmes and student life
The responses relating to students’ ‘dream’ job could indicate one of two things; either the industry
has a lot to live up to (as do HE institutions) in delivering these dream jobs, or that the students
actually have quite realistic and achievable ambitions in terms of future career paths. It will be
interesting to question these students again later on in their University life, particularly after work
placement, to see if their attitudes on this have changed. Other student based studies have indicated
that there is a strong link between clear career motivation and persistence with HE study, even when
doubts arise. (Roberts et al, 2003).
There is also a clear message here that practical elements of HE programmes in tourism and related
subjects are one of the primary attractions of such programmes to students. This is again something
for HE providers to dwell on, and perhaps offers an impetus to overcome some of the concern often
shown by institutions about introducing too many practical elements in HE level work in these
subjects (interestingly, established and respected academic subjects such as medicine have no such
qualms about the validity of combining theoretical study with practical ‘hands- on’ work). In the
demand-led world of HE in which most institutions now operate, students’ perceptions of these
courses, and their expectations in terms of the delivering of practical elements, need to be noted. It has
been evident that many institutions have used the practical and skills elements of programmes as key
selling points in attracting applicants from a diverse range of backgrounds, but it has also been evident
that programmes have found it problematic, for a variety of reasons, to deliver on some practical/skills
areas, as indicated in work by Stuart-Hoyle on the two faced curriculum in tourism.
“It is now clear that lecturers are placing greater emphasis on traditional academic
abilities than vocationally oriented skills at course delivery level, even when a Tourism
programme's aim was essentially to provide graduates for the tourism or other service
industry.” (Stuart-Hoyle, 2002: p.12)

Serious concern amongst students about debt is evident from this study, and reflected in similar
studies such as the High Fliers research (The Times, 2004), and work carried out by the National
Union of Students (1999) amongst others.
“Financial concerns may increasingly present as a major reason for leaving university.
Not purely because students are experiencing financial difficulties during their period of
study……but because the accumulated debt may not appear to be sufficiently offset by
the financial benefits a degree may bring.” (Roberts et al 2003)
Parents, too, particularly those with no personal experience of Higher Education, may be questioning
the value of an HE qualification
“Financial constraints and lack of experience of higher education within families further
limits consideration of entry into HE. Indeed a major concern of many parents seems to
focus on the wish for their children to be happy and without debt.” (Chadwick, 2002:
p.14)
With the prospect of the increase in fees for many in 2006 and in a context where promises of higher
earning are becoming a key tool in the promotion of wider participation in Higher Education, student
fear of debt is an issue which institutions offering tourism and related subjects, where salary levels
have typically been lower than in other sectors of graduate employment, must address. For those
offering sandwich courses, there is perhaps an opportunity here to re-evaluate and better promote the
paid industrial placement year as a means of students earning some money part way through their
programmes, and also a need to review how fees will be charged during the placement year.
A recent UCAS publication states, “There is a direct correlation between having a degree and earning
more money. It seems that the saying ‘the more you learn the more you earn’ is true.” and continues
“With the cost of HE set to rise for many students following the introduction of variable fees, this
should increase the standard of education on offer across all levels of HE.” (Pickering, 2004: p.4).
The messages being given to students are very clear, and this will inevitably increase the expectation
placed on institutions and on programme teams to deliver on these expectations.
References
Chadwick, S (2002) Moving on from AVCE, LINK Issue 4 Participation and Progression, Higher
Education Academy Network for Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism.
NUS (1999) Student Hardship Survey, National Union of Students, London.
Pickering, V. (2004) The Value of Higher Education, CIHE (The Council for Industry and Higher
Education) and UCAS (Universities and Colleges Admissions Service).
Roberts, C., Watkins, M., Oakley, D., Fox, R. (2003) Supporting Student Success: What can we learn
from the Persisters? University of Salford, LTSN Generic Centre.
Stuart-Hoyle, M (2002), Critical Influences on Tourism as a Subject in UK Higher Education:
Lecturer Perspectives, JoHLSTE 1(1).
Tribe, J (2004) Listening, Understanding, and Responding to the ‘new’ HLSTE Undergraduates
(LURN), Buckingham Chilterns University College, LTSN Pedagogic Research Project.
The UK Graduate Careers Survey 2004, High Fliers Research Ltd./The Times. Copies of this report
can be purchased from High Fliers Research Ltd., Tel: 020 7428 9000.
Wall, R (2004) LTSN Student Course Experience Survey, HEA HLST Network.

