ZOOARCHAEOLOGYIN

GREECE
RECENT ADVANCES

Eleni Kotjabopoulou, Yannis Hamilakis, Paul Halstead,

Clive Gamble and Paraskevi Elefanti (Editors)

:r

BRITISH SCHOOL AT ATHENS

STUDIES 9
('

IS
Animal and marine remains from the new
excavations at Eleusis: an interim report
Michael B. Cosmopoulos, Haske! J Greenfield and Deborah Ruscillo

I:>ITRODUCTION
A small collection of animal and marine remains was
retrieved during the recent stratigraphic excavation in
the S\V slope of the hill at Eleusis (Cosmopoulos I994;
1995a, 1995b; I996). In the present paper, we present
an overview of these finds, in order to gain some insights
into animal and marine remain use and exploitation at
Eleusis, with special emphasis on the Bronze Age. Although the sample is small, its presentation was thought
necessary because this is the only stratified material
from the Bronze Age settlement of Eleusis. As the excavated area was not in the vicinity of cult or religious
areas, the present paper will not be concerned with sacrificial or cult use of bones.
In general, the excavation revealed three main periods of habitation:
1.

II.
111.

Bronze Age (EH II, MH II, MH III, LH 1-11,

and LH III)
Classical (late 5th century); and
Roman (end of znd century BC).

_-\II of the sedimentary deposits were dry-sieved ( I.o

cm 2 mesh) and a substantial percentage was water-sieved
(2.0 mm 2 mesh size) and floated (recovered with a

stacked set of sieves ranging from r.o-o.s mm 2 mesh

sizes). This recovery methodology minimised bias
against the smaller remains (Payne I972).

VERTEBRATE
REMAINS

TERRESTRIAL

FAUNAL

The total number of bone fragments are presented in

T-\BLE I5.I. Only 339% of the total assemblage was
identifiable to a relatively specific taxonomic category
(species, genus, or family). Fish, reptiles, and birds are
each counted as a single taxon, for this purpose, due to
the small number of remains. This is an expected level
of identifiability in systematically collected vertebrate
assemblage from the region (Greenfield I986; 199I;
Greenfield and Fowler n.d.; Payne I985). Most of the
remains were identifiable only to a size-class (large-,
medium-, or small-sized mammals-49.5%). Only a

I5.I: Frequency distribution of the

number of bone fragments by levels of
identification (all periods summed).

T-\BLE

(Birds, fish and tortoises are counted as identified to a

taxon).

Levels of identification

Unidentified
Size class
Identified to a taxon
Total

312
930
636
1878

r6.6
495
339
IOO.O

small percentage was totally unidentifiable (I 6.6% ). All

size class and unidentifiable remains derived from mammalian taxa.
In TABLE I 5.2 the number of fragments is presented
by period and subperiod. Wild species are represented
by very few specimens. A few hare (Lepus europaeus)
fragments were identified in Late MH (n=z) and in
Classical (n=I) deposits. They were fragmentary and
not articulated with other specimens. A single species
of as yet indeterminate tortoise was also present in almost all deposits, but none had butcher marks or burning. The taxon is either Testudo hermanii, Testudo graeca
or Testudo marginahs. The absence of fish from nearly
all strata is startling. Only one specimen was identified
in Late MH deposits. This is contrary to testimonies
from Classical written sources, which indicate substantial exploitation of vertebrate sea fauna (French I994).
This situation cannot be explained by recovery bias since
appropriate mesh sizes were used for the recovery of
even small fish remains (Greenfield I995). In general,
the fauna is overwhelmingly domestic (ranging from
84-Ioo% in various periods) and derives from traditional food animals. Domestic ovicaprids ( Ovis aries and
Capra lzircus) are the most common taxa at the site.
Combined Ovis/Capra totals dominate the assemblage
in all deposits. They represent over 40% of the identified fauna in all cases and over 6o% of the domestic
food fauna (cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats). Both sheep

.....
-4'-

0\
~
......
.......

