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1

Presidency College of Management Sciences


Bharatpur, Chitwan

Unit I
Introduction to Research and Project Work
1.1

Meaning of Research

How does the researcher proceed? Few social scientists have been interested in
that problem although every elementary textbook is full of advice regarding
what the researcher should do: bring a theory out of his hat, formulate
hypothesis in advance, test reliability and validity of his instruments, draw a
representative sample, find something useful for his society report his findings
so that other researchers can replicate investigation.
The literal meaning of research is investigation or to search again. The first look
may not be sufficient and prone to error. The word research refers to the
systematic investigation towards increasing the sum of knowledge. The word is
derives from the French word researche which means to search or to seek
again. Therefore research is a process of verifying and testing the old facts or
theories (deductive approaches) and discovering new facts (Inductive
approach). So, there are various meaning as:
A careful investigation or enquiry specially through search for new facts
in any branch of knowledge
Systematized effort to gain new knowledge
A research is systematic, controlled, and empirical and critically
investigation of hypothetical propositions (statements of relationship
between two or more variables) about the presumed relations among
natural phenomenon. Fred N Kerlinger
Research is a systematic and organized effort to investigate a specific
problem that needs a solution (Sekaran, 1992).
As a whole research is the application of scientific method to the study of a
problem. The scientific method involves;
a. Careful logical analysis of the problem, and formulating hypothesis.
b. Formulating research design
c. Observation or data collection
d. Generalizations or drawing conclusions
Therefore, the process of investigation involves a series of well known activities
gathering information, recording, analyzing and interpreting the results with the

objective of answering the solution to the problem, is called research. The


explanation of research has two crucial aspects. They are:
1. Firstly, it is sufficiently broad to include all types of investigations
requiring solution to the problem.
2. Secondly, it explicitly recognizes the systematic nature of the research
process in which data are gathered, recorded, analyzed and interpreted in
an orderly manner.
We can define research as an organized, systematic, data- based, critical,
scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the
objective of finding answers or solutions to it (Sekaran, 1992).
For instance, AIDS broke out in the United States; doctors did not know at all
what disease it was, what cause it or how to cure it. They have only known as it
seemed to attack the immune system of victim. For the purpose of research,
medical researchers set out to investigate the causes of the disease and to seek a
cure. At recent, a lot is known about this disease because researchers have spent
considerable resources in gathering information through observing patients and
conducting experiments. So, research means to investigate, repeatedly search or
quest in an endeavour or resource to discover answers to problems through
reliance on empirical evidences. Research activities are designed to discover
knowledge to aid in answering specific questions or issues.
In general, the following activities are involved in the research process:
Define the problem and identify the variables causing it or related with it;
Get insight into the existing stock of knowledge on the issue or problem
under reference and contribute to the furtherance of knowledge (reviewing);
Construct models or formulate research questions educated conjectures or
hypothesis for testing;
Objectively collect and analyze the facts, evidences or information to
identify the interrelationship between or among variables or multiple effects
of factors; and
Build theories to understand and generalize the phenomena to throw insight
into the problem under investigation to analyze, predict and control the
situation

1.2

Types of research

Researches conducted for - solving -existing problem and generate a new


knowledge to a particular area or theory building.

1.2.1 Fundamental Research


Fundamental or basic research is conducted for the purpose of increasing
our knowledge of certain problems that commonly occur in
organizational setting; and how to solve them.
Adding to our knowledge i.e. fundamental and generalizable.
Pure or fundamental research.
Not apply the findings to solve an immediate problem at hand but rather
than to understand more about certain phenomena and problems that
occur in several organizations, and how they can be solved.
Theory building or formation.
For instance, On-the-job training has great impact on the productivity of
workers.

1.2.2 Applied Research


AR conducted to a specific problem, which requires a solution.
Practical application of knowledge, systematically acquired and validated
and meet solution
Answer practical and useful questions about policies, programmes,
projects, procedures, or organization.
Such research, being of practical value, may relate to current activity or
immediate practical solutions.
Findings for immediate problem facing a society or business executives.
Hired researchers and consultants to study a problem of concern to them
in order to find solutions that can be implemented to rectify the problem
situation and immediate applications
It is also called decisional research.
e.g. curative measures for AIDS.
For instance, How to improve the productivity of Cigarette Factory? Both
improving the existing brands or new brand development may be the
study areas.
Factory does have the research, taking into accounts from its capabilities,
know-how, resources and so on.