_________________________________________
In Their Own Voices: Student Experiences

Eugenia Wickens and Alastair Forbes
Buckinghamshire Chilterns University College
UK
_________________________________________
Abstract
This paper explores the experiences of tourism students with particular reference to Britain.
Engagement with the literature of the factors influencing students’ success or failure will be supported
by evidence from a case study of one University College, in England. The study made use of semi-
structured interviews to understand the factors influencing the success or failure of first-year students.
One of the key findings is that students drawn from lower social groups are disadvantaged in the
Higher Education context. Despite the widening participation agenda, the system is still biased in
favour of middle-class students, who are better prepared for degree study, know what to expect and
enter HE having already been initiated into the dominant culture of the university.
Keywords: Student Success or Failure, First-year Students, Academic Tutors, Peer Support
Introduction
Researchers have long been interested in issues concerning access to Higher Education and students’
experiences (e.g., Smithers and Robinson, 1995). What is also interesting to note is that there exists a
large body of international research and theory exploring students’ experiences of Higher Educations
(e.g., Bourdieu and Passeron, 1977; Tinto, 1993). Much of this work focuses on the institutional
practices which impact on student retention rates and performance. Recent contributions suggest that
financial hardship is one of the primary reasons that students drop out of university (e.g., Benn, 1982;
Thomas and Jones, 2000).
In the field of Tourism, studies of students’ experiences of HEIs have also found finance and part-
time employment to be contributory factors to a student’s decision to withdraw (Medway et al., 2003).
Much has been written on student recruitment, retention and progression, and on university support
services, as well as the academic difficulties faced by students in general. What is often neglected,
however, is the challenges faced by first year tourism undergraduates. What motivates them to
succeed has received limited attention by tourism researchers. Furthermore, studies have paid
insufficient attention to the changing context of Higher Education and the effect that this has on
students’ experiences of HE support and provision.
In order to understand the student experience it is also important to consider some of the major
changes which are currently shaping Higher Education provision. This paper, therefore, commences
with a brief discussion of the growth of mass Higher Education with particular reference to Britain. It
then proceeds with an examination of the main theoretical approaches to student learning, followed by
a review of studies concerning Tourism students’ retention and progression. Engagement with the
literature on the factors influencing students’ success or failure is supported by evidence from a case
study of one Institution of Higher Education in the UK. A key finding of the study was that students’
peer group networks are vitally important, so much so that many students seek help from their friends
much more readily than from Academic Tutors or other academic staff members.

The Role of Higher Education

The rapid move from an elite to a mass system of Higher Education in advanced societies (e.g., USA,
Australia, and UK) is well documented in several studies (Scott, 1995; Barnett, 1994, Lewis, 2002).
Studies show that the change from elite to mass higher education is mainly the result of socio-
economic changes in advanced societies, which require closer integration of higher education and the
economy. In the field of tourism, the links between Higher Education and the tourism industry have
been explored and discussed in several works (e.g., Airey, 1997).
There is a broad range of opinions regarding higher education, the rapid expansion of student numbers
and student learning. In the minds of some analysts, the emergence of mass Higher Education is
consonant with the demands of the economy in the developed world (e.g., Newby, 1999). The
heterogeneity of the student body, the modularity of knowledge, the learning outcomes of a course as
well as the provision of new subject areas such as travel and tourism are some of the distinctive
features defining mass Higher Education. Writing about the emergence of this phenomenon in
Britain, Newby (1999) observes that students should graduate not only with the knowledge and
understanding of the subject studied at the University, but also with ‘transferable skills’ essential for
gaining employability in the knowledge-based economy. This perspective justifies pedagogical
changes by pointing to the needs of the knowledge-based economy for a graduate labour force with
the right transferable skills for employability. Higher education reforms are presented as part of the
modernisation process on grounds that they enhance flexibility and efficiency.
Opponents of mass Higher Education, whilst acknowledging that changed socio-economic