Table I 5.2: Sum of number of fragments per taxon by period (using NISP).

CJ

All numbers are corrected for articulations (cf. Greenfield 1986).

>J...

t"r)

t-<
~

CJ

Period
Taxon

EH IIEarly MH
N
8

Levels of
identification

Domestic/
Wild

Unidentified

Mammal

Size class

Large mammal
Medium mammal
Small mammal

87
Jo
0
123

Bos taums
Canis .fi11nilia ris
Capra hirws
Equus mba/Ius
Ovis aries
Ovis/Capra
Ovis/ Capra I Sus
Sm scrt1(i1 dom.
Caprel}lus capreolus
Lepw europww
Avessp.
Pisces sp.
Tortoise sp.
Homo sapiem

33
0
3
0
4

Subtotal
Identified

Domestic

Wild

Not
applicable
Subtotal
Grand Total

LHI

LH IIIII

LH III

Classical

Roman

Mixed

N
RJ

N
!04

N
3

N
I7

N
3

N
2S

N
JI2

4
I4
0
r8

so
IIJ
I
170

51
IOJ
0
214

42
IS4
0
190

{j

IS
0
2I

I7
JI
0
48

I2
I4
0
20

14
roo
0
r 14

289
040

{j

24
5

IO
0
3
I
2
68
0
I4
0
0
0
0
7
0

2
I
0
0
0
!2
0
I
0
0
0
0
3
0

7
I
2
2

3
17
0
R
I
I
0
0
4
0

R
0
3
0
2
IS
0
3
0
0
I
0
I
0

0
I7
0
0
0
0
4
0

I
I
0
6
7
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
IJ
53
I
39
0
2
0
4
IO
0

20
2
4
0
7
45
0
25
0
0
0
0
4
I

So

20

IS7

roil

105

It)

40

2II

4R

392

40S

405

43

III

It)

Grand Total

MHLate
N
os

MHMiddle
N
4

{j

930

a(..,;
~

a'1::1
a
~
a

>J...
(..,;

0
s
0

II4
I I
23
3
4I
274
I
I20
I
3
2
4
3R
I

33

02

636

:::r::
::tl

62

201

I878

I
0
4
JR
0
R
0
0
I

t-<
S-:t
(]

::tl
t"r:i
t"r:i

t:;:;

t-<
tJ
::....

<-:
t:J
tJ

t"r:i

b;,

a
~

~t-<

a
I

------

----

--- --------

------

-------~-----------------------

-------------------------~

s aries) and goats (Capra hircus) are present in each

period (except the LH III, where goats were not securely identified, probably because of the extremely
small sample sizes). Ovicaprids appear to increase in
fn:quency over time (30% in the EH, 53% in the MidJk \ lH, and then vary between 45/o and 69% throughout the remaining periods).
.-\11 goat samples are very small (TABLE I 5.2), rangintr from a high of 6 in the EH to a low of 2 in the
Classical. The Bronze Age remains indicate a concentration of adults (66-Ioo%-TABLE I5.3), followed by
that of sub-adults (o--33%, especially in EH and MH
Ic\els), and finally juveniles (o--q%). The consistently
low frequencies of immature (pre-adult) remains can
be interpreted as indicative of a focus upon secondary
product exploitation for goats (hair, milk-Greenfield
1 g88a). On the other hand, the samples from the Classical and Roman periods are dominated by juvenile remains. Although this change may be a result of bias
caused by the small sample, one should keep open the
possibility that this might indicate a subsistence shift
in historic periods.
The age distribution of sheep remains is very different from goats (TABLE I5.3). The ageable samples are
only slightly larger (n=28 for sheep and 20 for goats).
This is somewhat surprising because sheep (n=41) are
much more common than goats (n=23). The Roman
and Classical remains are extremely unreliable because
their samples are so small (n=1 and 2, respectively). As
a result, they will be ignored here. No neonates are
found, probably because of the difficulty in distinguishing sheep from goat with fragmentary neonate remains.
The percentage of juveniles declines over time, but
within a relatively narrow band, from 25% (EH), to
23% in the MH, and I6.6% in the LH. The percentage of sub-adults, in contrast, shows a high variability
(so% in both EH and LH, and 38% in MH). The adult
age distribution is the complement of the juvenile distribution. Adult frequency increases over time from
25% in the EH to 38% in the MH but declines slightly
to 33% in the LH period. In contrast to goats, immature animals dominate the sheep assemblages: 75/o in
the EH, 6I .5% in the lVIH, and 66.6% in the LH. This
can be interpreted as a reflection of a continued emphasis upon primary products exploitation. Sheep appear to remain an important source of meat throughout time, a pattern well-paralleled in other Aegean
Bronze Age sites, such as Knossos, Lerna, and Argissa
(Halstead 1987, Son. 49).
The sheep/ goat ageable remains are the most abundant (n=274) and may be most reflective of changes in
exploitation patterns. Their distribution mostly parallels those of sheep, a predictable finding considering
the difference in sheep and goat frequencies (2X). Small,
but substantial numbers of neonates are found in the
Bronze Age, but these disappear in the Classical and Roman periods. The percentage of juveniles fluctuates
quite widely over time without any obvious temporal
( (); 1