Both fundamental and applied research may not be mutually exclusive;


and can be placed in a continuum.
Some research areas have both applied and fundamental research flavour
and scientific method provides key advances in both fundamental and
applied research.
Table 1: Characteristics of applied and fundamental research
Fundamental Research
Applied research
Purpose:
Purpose:
Expand knowledge processes of
Improve understanding of
business and management
particular business or
management problem
Results in universal principles
Results in solution to problem
relating to the process and its
relationship to outcomes
New knowledge limited to
Finding of significance and value
problem
to society in general
Findings of practical relevance
and value to manager
Context:
Context:
Undertaken by people based in
Undertaken by people based in
universities
a variety of settings including
organization
Choice of topic and objectives
Objectives negotiated with
determined by the researcher
originator
Flexible time scales
Tight time scales

1.3

Scientific Research Process

What is science?
Science as a systematized knowledge derived through observation,
experimentation or any other method or procedure in order to determine the
nature of phenomena being studied or the causes behind specific events.
In science, an understanding is made through logico-empirical process. The
logico-empirical process means reasoning and direct experience or observation.
A scientific theory is dealing with the logical aspect of science; and research is
dealing with observation aspect of science.
The scientific process includes the methodology of understanding things. There
are two approaches of logico- empirical process.
a.

Deductive Approach

b.

Inductive Approach

1.3.1 Deductive Approach (General to particular)


In deductive reasoning, one starts from some general theories or laws and
applies it to particular instances. In this method, conclusions are deduced from
some fundamental assumptions or axioms established through other methods by
logical process of reasoning. One starts with theory as a means for many
concepts, specifies indicators of measurement, makes observations and tests
relationships. The goal is to define or prove support the theory already known.
In other words, this approach involves understanding of thing from general to
particular.
Hypothesis Observation Hypothesis testing Conclusion
Deductive process
Sociologist describes the theory as a scientific study between the causes
and effects. He tries to answer the question of what, when and how.
Sociologist constructs theories that have deductive structure in which
conclusion from assumptions.
Checking the validity of conclusion against the real world data.
When facts are inconsistent with the theoretical conclusion, refines
theories or abandon them for new theories.
Continuous interplay (interaction) of new or refine theories and their
empirical verification.
For instance, parents with children spent more over without kids. How?
And Why?

1.3.2 Inductive Approach (Particular to general)


In this approach, one starts with observation driven by one or more research
questions. In other words, generalization is made from particular or one intends
to develop the theory from general to particular. This method is based on prior
examinations of facts i.e. one starts with observed data and develops a
generalization which explain the relationship between the objects observed.
Observation Findings a pattern tentative conclusion Theory

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Theory
Hypothesis

Empirical generalization

Observations
INDUCTIVE PROCESS

Scientific research process


There are eight steps in scientific method. They are:
1.
Sensing or Realizing problems: It is the first step in scientific inquiry in observing
the situation and sensing the problem. New problem are emerging in the environment.
We are knowingly and unknowingly sensing these developments occurring in the
environment. At this stage, we may not know exactly what is happening but we can
definitely sense that things are not going on as smoothly as they should be.

Observation

Setting or
Realizing
problem

Problem
Identification
Theoretical
Framework

Deduction
Reasoning

Hypothesis Formulation

Research Design

Data Collection

Analysis of Data

Refinement of Theory (Basic Research)


Implementation (Applied Research)

Figure 1: The Scientific Research Process

Library search

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.
7.

8.

Problem identification: Once we increase our level of awareness of


what is happening in the environment; and focus on problem and
associated factors through further search of information. In this step, we
should try to identify what exactly are the problems in the situation.
Theoretical Framework: In this step of scientific research, we make an
attempt to integrate the information logically so that the reason for the
problem can be conceptualized. The critical variables are examined and
association among them is identified. Putting all the variables and their
association together, a theoretical framework is developed.
Hypothesis Formulation: It is the fourth step of scientific research
hypotheses are formulated. Hypotheses are logically conjectured
relationship between two or more variables expressed in the form of
testable statements. Hypotheses for the study are drawn from the
theoretical framework as developed in step third.
Research Design: It is the step of plan of research. After setting the
hypotheses, the next step is the plan research to achieve the hypothesis.
So, research design is the strategy for conducting research. It describes
the general sequential steps for collecting, analyzing, and evaluating data
after identifying:
a. What the researcher wants to know?
b. What has to be dealt with in order to obtained required
information?
Collection of data: Data collection is also known as fieldwork. At this
stage , researcher has to administer the research instruments
( questionnaire, interview schedules, observation schedules, etc).
Data analysis: After data collection, we must summarize and analyze
them. Data analysis is fact the statistical analysis of data that has been
edited, coded and tabulated. In most cases, we will probably calculate
some descriptive statistics (mean, percentage, etc.) and inferential
statistics that access the reliability of our data. With the use of these
different statistical techniques, the hypotheses are tested.
Generalization: The final step involves interpretation and generalization
of the findings into the larger body of knowledge about the phenomenon.
In the case of applied research, specific implementation strategy is
proposed to solve the problem identified by the study.