circumstances are shaping HEIs, point to the marketisation agendas of Governments in many
countries including Britain. Opponents argue that government policies in countries such as Britain,
Australia and USA are underpinned by ‘neo-liberalism’, an ideology which justifies the
commoditisation of all institutional arrangements including those of HEIs. It is argued that, as a result
of government policies, universities have been forced to compete amongst themselves for a bigger
slice of the student market. Higher Education courses including tourism are packaged and sold like
any other product. The commoditisation of ‘educational services’ is clearly echoed in the business
terminology employed by the academic community - such as public-private partnerships, cost-benefit
analysis, performance indicators, inputs/outputs and human investment (Aronowitz, 2000).
Lamenting the lost golden age of higher learning, critics argue that the marketisation of Higher
Education has led to the transformation of universities into ‘knowledge factories’ (Aronowitz, 2000).
Critics of mass Higher Education bemoan the lack of higher learning at Universities and the perceived
‘vocationalisation’ of Higher Education. It is argued that the continuing under-resourcing of teaching
from the public purse is unsustainable because it undermines university standards.
The debate concerning the transformation of higher education is still ongoing with some analysts
raising serious questions about student learning. In the minds of some academics, the idea of falling
standards is fixed. Moreover, questioning the role of higher education, critics make the claim that
mass university education has now undermined the authority of ‘pure’ knowledge. Supporters of
mass expansion argue that more students should go to university because it is an individual’s ‘right’,
and a passport to a career. It is, indeed, a right enshrined in the International Covenant on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights, which specifically states that “higher education shall be made equally
accessible to all, on the basis of capacity, by every appropriate means, and in particular by the
progressive introduction of free education.” (UN, 1967, Article 13). Other commentators argue that
the traditional role of the university as the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake has now been
replaced by the pursuit of useful knowledge.
In the field of tourism, the growth of students interested in the pursuit of ‘useful knowledge’ is well
documented in several studies (e.g., Airey, 1997). There is also research which shows that the
composition of the tourism student body has been changing significantly over the last ten years.
Common explanations offered by commentators include widening participation, the changing nature
of prior qualifications, a rise in student part-time employment, a fall in Higher Education per capita
spending and changes in student sub-cultures. Furthermore, in the UK the introduction of fees for a

degree is also affecting the make up of the student body (Crosling and Webb, 2002). Some observers
claim that, because of the introduction of fees, fewer students from the working class are attending
university in general. Voices are now being raised against tuition fees paid by students. Consequently,
new universities in Britain, for instance, are experiencing some difficulties in attracting high calibre
students who tend to enrol on courses offered in universities positioned higher up the league tables
(Ward and Steele, 1999).
Departments offering Tourism-related subjects in many universities faced by these developments see
it as imperative to recruit greater numbers of students from home and overseas in order to ensure
course viability. The trend to look for students overseas has also been facilitated by the provision of
distance education in the last few years. HE providers in countries such as the U.S.A., Britain and
Australia supply courses to Tourism students based overseas (e.g., India, China and South Africa) by
distance education. The promise of the ‘virtual university’ is that a student can study how, when,
where, and to a certain extent what he or she judges appropriate and useful for enhancement of career
prospects.
The trend, therefore, is towards large enrolments with diverse student populations. This, coupled with
the lowering of entrance requirements for tourism-related courses, has significant implications for all
aspects of learning, teaching, progression and support in tourism-related subjects. Some
commentators have been questioning the ongoing expansion of higher education, drawing our
attention to the correlation between student early withdrawal and wider participation as evidenced by
research into student retention and motivation. Furthermore, there are those commentators who blame
the individual student, and in the minds of others the blame is placed squarely on institutional
practices. This ongoing debate concerning higher learning and student success is the central theme of
the following section.
The Literature: Some Generalisations