patterning. The percentage of sub-adults, in contrast,

shows a remarkable consistency. AJl of the periods fall
within a narrow range (24-3 I%), with the exception of
the EH (52.9%). Sub-adults dramatically drop in importance during and after the J\IH. This change is paralleled by the adult age distribution. Adults are relatively unimportant in the EH (I 1.7%), double in the
MH (24%), and almost double again in the LH (40%) .
Their proportion remains constant in the ensuing Classical and Roman periods (4o% and 42.8%, respectively).
Domestic cattle (Bos taurus) are the third-most commonly occurring taxon at the site with frequencies varying from 41.2% (EH) to 13.8% (LH), and 24.2% (Roman-TABLE 15.2). Again, all these percentages are
based on very small samples. Adult cattle vary within a
relatively narrow range, but increase over time during
the Bronze Age-from a low of 44% (EH) to a high of
s8.8% (LH). The frequencies of adults plummets dramatically in the Classical period, but again this is probably a direct reflection of the small sample size of ageable
remains (n=4); in Roman times the frequency of adults
increases to 66%, but this is based on only three agreeable remains. Neonates are missing altogether, while the
percentage of juveniles remains stable through the
Bronze Age (1 1%). In contrast, the percentage of subadults declines through the Bronze Age (from a high of
44% in the EH to a low of 29% in the LH). For the
Classical and Roman periods the percentages are unreliable (they show an increase of 25% in each period).
The high frequency of adults during the Bronze Age is
probably a reflection of the increased diversity of exploitation occurring in the Bronze Age. Both primary
and secondary products are being exploited. This is reflected by the low frequencies of juveniles in the sample, which are not being slaughtered so that they will
mature into sub-adults or adults. The sub-adults (probably mostly male) are culled for their tender meat, while
the adults are culled after their utility for secondary
product exploitation has been curtailed (milk, traction-Greenfield I988a; Sherratt I98I). A similar pattern of cattle use has been observed at Tiryns (von den
Driesch and Boessneck 1990, 96-8).
Domestic pigs (Sus scrofa domesticus) are found in
relatively constant but low frequencies (29.3-12.5%).
They vary within the upper end of this range for the
most part, but drop to their lowest (12.5%) in the Roman period. But this drop may not be very significant
since it may be a result of the small Roman sample size.
Pigs can be used as a control for exploitation patterns
in order to determine the nature of their exploitation
since they are the only domestic animal used only for
their primary product (Greenfield 1988a). Roman remains are excluded from this discussion because of their
extremely low frequencies (n=2). Neonate remains are
only found in the LH (3.13%). Juvenile remains vary
within a very narrow range (22.8-31.2%). Sub-adults,
also, vary within a very narrow range (42-48%). Not
surprisingly, adults also vary within a limited range (IS-

>-<

+.