Characteristics of Scientific Research


1.
Purposiveness
2.
Testability
3.
Replicability
4.
Objectivity
5.
Rigor
6.
Generalizability

1.4

Management Research Methods:


Management of research is concerned with the systematic and objective
collection and evaluation of information about specific aspect of
management problems in order to assist managers make effective
decisions.
The objective of Management of Research is to reduce the risk and
uncertainty when strategy is in planned and operation.
The role of sound information is to guide business decisions, set strategies
and monitor implementation to feedback on whether it has been successful
or unsuccessful.

Managers need to ask the following questions to help to provide what research
to carry out to collect the required information and solve business problem.
They are:

What information will help make decision- making?


What are we going to do with this information?
How should we collect this information?
What are we going to measure?
How should we analyze the results?
How much should we spend on collecting the information?

Research identifies the benefits of research knowledge to mangers as


follows:

Identify and solve small problems in the work setting.


Know how to discriminate good from bad research.
Appreciate and constantly remember the multiple influences and multiple
effects of factors impinging on a situation.
Take calculated risks in decision- making, knowing full well the
probabilities attached to the possible outcomes.
Prevent possible vested interests from operating in a situation.
Relate to hired researchers and consultants more effectively.

Stages in Management Process and Types of Information Needed


Stages of Management
Process
1. Analysis

Major Information Needed

Performance against plans

2. Planning

Environmental, competitive and


eternal information to identify
problems and opportunities
Evaluation of 1 and 2 in order to make a

3. Execution

prediction or estimate of alternative courses.


Communicate details of plans and control

4. Control

standards.
Performance against plans

Type of Management Research


1.4.1
1.4.2
1.4.3
1.4.4

Policy Research
Managerial Research
Action Research
Evaluation Research

1.4.1 Policy Research


The development of foundation of information to be used as the basis for
making plans and decisions that will impact policy with in the context of
political, social, and economical realities of time and setting.
The policy research is composed of three basic elements:

This policy research studies how policy formulation occurs with a view to
understanding and improving the process.

The policy research is designed to analyze situations at the strategic level


and to formulate overall policy proposals.

This policy research systematically evaluates the priorities to be accorded


to conflicting and complementary alternatives (Formulating major policy
proposals and establishing their priorities).

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1.4.2 Managerial Research

Related to the specific problem of limited scope for which management


has need of additional information on which base decision.

For instance, market potential for new product, best approach of


implementation of a new MIS system.

MR is seeking of solution to a given problem and implement the solution.

From the present analysis, MR is taking effective action for future.


1.4.2 Action Research
Involves continuous gather and analyzing of research data during the normal
and on- going operations of an organization.
Designed to identify effective way of dealing with problems in the real
world.
Concern the execution of specific management programme, feeds
simultaneous results to organization; and helps in changing the mode of
functioning.
AR is task- oriented form of study designed to provide continuous feedback
regarding the performance of management activity and to improve that
performance from investigation.
1.4.3 Evaluation Research

The process of determining the value or worth of something is called


evaluation.
It is oriented toward formal and objective measurement of extent which a
given action, activity and programme objective.
Evaluation Research related to policy research in which policies,
objectives, strategies and programmes are examined.
It evaluates the successful and analyze the underlying causes of failure.

Methodology for Management Research


Objective/purpose
Policy Research
To formulate major policy
proposals
To establish their
priorities
To identify their
implication

Data requirement and analysis

Research output

Macro level data about:


a) Environmental forces
b) Overall organizational situation
c) Competitive standing of the
organization
Longitudinal data
Time series data
a) Predictions (Econometric
model)
b) Projections (Parameters)

Policy options
Identification of policy
priorities for the
organization

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Managerial Research
To study the on-going
operation or projects
To help in improving
managerial
effectiveness
To help in decision
making

Action Research
To feed information into
the organization to
improve the functioning
To improve the
managerial actions
To suggest future
courses of action

Evaluation Research
To measure
achievements against
the objectives
To identify gaps and
problem areas
To suggest
improvements required.