Early studies on the nature of student learning asserted that the most obvious explanation for
differences in educational attainment is the ability of the individual student. Critics of such
‘deterministic’ explanations (e.g., Bourdieu and Passeron, 1977) argue that it is class stratification that
is directly linked to individual educational success or failure. Strongly influenced by Marxism, they
argue that working class failure is the fault of the education system which is biased towards the
‘culture’ of the ‘dominant’ social class, i.e. the upper class. Students with upper-class background are
said to have a built in advantage, because they have been socialised into the dominant culture. From
this perspective, a student’s success depends fundamentally on the education received in the earliest
years of life and his or her social background. There are several empirical studies which show that the
child’s early years’ socialisation forms the basis for success or failure in the educational system (e.g.,
Low and Cook, 2003). Behaviour patterns laid down in childhood are said to have important and
lasting effects. Such explanations draw our attention to the importance of early socialisation in
shaping an individual’s personality and motivation to succeed. From this perspective, children learn
to have high expectations for success.
The themes of the home environment, parental support and the manner in which young children are
prepared in school are also found in studies pertinent to student retention and progression in Higher
Education (Clark and Ramsey, 1990). Lack of preparation for the demands of higher education is
seen as being a key contributing factor to student dropout and underperformance. It is claimed that
many first year undergraduates, having little idea of what to expect and little understanding of how the
university environment can affect their lives, are ill prepared for higher learning. The demands can be
overwhelming for them and lack of understanding on the part of many tutors compounds the problem
(Yorke, 1999).
The relationship between student and tutor, and the ways in which tutors make sense of and respond
to the student’s behaviour have also been examined and are well documented in writings concerning
student success or failure. It is argued that good interpersonal relationships between tutors and

students are important to sustaining student progression (Medway et al., 2003; Yorke and Thomas,
2003). The conclusion drawn from this work is that students should be closely monitored by their
personal tutors and any warning signs of a student experiencing difficulties should be acted upon
immediately. From this perspective tutorial support is crucial (Jones and Thomas, 2002).
In addition, study skills tutors at departmental level are also recognised by analysts as being central in
addressing students’ problems. This argument is based on the observation that given governments’
commitment to ‘widening participation’ in countries such as Britain and elsewhere, students from
non-traditional background should be given a ‘helping hand’. It is important to note here that the
label non- traditional is applied to students from under represented groups including mature students,
(i.e., adults over the age of 21), students with disabilities, and those from low socio-economic family
backgrounds. It is these groups which are targeted by government Widening Participation policies in
countries such as Britain (Scott, 1995; Lewis, 2002; Yorke, 1999; Yorke and Thomas, 2003).
Clearly from the above analysis, it can be seen that reasons for academic underachievement in Britain
and elsewhere tend to fall in two broad categories namely ‘the personal’ and ‘institutional’ (Thomas,
2002). Personal reasons for dropout most commonly cited in literature include lack of academic
preparedness, student difficulties of managing pressures of combining studying with employment,
financial costs of participation, and student debt (Ozga and Sukhnandan, 1998; Sinclair and Dale,
2000; Lowe and Cook 2003). Evidence from recent studies shows that after the introduction of tuition
fees, an increasing number of students were working part-time and that introduction of this policy has
directly contributed to non-completion (Thomas, 2002).
Institutional reasons frequently cited in the literature include concerns about the quality of teaching,
poor student support, and lack of opportunities for students to interact with staff (Tinto, 1993;
Thomas, 2002). As Tinto (1993:48) explains, the absence of sufficient contact with staff is the most
“important predictor of eventual departure even after taking into account the independent effects of
background, personality and academic performance.” Fieldwork from one University College in
England, U.K provides further evidence in support of Tinto’s observation that encounters between
students and tutors as well as students are crucial to student retention and progression.
Study Methods
The context of the research project was one of six constituent faculties of one Institution of Higher
Education which is committed to wider participation and the success of its students. The faculty has
in excess of 1000 full-time undergraduate students studying a range of vocationally focused
programmes, mainly honours degrees but also Higher National Diplomas and Foundation Degrees.
Postgraduate students in the faculty were excluded from the study.
The research aimed to investigate the reasons for failure or success in first year Leisure and Tourism
students in their own terms. A qualitative approach was adopted for understanding the student
perspective of university life. Fieldwork, in the form of focus groups and one-to-one semi-structured
interviews was undertaken in the academic year 2003-04. Qualitative data was collected through
initial focus groups. A total of 70 students were involved. This fieldwork prepared the ground for the
second round of fieldwork in the form of one-to-one in-depth interviews. Data from the focus groups
was analysed and the broad issues that emerged from the first-stage of data collection informed the
construction of an interview guide. The interview guide was piloted and the revised version was
utilised with first year undergraduate students. A convenient and, wherever possible, ‘theory driven’
sample of 18 students was chosen. As Strauss and Corbin (1990) have pointed out, our choice of
respondents should be driven primarily by our conceptual questions and concerns and not simply by a
concern for ‘representativeness’. The selection strategy is common amongst researchers in the field
(Burgess, 1984; Veal, 1997).
Interviews were taped with the consent of the participants, and subsequently transcribed. The analysis
followed the ‘grounded theory’ approach advocated by Strauss and Corbin (1990). It started with the