00

TABLE

rs.J: Distribution of age groups by taxon and period (based on NISP).

.......

g
~

t"r:!
t'-<

Age Group
Taxon

Period

Nermate

N
Bos taurus

Capm hirms

Ovis aries

Ovis/Capm

Sus scro(i1 dom.

Equus mba/Ius

EH II/Early MH
MH
LH
Classical
Roman
EH II/Early MH
MH
LH
Classical
Roman
EH II/Early MH
MH
LH
Classical
Roman
EH II/Early MH
MH
LH
Classical
Roman
EH II/Early MH
MH
LH
Classical
Roman
LH
Classical

l)b

Juvenile

N
2
2
I
I

II. I
I I. I
rr.8
25.0
25.0

143

I
2
I
3
I

so.o
66.7
25.0
23. I
r6.7

I
2
14
IO
I
2
4
8
IO
2

IOO
rr.8
483
175
IO.O
28.6
28.6
22.9
3!.3
28.6

4
I
6

235
34
Io.5

3 J

f}b

Juvemlc I Sub-adult
N
96
I

s.6

Sub-adults
444
333
29-4
750
25.0
333
143

2
5
3
2

50.0
38.5
50.0
roo

20.0

31

2
I

50.0

N
4
9
IO
2
2
5
4
I
I

9
7
r8
3
2
6
17
14
3

Adults
(f[J

N
4
6
5
3
I
I
I

52-9
24. I
3J.6
30.0
28.6
429
48.6
438
429
roo

I
5
2

~
(j

9b
444
50.0
58.8
50.0
66.7
71.4
roo
50.0
333
25.0
38.5
333

2
7
23
4
3
4
ro
6
2

rr.8
24.1
404
40.0
42-9
28.6
28.6
r8.8
28.6

I
I

IOO
50.0

V:J

~
a
~
a
_V:i

~
~
t'-<

V:J

~
(1
~

1:1;
1:1;

t;;
t'-<

'
.....

<
b
b

1:1;

l::r.:l

:t:
~

(j

[::::
t'-<

ANIMALANDiVIARINE REMAINS FRQ};I THE NErV EXCAVA.TIONS .-lT ELEUSIS

was found in Late MH, LH I, and temporally-mixed

deposits. One was a medium mammal long bone specimen (Late MH), the second was Ovis/ Capra rib
(mixed), and the third was a Sus scrofa radius (proximal end-LH I). Each mark was made by a knife. No
evidence for the use of axes was found.
Only a very small proportion of the total bone assemblage was modified into tools or ornaments (o. 3%).
As a result, bone modification for the production of
tools and ornaments would not appear to be a significant attritional agent. The frequencies of modified
bones by phase varies from a low of o% to a high of
I .o%. Only three phases had bone tools-Late lVlH
(n=r; 0.3%), LH I (n=4; r.o%) and LH I/III (n=r;
0.2%). The tools are used as handles, awls, and are parts
of other composite tools. Tools are made mostly from
lower limb bones oflarge and medium-sized mammals.
The awl is made from a Bas taurus metatarsal (LH I),
and handles are made from an Ovis/ Capra metatarsal
shaft (MH-Late) and a Sus serafa tibia distal end (LH
I). The indeterminate tool fragments came from medium and large mammal long bone shafts.
A small percentage of all bones in the sample shows
signs of gnawing (1.2%--TABLE IS-4)- All except two
of the gnaw marks are characteristic of canid teeth. Only
two bones are gnawed by rodents (and these come from
mixed contexts). Other types of gnaw marks, such as
those made by pigs (Greenfield Ig88b), were absent.
The small frequency of rodent gnawed bones is very
unexpected given the urban context of the site and rodent remains were not recovered in the excavation. It
would appear that rodent infestation was not a major
problem at the site. There does not appear to be any
temporal patterning in the distribution of dog-gnawed

2 8%).