Specific and detailed data about Identification of the


the operations or projects
problem situation
Data collection through MIS
Identification of
Collection of qualitative data
decision option
Exploring the situation for in Precise recommendation
depth understanding.
for actions to be taken
a) Survey research methods
b) Observational methods
c) Experimental methods for
testing of alternatives
Continuous of gathering and
analysis of data
Problem specific data:
a) Opinion survey
b) Observation
c) Satisfaction levels
d) Morale survey
e) Frustration index

To recommend the
actions to be taken
with regard to:
a) Organizational
structure
b) Rules
c) Reward and
punishment system
d) Performance
evaluation criteria
e) Work environment.

Micro level data


a) Programme utilization level
b) Comparative level
Internal surveys

Attribute of good Management Research

Purpose clearly defined


Research process and work plan detailed
Research design thoroughly planned
High ethical standards applied
Limitations frankly revealed
Findings presented unambiguously
Conclusions justified
Researchers experience reflected.

Identification of
programme strengths
and weaknesses
Recommendation for
programme
improvement

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1.5

Project Work

1.5.1 Meaning of Project Work


The Project is defined as an organized, systematic, and data based
investigation into a specific situation undertaken with the objective of gathering
information that enables the students to gain familiarity with the situation or
reality and generate more knowledge about the phenomenon under
investigation.
1.5.2 Objectives of Project Work
Specific objectives are:

Expose students to business or social reality by providing them the


opportunity to get first- hand information and actual knowledge about the
working of an organization, a system or a situation.
Promote student- centred learning by encouraging them to take the initiate
to become self- directed learners and thinkers.
Provide opportunities to students to work on those issues or problems
which are of particular interest to them.
Develop interpersonal and communication skills by encouraging students
to interact with the practitioners.
Develop data- processing and report writing skills to explore, analyze and
describe a business situation or a social phenomenon

Processes in Project Work


Activities involved in a Project Work:

Selecting of relevant topic

Locating the sources of information

Extracting the relevant information from these sources

Identifying the various dimensions of the problem or issue

Organizing and analyzing the data effectively

Drawing conclusions

Writing report
Major activities involved in project work
Defining the Topic and research questions
The research topic should be introduce clearly raised the research questions
which were not answered before. Some potential problems in this process may
be:

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Inexperience resulting in difficulty deciding on an appropriate and feasible


topic.
Over- ambitious scale (e.g. under- estimation of time, resources).
Re-inventing the wheel resulting from ignorance of previous work done.

Project Work design

This involves selecting a methodology for obtaining the relevant and their
analysis to draw inferences.
Both raw and secondary data (reviewing)

Data Collection: Some potential problems

Under- estimation or workload


Poor planning and coordination of interviews and field trips
Making contacts and appointments
Delays caused by waiting time
Determining scope, type and relevance of data to be collected
Unpredictability of data (lack of support)

Data analysis and report preparation


Some potential problems:

Misinterpretation (bias)

Being bogged down by details: inability to the woods for he trees

Insufficient care in documentation (quotations, bibliographic/ references)

Lack of discipline in structuring report framework before starting to write.

1.6

Method of Project Work

1.6.1
1.6.2
1.6.3
1.6.4

Exploratory or descriptive studies


Small- scale survey
Case studies, and
Feasibility studies

1.6.1 Exploratory or Descriptive Studies

Clear view of the subject under investigation


It is done when we do not know much about the situation

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Comprehend the nature of problem and very few studies have been
conducted to the related phenomena
Approaches

Examining the existing literature


Questioning the knowledgeable individuals
Examining a few selected case

For example, demographic information of employees, a profile of suppliers,


complaints registered by the customers
Under descriptive studies

The demographic data of employees in term of their age, sex, education,


family income, etc.

The profile of suppliers: quality of supplies, rejections, regularity, demand


for advance payments, and so on.

The consumer complaints: frequency, nature of comments, causes, etc.


Descriptive studies present the data to meaningful form help to:

Understand the features and aspects in a situation under study,


Offer the ideas for further investigations and research, and
Help in identifying problems and make certain simple decisions.

For instances
a. The trend of employment during the last twelve months in an organization:
Gender composition, educational level, no. of absent days, ethnic groups,
etc.
b. A profile of bank borrowers of outstanding of loans for six months and
above: describe the defaulter's age, earnings, employment, occupation and
the like. You can recommend loan payment issues for management
decision to types of individuals for loan extending, etc.
c. Marketing Areas: pricing, sales, distribution method of company, etc.