organisation of the material in some kind of order. The mass of qualitative data was condensed,
organised and coded. This involved a discriminatory process of selecting data, which appeared
important and meaningful for the study. When looking for differences and similarities in participants’
responses to a given question, care was taken that responses to a specific question were analysed with
due regard to the context and the conditions which produced them. Significant statements were then
selected and coded in terms of theoretical concepts and themes found in literature (such as family
support and commitments and institutional support and student lifestyles). Drawing upon qualitative
data, the following section presents and discusses the key findings of the study.
Discussion
The most striking theme emerging from the study is that of students’ reliance on their peer group.
Many stated that the most enjoyable aspect of university life was meeting people and making friends,
which is perhaps unsurprising. However, what is more significant is the extent to which students rely
on each other for support, assistance and even motivation. Support from fellow students is seen as
vital to students’ success, partly because they are the only ones who are seen as having the same
experience, and can therefore understand them fully. Worryingly for the institution, when asked to
whom they would go if they had a problem while on campus, many students said that they would talk
to a friend in preference to an Academic Tutor, or any of the support services provided by the
university college or the students’ union. Some felt it was beneficial to share a house (or a flat in a
university hall of residence) with other students on the same course, as only they would understand
the requirements of the programme (such as its assessment). Students support each other by
discussing academic work, sharing resources such as library books and in some cases working on
assessments together.
This finding, on the vital importance of students’ peer group networks, supports the work of Thomas,
(2000) who also found that social networks were of immense significance in the lives of students. It is
interesting to note, however, that the majority of the students interviewed were first generation
undergraduates. Most reported that their parents were supportive, morally and financially, but that
they could not be expected to know what their sons and daughters were going through, as they had not
been to university themselves. In particular, students felt that their parents did not see the importance
of a university social life: “they don’t understand like the social life as well, like, going out, and you
need to go out in order to make new friends, and they’re like ‘you’re just spending loads of money’”,
as one interviewee expressed it. This perceived lack of understanding on the part of parents may
account for a greater reliance on students peer groups for support on academic matters than has been
reported in some other studies (e.g. Tinto, 1975 and 1993; Thomas, 2002). On the other hand, several
students reported that their parents were proud of them, and that it was important not to let them down
by failing the course.
The success of the university college in recruiting students from non-traditional backgrounds may also
account for some of the students’ difficulties in approaching their Academic Tutors for support.
Although these tutors have a pastoral role, and are amenable to approaches from students with
concerns of many kinds, some interviewees reported that their Academic Tutors were unfriendly or
not approachable, even rude, or in one case ‘scary’. Some students simply did not get on with their
designated Academic Tutor and preferred to seek advice from other members of staff. The general
lack of success of the Academic Tutors at establishing good working relationships with the students
may have something to do with class. While the Tutors, unlike many of the students’ parents, have
experienced student life themselves, it may be that they have difficulty communicating with students
who are from a very different background to them, socially and sometimes ethnically. The tutors are
part of the dominant social class (Bernstein, 2000) and are unable to relate to the students who do not
share their culture (Bourdieu and Passeron, 1977). This lack of understanding by tutors has been noted
in other studies (e.g. Clark and Ramsey, 1990; Thomas, 2000 and 2002).
Despite their reluctance to seek assistance from Academic Tutors, students felt that tutors in general
held the key to success in university study. Their definitions of what makes a good lecturer were