Pigs display a more typical primary product exploitation pattern than the other domestic taxa. The
emphasis is upon culling of all immature age classes,
but with a special focus upon sub-adults. Animals are
allowed to grow until they have almost reached their
aJult size, but are culled before the meat toughens
(Greenfield rg88a; Halstead 1987, So). A few animals
are allowed to live to adulthood and contribute to the
reproductive pool.
Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) are found in small
frequencies in five temporal deposits-middle lVlH
(n==I), late MH (n=s), LH I (n=2), LH III (n=r), and
Classical (n= r) deposits. In most cases, dog remains
are articulated with a variety of other bone elements,
which would indicate that they were not eaten, but were
killed/ died and then disposed of in a midden deposit
and/ or buried. This is apparent from the partial neonate
dog skeleton uncovered in the Late MH stratum. Three
specimens of fragmentary equid remains were recovered in the LH I/III (n=I) and Classical (n=2) deposits. The remains appear to derive from a relatively smallsized domestic horse (Equus caballus). Their relatively
slender appearance in relation to overall size, leads to
the conclusion that they represent domestic horse rather
than ass. In general, the small occurrence of dogs and
equids is standard in most prehistoric Greek sites
(Halstead I987, 74 nn. I4-IS)Some general characteristics of the material are also
worth mentioning. Few bones in any period were burnt,
and most of them were unidentifiable or only to a sizeclass (6o of the 67 burned bones), with the exception of
a few ovicaprid and suid bones and two tortoise shell
fragments. Only three specimens in the overall sample
exhibited any butchering marks (o. r6%). One of each

T.-I.BLE

I 5.4: Distribution of gnawed bone by period.

Based on Total Number of Fragments (TNF).

Type ofgnawing
Period

A. EH II/Early MH
B. i\lH-Middle
c. LH-Late
D. LHI
E. LH l/lll
F LHlll
G. Classical
H. Roman
I. Mixed
Grand Total

Dog:
heavy

Dog:

N
0
0

Dog:
slight

Rodent:
slight

medium

1 4g

Total
gnawed

3
2
I
0

0
0

2
0

3
0

I3

3
4

2
2

22

%
gnawed

Not
gnawed

1.0
2.I
1.2
I.O
0.2
0
I.8

209

4-8
2.0
1.2

59
I97
I8s6

N
47
387
40I
404
43
!09

ISO

;viiCHAEL B. COSMOPOULOS, HASKELJ. GREENFIELD AND DEBOR-JH RUSCJLLO

bones, except that the Roman deposits had a larger percentage than the rest (4.8%). All the rest had less than
or equal to z.o%. It may be concluded that gnawing of
bones by canids was probably not a significant attritional agent at the site, except in the Roman deposits.

MARINE REMAINS
The excavation produced approximately 14 kg of rnarine remains. Twenty-fiv-e species of marine molluscs

I
I

were identified (T:\BLE I s.s; Cosmopoulos rggsb), comprising the bulk of the sample. Fish, echinoderm (urchin) and crustacean (crab) remains also occurred in
the sample but were too few to allow any inferences on
their exploitation during the relev-ant periods. Remains
from these three groups are fragile and usually underrepresented in the archaeological record. Approximately
88% of the material was recovered from Bronze Age
strata, with a concentration in the Late ?\lH to the LH
I-II periods, suggesting an increased reliance on rnarine resources during those times.

T.-\BLE rs.s: Marine remains distribution by period (cf. Cosmopoulos 199Sh, 47-8).
(c =complete; fr =fragment; frr =fragments)

EHII
Area noae
Ca/lista chione
Capulus sp.
Cardium edule
Cardium lamarkii
Cerithium vulgatum

4C
36 frr
IC
2C
44 frr
I fr
3c
I I frr

LMH

LHI

I6 c
27 frr

I37 c
s6o+ f

2C
3 frr

7C
32 frr
IC
2C
IS frr

27 c
I68 frr
I fr
2C
5c
33 frr

1\lH

2 frr

Chamelea ga!lina
Chlamys sp.
Co/umbe/la rustica

2C
24 frr

LH I-II

LH IIIA-BI Class.

