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Complex Numbers
The ability to manipulate complex numbers is very handy in circuit analysis and in electrical engineering in general. Complex numbers are particularly useful in the analysis of ac circuits. Again, although calculators
and computer software packages are now available to manipulate complex numbers, it is still advisable for a student to be familiar with how to
handle them by hand.
B.1
Representations of Complex Numbers
A complex number z may be written in rectangular form as
z = x + jy
(B.1)
The complex plane looks like the two-dimensional curvilinear coordinate space, but it is not.
Im
z
jy
r
(B.3)
j5 = j j4 = j
..
.
Figure B.1
j n+4 = j n
Re
Graphical representation
of a complex number.
A second way of representing the complex number z is by specifying its magnitude r and the angle it makes with the real axis, as Fig.
B.1 shows. This is known as the polar form. It is given by
z = |z| = r
where
r=
x2 + y2,
= tan1
(B.4)
y
x
(B.5a)
or
x = r cos ,
y = r sin
(B.5b)
that is,
z = x + jy = r = r cos + j r sin
(B.6)
851
852
APPENDIX B
Complex Numbers
z = x jy,
= 180 + tan1
z = x jy,
= 360 tan1
y
x
y
x
(3rd Quadrant)
(B.7)
(4th Quadrant)
z = rej
(B.8)
This is almost the same as the polar form, because we use the same
magnitude r and the angle .
The three forms of representing a complex number are summarized
as follows.
z = x + jy,
z = r ,
z = rej ,
(x = r cos , y = r sin )
Rectangular form
y
r = x 2 + y 2 , = tan1
Polar form
x
y
r = x 2 + y 2 , = tan1
Exponential form
x
(B.9)
The first two forms are related by Eqs. (B.5) and (B.6). In Section B.3
we will derive Eulers formula, which proves that the third form is also
equivalent to the first two.
E X A M P L E B . 1
Im
j8
z3
z1
j6
r3
j4
u4
8 6 4
u3
j2
2
0
j2
u1
2
j4
r4
r1
8 Re
u2
r2 =
j8
Figure B.2
z2
2 = 360 tan1
8
= 306.87
6
62 + (8)2 = 10,
r2
j6
z4
Hence, the polar form is 10 53.13 and the exponential form is 10ej 53.13 .
(b) For z2 = 6 j 8 (4th quadrant),
(6)2 + 82 = 10,
3 = 180 tan1
8
= 126.87
6
APPENDIX B
Complex Numbers
853
10ej 126.87 .
(d) For z4 = 6 j 8 (3rd quadrant),
r4 =
(6)2 + (8)2 = 10,
4 = 180 + tan1
8
= 233.13
6
10ej 233.13 .
(c) 9.487 251.6 , 9.487ej 251.6 , (d) 7.071 171.9 , 7.071ej 171.9 .
E X A M P L E B . 2
Convert the following complex numbers into rectangular form:
x1 = x2 ,
y1 = y2
(B.10)
854
APPENDIX B
Complex Numbers
= rej
(B.11)
(B.12)
(B.13)
z1
r1
=
1 2
z2
r2
(B.15)
(B.16)
(B.17)
(B.18)
E X A M P L E B . 3
If A = 2 + j 5, B = 4 j 6, find: (a) A (A + B), (b) (A + B)/(A B).
Solution:
(a) If A = 2 + j 5, then A = 2 j 5 and
A + B = (2 + 4) + j (5 6) = 6 j
so that
A (A + B) = (2 j 5)(6 j ) = 12 j 2 j 30 5 = 7 j 32
APPENDIX B
Complex Numbers
(b) Similarly,
A B = (2 4) + j (5 6) = 2 + j 11
Hence,
6j
(6 j )(2 j 11)
A+B
=
=
AB
2 + j 11
(2 + j 11)(2 j 11)
=
12 j 66 + j 2 11
23 j 64
=
= 0.184 j 0.512
(2)2 + 112
125
E X A M P L E B . 4
Evaluate:
j (3 j 4)
(2 + j 5)(8ej 10 )
(b)
2 + j 4 + 2 40
(1 + j 6)(2 + j )2
Solution:
(a) Since there are terms in polar and exponential forms, it may be best
to express all terms in polar form:
(a)
2 + j5 =
22 + 5 2
40 = 2 + j 4 + 2 cos(40 ) + j 2 sin(40 )
= 3.532 + j 2.714 = 4.454 37.54
Thus,
(2 + j 5)(8ej 10 )
2 + j4 + 2
40
43.08 78.2
4.454
37.54
= 9.672 40.66
(b) We can evaluate this in rectangular form, since all terms are in that
form. But
j (3 j 4) = j (3 + j 4) = 4 + j 3
(2 + j )2 = 4 + j 4 1 = 3 + j 4
(1 + j 6)(2 + j )2 = (1 + j 6)(3 + j 4) = 3 4j + j 18 24
= 27 + j 14
855
856
APPENDIX B
Complex Numbers
Hence,
(4 + j 3)(27 j 14)
4 + j 3
j (3 j 4)
=
=
2
(1 + j 6)(2 + j )
27 + j 14
272 + 142
=
108 + j 56 j 81 + 42
= 0.1622 j 0.027
925
287.6 .
B.3
Eulers Formula
Eulers formula is an important result in complex variables. We derive it
from the series expansion of ex , cos , and sin . We know that
ex = 1 + x +
x2
x3
x4
+
+
+
2!
3!
4!
(B.19)
2
3
4
j
+
+
2!
3!
4!
(B.20)
Replacing x by j gives
ej = 1 + j
Also,
2
4
6
+
+
2!
4!
6!
3
5
7
sin =
+
+
3!
5!
7!
cos = 1
(B.21)
so that
cos + j sin = 1 + j
3
4
5
2
j
+
+j
2!
3!
4!
5!
(B.22)
(B.23)
|ej | =
sin = Im(ej )
(B.24)
cos2 + sin2 = 1
APPENDIX B
Complex Numbers
(B.25)
1 j
(e + ej )
2
(B.26)
1 j
(e ej )
2j
(B.27)
B.4
Useful Identities
The following identities are useful in dealing with complex numbers. If
z = x + jy = r , then
zz = x 2 + y 2 = r 2
z = x + jy = rej /2 = r /2
zn = (x + jy)n = r n n = r n ej = r n (cos n + j sin n )
(B.28)
(B.29)
(B.30)
(B.31)
ln(rej ) = ln r + ln ej = ln r + j + j 2k
(k = integer)
(B.32)
1
= j
j
ej = 1
ej 2 = 1
ej /2 = j
(B.33)
ej /2 = j
Re(e(+j )t ) = Re(et ej t ) = et cos t
Im(e(+j )t ) = Im(et ej t ) = et sin t
(B.34)
E X A M P L E B . 5
If A = 6 + j 8, find: (a)
A, (b) A4 .
Solution:
(a) First, convert A to polar form:
r=
62 + 82 = 10,
Then
= tan1
8
= 53.13 ,
6
A = 10 53.13
857
858
APPENDIX B
Complex Numbers