interesting. Positive traits in lecturers included enthusiasm for the subject, a willingness to listen to the
students, friendliness, approachability, propensity to give students handouts and willingness to explain
exactly what was wanted in assessed work. Several interviewees thought the assistance offered by the
lecturers fell short of the level of support they were accustomed to in Further Education. This
comment is typical: “It was really hard coming from college to university in terms of type of work we
were doing; assignments were just given out to us and it was not really explained how to do them. It
was hard at first.” Rather than the traditional idea of reading for a degree, many of today’s students
apparently expect their tutors to tell them exactly what they need to know in order to pass the
assessments. There is clearly a mismatch between the expectations of lecturers and those of students
with regard to the level of explanation required for assessed work.
While the institution is committed to helping students develop into progressively more independent
learners, it is probable that tutors are guilty of assuming student are further along that road when they
begin degree studies than is actually the case. On the other hand, just as Clark and Ramsey (1990)
found, first-year undergraduates are ill prepared for higher learning, having little idea what to expect
from the university or its tutors. Many find the work demanding, sometimes perplexing, and they
consider the lecturers are not supportive enough.
The importance for students of making friends, and the reliance they place on support from their peer
group, has already been discussed. The concept of freedom is another recurring motif in the interview
transcripts. Students equate coming to university with freedom, particularly those who have moved
away from their parents. Interviewees valued the fact that they were no longer under scrutiny from, or
answerable to, their parents and other relations. Even those who relied on their parents for financial
support felt independent. While a tendency to consume unreasonable quantities of alcohol has always
been associated with student life, the study provides some evidence that students coming from strict
families (particularly Asian ones) are particularly prone to alcohol problems when let ‘off the leash’
for the first time. One interviewee said: “…some people do come to university to get away from
home… if people at home haven’t had the freedom to go out, they think university is a chance to get
away from parents… some people who haven’t been out ever, they come here and they just go wild…
They go out all the time and drink ridiculous amounts, and get drunk every night…”
Conclusions
Several conclusions emerge from the study of first-year University College leisure and tourism
undergraduates. The first is that there is some evidence that students drawn from lower social groups
may be disadvantaged in the Higher Education context. Despite the widening participation agenda, the
system may still be biased in favour of middle-class students, who are better prepared for degree
study, know what to expect and enter HE having already been initiated into the dominant culture of
the university (Bourdieu and Passeron, 1977; Bernstein, 2000). Students who were subjects of the
research certainly felt unprepared by their previous educational and social experience for what was to
come in HE. This unpreparedness often manifested itself as an unreasonable expectation of direct
instruction by tutors on exactly what should be learned, read and reproduced in order to succeed in
assessments.
Although many of the students reported that they were the first members of their families to enter
Higher Education, almost all stated that they were supported by their parents, morally, financially and
otherwise. There was a feeling that parents were proud of their offspring and wanted them to do well,
while students did not want to let their parents down. Parental support was significant for the students,
but many also reported that they were enjoying the freedom of being away from their closest relations.
While this unaccustomed measure of independence sometimes led to alcohol abuse and poor self-
discipline, it was generally thought to be important. Students did not believe, however, that their
parents understood the academic pressures of university life, nor indeed the importance of students’
social lives and peer-group networks.
These peer-group networks are perceived by students to be of vital importance. Students who fail to
make friends are unlikely to attend their courses, and they typically rely very heavily on their friends