1\lod.

1\lix

3c
460+ fr
4C
IC
II3 frr

Rom.

2C

I6 frr

3 frr

8c
IO frr

3 frr

2C
6 frr
I fr
2 frr

45 frr
2 frr

I fr

I fr

6 frr
4C
6 frr
IC
I fr

2 frr

I fr
IC

2C
2 frr
IC

Conus mediterraneus
Donax lrunwlus

I fr

Glycymeris g(ycymeris
Jl!Ionodonta turbinata

7 frr

I fr

il1urex brandaris

6 frr
A-lure.\ trunculus

IC
3I frr

8 frr

6c
2 frr
I fr
8c
2 frr
2C
I7 frr
4C
400+
frr

2 frr
IO C
I3 frr
3 frr
3 frr
52 frr
3C
soo+
frr

I il1ytilus ga!loprovincialis
Nassarius reticulatus
Ostrea edulis
Pate!la caerulea
Pecten sp.
Pinna nobilis
Spondylus gaederopus

IC

5 frr
2C
25 frr

I fr
7c

2C

3c
3 frr

2c
22 frr

9 frr

6 frr

6 frr
I200+
frr
2 frr

7 frr

frr

IC
5 frr

5 frr
I fr

3 frr

20 frr

5 frr

9 frr

I6 frr

7 frr

3 frr

53 frr
8c
s8 frr
3C
I7 frr

7 frr

3 frr

Venerupis dewssata

IO frr
IC

Vennetus arenarius
Crab (cf. Pagrus sp.)
Urchin (Paracentrotus
lividus)
I

fr

5 frr

frr

frr

frr

s6 frr

29 frr
3 frr
I fr
s8 frr

6 frr

2 frr
q frr

I fr

5 frr

3 frr

6o frr

9I frr

2 frr

7 frr

3 frr

2 frr

7 frr

IS frr

25 frr
3c

Venus verrucosa

Fish (Sparidae)

53 c

I fr
IC

I9 frr
I fr
2 frr
I fr

2 frr
2 frr

2 frr

3 frr

I fr

frr

_-L\"HL-/.L.-!.NDJHARINE REMAINS FROJH THE NEWEXCAT:-J.TIOSS _-/.T ELEUSIS

cornrn (urTed in
'Ces on
:rnains
Jnder11ate!v
:e .r\g~
heLH
n rnaI,

J
6 frr

.-\dding to the weight of the sample from the l\lH II

and LH I periods were the masses of crushed Jl-Jure.\'
shell, likely indicative of dye production because of the
pattern of fra_gmentation. They appear in th~ Late MH
period and disappear after the LH I-II penod, a phenomenon that can be paralleled in Middle and Late
\lB.\ sites in eastern Crete, Keos, and Kythera, as well
as the Argo lid, Attica, and Aegina, where crushed murex
refuse was also found (Reese 1987, 206). A proportionate increase in fragments is also notable for Area,
C<'rithium, Dona.r, Pinna and Spondylus shells during
this period, though it should be remarked that many of
the Spondylus shells were geologically deposited. It is
pos,;ible that Cerirhium were used in the dye making
process as well, since Ceritlzium shells are crushed and
occur in proportionate frequencies along with the
crushed murex remains. Comparanda for this combination of species for dye production are not known from
Greece.