Pricing methods, costing methods, pricing of related commodities, or


products, price hikes and sales

A profile of sales, sales by region, etc.

Types of distribution channels used.

Advertising and sales promotion expenses


Gathered information, describe and identify the company and help recommend
a strategy for its future action.
1.6.2 Small- Scale Survey

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A survey study is the systematic gathering of information from respondents


for the purpose of understanding and predicting some aspects of the
behavior of the population of interest.

Survey studies are usually more extensive and involve the careful
identification of the population, selection of the sample for the study and
collection of comparable data to make qualified generalizations.
For instance, survey study of the business describes location of business,
employees, products, prices, and markets, other competitive business,
customers, etc.
Methods of survey
1. Telephone interviews- collection of information from respondents via
telephone.
2. Mail surveys- collection of information from respondents via mail or similar
other techniques.
3. Personal interviews- collection of information in a face-to-face situation.
Home interviews- personal interviews in the respondents or office.
Intercept interviews- personal interview in a central location like shopping
certres, haat bazaar, etc.
Surveys can be done within organization and in the field.
1.

Surveys conducted within organizations are as following types:


Surveys of employee attitudes
Surveys of the nature of jobs
Surveys of record system
Surveys of salary scales
Surveys of visitors to an organization
2. Field level surveys are as following types:
Surveys of consumer attitudes
Surveys of shop-keepers in a haat bazaar
Surveys of dealers and retailers
Surveys of patients visiting a medical clinic
Surveys of tourists visiting a place.
1.6.3 Case Studies
A case study is an intensive investigation and description of the study unit.
Appropriate method of project work
Both words and numbers description
Selected unit
Study different research methods

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Collected related aspects


1. A case study may be done of a specific subject like records
management system, sale unit personnel department or
organization.
For instances,
1.Records management system of an organization
Inputs procurement unit
Processing unit
Output supplying
Manpower
Control of records
Records inventory
Computer used
Data collected and presented in terms of efficiencies, effectiveness and future
improvement in the organization.
2.
Section or department as a unit of analysis:
Account Department of an organization to analyze the accounting system:
Structure of unit
Work procedures
Accounting manuals
Revenue and expenditure policies
Work- load of staff
Format of the books of accounts
Audit report and so on.
Analysis of above facts, the case study highlights the strengths and weakness of
accounting system of the organization and recommend for improvements.
3.

An organization as a unit of analysis


Organization goals
Policies
Structure
Manpower
Work system
These all areas are carefully studied to analyze the situation and identify the
managerial issues.
Both field cases based on real life and field data; and secondary data which is
library based are two types of cases. These two methods have their own
features, relevance and methodology.
1.6.4 Feasibility Studies

17

Undertaken to assess the potential of a new scheme, idea and provide


base for investment decision.
Feasibility study define and analyze the critical elements such as:
operational aspects
Technical aspects
Marketing
Commercial base
Cost- benefit analyze together with alternatives scheme or ideas
Feasibility studies covers:
From simple, informal observation to complex, formal analysis
Complexity and formality- directly related to nature of project or
scheme.
Feasibility is simple or complex, informal or formal, but careful
planning is must.
In project work, student should decide scope of the study, time- frame,
information needs and methodology
For instance, Feasibility study within organization
1.
Feasibility study of installing computer- based management information
system in organization
2.
Feasibility study of opening a branch of a business in a location
Feasibility study outside the organization
1.
2.
3.

An assessment of the feasibility of opening a stationary shop in a locality


Feasibility study starting a small- scale biscuit factory in a location
Feasibility study starting a gazal restaurant in certain location of a town

Following aspects should be studied and assess as a method of analysis:


1.
Environmental factors
2.
Market factors
3.
Investment requirements
4.
Technical aspects or issues
5.
Cost- benefit estimates or analysis

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Organizing and writing the Project Work report


1.

INTRODUCTION
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6

2.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1
2.2

3.

Research design
Population and sample size
Sampling procedure
Data collection technique
Statistical procedure
Data analysis procedure

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION


4.1
4.2

5.

Conceptual/Theoretical Framework
Review of related study

METHODOLOGY
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6

4.

Background Information
Problem of the study
Objective of the study
Importance of the study
Limitation of the study
Organization of the study

Data presentation and analysis


Major findings of the study

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS


5.1
5.2
5.3

Summary
Conclusion
Recommendation

REFERENCES
APPENDICES

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