for support of all kinds. This includes working together on assignments, sharing resources, comparing
notes, discussing academic concepts and so on, but students also rely on friends for emotional and
moral support and guidance. Their perception is that only their friends are in a position to understand
them, by virtue of their background and the shared experience of being on the HE programme.
Students’ relationships with tutors are important, but there is a significant difference between their
relationships with Academic Tutors, whose role includes pastoral support, and module tutors who
deliver the academic programmes. In many cases, students do not seek help or advice from Academic
Tutors, as they feel that these people do not understand them, or have time for them, some students do
not like the Academic Tutor allocated to them, and when they have a problem they are far more likely
to seek help from their friends. Poor interpersonal relationships with tutors can be problematic – as
Medway et al. (2003) noted, these relationships are crucial to sustaining student progression.
Students’ relationships with module tutors were generally better, as long as tutors were prepared to
give students the support they felt they needed, which was generally more directive than is traditional
in HE. Although this area is complex, the study can be seen to support the findings set out by Tinto
(1993), who noted that students’ contact with academic staff is of crucial importance in determining
their progression and ultimate success.
References
Airey, D. (1997). Exploring the links between industry and education. Conference paper given at the
ATTT/Tourism Education Exchange conference, 5th February, 1997, University of Westminster.
Aronowitz, S. (2000). The Knowledge Factory: Dismantling the Corporate University and Creating
True Higher Learning. Boston: Beacon.
Barnett, R. (1994). The Limits of Competence: Knowledge, Higher Education and Society.
Buckingham: Society for Research into Higher Education, Open University Press.
Bernstein, B (2000). Pedagogy, symbolic control and identity. Revised edition. Lanham/Oxford:
Rowman and Littlefield.
Bourdieu, P and Passeron, J. C. (1977). Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture. London and
Beverly Hills: Sage
Burgess, R. G. (1984). In the Field: An Introduction to Field Research. London: Allen and Unwin.
Clark, E. and Ramsey, W. (1990). Problems of Retention in Tertiary Education. Education Research
and Perspectives 17, 47-59.
Crosling, G. and Webb, G. (Eds.) (2002). Supporting Student Learning: Case Studies, Experience and
Practice from Higher Education. London: Kogan Page Ltd
DfES (2003). The Future of Higher Education. White Paper from the Department for Education and
Skills, London: The Stationery Office Ltd..
Jones, R. and Thomas, L. (2002). Not ‘Just Passing Through’: Making Retention Work for Present
and Future Learners. Journal of Widening Participation and Lifelong Learning, 4, 2-4.
The HEFCE Perspective on Policy and Progress. Higher Education Quarterly 56, 204-219.
Low, H. and Cook A. (2003). Mind the Gap: Are Students Prepared for Higher Education? Journal of
Further and Higher Education 27, 69-76.
Medway, P, Rhodes, V, Macrae, S, Maguire, M and Gewirtz, S (2003). Widening Participation
through Supporting Undergraduates – what is being done and what can be done to support
student progression at King’s? Unpublished report, King’s College, Department of Education
and Professional Studies, London.
Newby, H (1999). Some Possible Futures for Higher Education. London: DfEE.
Ozga, L. & Sukhnandan (1998). Undergraduate Non-completion: Developing an Explanatory Model.
Higher Education Quarterly 52, 316-333.
Purcell, K and Pitcher, J. (1996). Great Expectations: The New Diversity of Graduate Skills and
Aspirations. Manchester University, Careers Service Unit. Manchester.
Scott, P. (1995). The Meanings of Mass Higher Education. Buckingham: Society for Research into
Higher Education, Buckingham: Open University Press.
Sinclair, H. and Dale, L. (2000). The Effect of Student Tuition Fees on the Diversity of Intake within a
Scottish new University. Paper Presented at British Educational Research Association Annual
Conference, 7-9 Sept 2000, Cardiff University

Smithers, R. and Robinson, P. (1995). Post-18 Education: Growth Change and Prospect, London,
Council for Industry and Higher Education (Executive Briefing), pp 2.
Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and
Techniques, London: Sage.
Thomas, L. (2002). Student Retention in Higher Education: The Role of Institutional Habitus. Journal
of Education Policy 17, 423-442.
Thomas, S. L. (2000). Ties That Bind: A Social Network Approach to Understanding Student
Integration and Persistence. The Journal of Higher Education 71, 591-615.
Tinto, V. (1975). Dropout from Higher Education: A Theoretical Synthesis of Recent Research.
Review of Educational Research 45, 89-125.
Tinto, V. (1993). Leaving College: Rethinking the Causes and Cures of Student Attrition, (2nd
Edition). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
UN (1967). International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, International Covenants
on Human Rights, New York: United Nations Organisation.
Veal, A. J. (1997). Research Methods for Leisure and Tourism, (2nd Edition). London: Pitman
Publishing.
Yorke, M. (1999) Leaving Early: Undergraduate Non-completion in Higher Education. London:
Falmer Press.
Yorke, M. (1998). Non-completion of Undergraduate Study: Some Implications for Policy in Higher
Education. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 20, 189-201.
Yorke, M. and Thomas, L. (2003). Improving the Retention of Students from Lower Socio-economic
Groups. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management 25, 63-74.

Critical Issues OnTourism Education

Transféré par

Informations du document

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Critical Issues OnTourism Education

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Critical Issues in Tourism Education

Proceedings of the 2004 Conference of the Association for Tourism

ATHE Publication No. 14

Presentations (in Alphabetical Order)

Kevin Hannam, Nicole Mitsche, Chris Stone and Tom Mordue 39

Association for Tourism in Higher Education 3

Petia Petrova and Peter Mason 99

Nancy Stevenson 107

Mark Stone 115

Marion Stuart-Hoyle 129

Jaakko Suvantola 139

Claire Wellings and Lyn Bibbings 145

Eugenia Wickens and Alastair Forbes 151

4 Association for Tourism in Higher Education

Some of ATHE’s representations of tourism’s significance bear revisiting:

Association for Tourism in Higher Education 5

6 Association for Tourism in Higher Education

Bibbings, Lyn: Senior Lecturer, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK

Hewett, Stephen: Altis Manager, Information Services, University of Birmingham, UK

Mihalic, Tanja (Prof): Faculty of Economics, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana,

Mordue, Tom (Dr): University of Teesside, UK

Association for Tourism in Higher Education 7

Stevenson, Nancy: Undergraduate Programme Leader: Tourism, Westminster, UK

8 Association for Tourism in Higher Education

From Here to Uncertainty!

Keywords: Education, Knowledge, Vocationalism, Research, Curriculum

Association for Tourism in Higher Education 9

Where Does the Knowledge Come From?

10 Association for Tourism in Higher Education

What are the Programmes For?

Figure 1: Tourism Course – BA (Hons) Tourism

Association for Tourism in Higher Education 11

Figure 2: Top Twenty ‘Aims and Objectives’ of Tourism Degree Courses

Figure 3: QAA Subject Benchmark for Tourism

• Concepts and characteristics of tourism as an area of study

Is There a Core Curriculum?

12 Association for Tourism in Higher Education

Does Tourism Knowledge Really Exist?

Where Does Tourism Belong?

Association for Tourism in Higher Education 13

Figure 4: Departments in which Tourism Degree Courses are Located

Location / Department Number

Where From Here?

14 Association for Tourism in Higher Education

Association for Tourism in Higher Education 15

16 Association for Tourism in Higher Education

‘Cheese, Gromit. We’ll Go Somewhere

Keywords: Imagery and Metaphor, Postgraduate Tourism Teaching and Learning

Association for Tourism in Higher Education 17

Chronologically, the fieldwork was conducted at:

The University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand, September 2002

University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia, September 2002

18 Association for Tourism in Higher Education

• Master of Business International Hotel Management 8

Birmingham College of Food, Tourism and Creative Studies, October 2002

NHTV, The University of Breda, The Netherlands, October 2002

University of Exeter, October 2002

University of Plymouth, Seale-Hayne, March 2003

College of St Mark and St John, Plymouth, April 2002

University of Wales Institute, Cardiff, May 2003

Total = 110 postgraduate tourism students

Association for Tourism in Higher Education 19

Reflections and Conclusions

20 Association for Tourism in Higher Education