151

tle are adult or sub-adult, but a slight differentiation is

seen in the existence of higher frequencies of juvenile
sheep, which would indicate their use for meat. A similar picture emerges for the LH period. In general, domestic animal use in the Bronze Age shows a strong
degree of continuity. This fits well \Yith what we know
from other Aegean Bronze Age sites (especially in the
Mycenaean period), where practices such as the exploitation of goats primarily for their secondary products,
of sheep for their primary products, of cattle for both
their primary and secondary products, and of pigs for
their meat are well attested (Chadwick 1976, 126-33).
The sample of the later periods, Classical and Roman,
is too small to provide any useful information on subsistence practices.
Although the sample is small, its presentation was
thought necessary, given the fact that this is the only
stratified faunal sample from this important site and
offers a slight glimpse into animal and marine remain
use and exploitation in ancient Eleusis. It is hoped that
future excavations will augment the sample.

CO)JCLUSION

frr

fr

I C

r fr

IC

; frr '
frr Ii

ln general, the exploitation of the fauna from Eleusis

demonstrates a great deal of continuity from the Bronze
_-\ge through Classical times at the site. The same range
of fauna is exploited throughout, and their quantities
do not vary substantially. Wild animals are rarely represented and remain an unimportant component of subsi~tence throughout time (ro% or less). Fish, in particular, are noted for their absence, especially given the
proximity of the site to the sea. Instead, the emphasis is
upon domestic animals. The relative importance of the
various domestic taxa varies over time. A few general
trends are noticeable. Cattle are dominant in the EH
(_p %), but decline in importance thereafter. As cattle
decline, ovicaprids increase in importance from a low
ur _p.s% (EH) to so-6o% in all later periods. Pigs renuin at relatively low but constant frequencies (24-17%
in EH through the Classical). They decline dramatically to 9% in the Roman period. Over time, animals
\Yithout significant secondary product potential become
progressively less important.
The present authors are conscious of the dangers of
making inferences about animal use patterns from a
s;nz,ll sample, especially when sex cannot be discerned
(Halstead 1987, 77). The conclusions drawn here
should, therefore, be viewed with caution and be subject to change when future excavations provide a more
substantial sample. The information provided by the
current sample is small, and tends to be most useful for
the Bronze Age but not for the later periods. In the EH
Pniod, the largest part of the sample consists of young
ur adult cattle and pigs, with a high percentage of
neonate and juvenile ovicaprids, a distribution that
would suggest an emphasis on exploitation of both primary and secondary products. In the MH period, young
and sub-adult sheep/ goats predominate, while the percentages of cattle and pigs are more or less equal. Cat-

REFERENCES
Chadwick,]., 1976. The JI!Iycenaean World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cosmopoulos, M. B., 1994. 'The 1994 season of the Eleusis
excavations', P.AE: 45-60.
Cosmopoulos, i\1. B., I99511. 'The University of Manitoba
excavation at Eleusis, 199-1- season', Echos du Monde
Classique I Classical Views q: 7 5-94.
Cosmopoulos, l\1. B., 1995b. 'The 1995 season of the Eleusis
excavations', P.AE: 23-38.
Cosmopoulos, M. B., 1996. 'Recherches sur !a stratigraphie
prehistorique d'Eleusis: travaux 1995', Echos du Monde
Classique/Ciassical Views 15: I-26.
French, R., 1994. Ancient Natural History. Routledge: New
York and London.
Greenfield, H.]., 1986: The Paleoeconomy o.fthe Central Balkans (Serbia): A Zooarchaeological Perspective on the Late
Neolithic and Bronze Age (ca. 4500-1000 B. C.). Oxford:
BAR, International Series 304.
Greenfield, H.]., r988a. 'The origins of milk and wool pro-

duction in the Old World: a zooarchaeological perspective from the Central Balkans', Current Anthropology 29
(4): 573-93
Greenfield, H.]., r988b. 'Bone consumption by pigs in a contemporary Serbian village: implications for the interpretation of prehistoric faunal assemblages' ,JFA. 15 (3):
473-9
Greenfield, H.]., 1991. 'Fauna from the Late Neolithic of
the Central Balkans: issues in subsistence and land use',
]FA r8: r6r-86.
Greenfield, H. ]., 1995. 'The 1995 excavations at Eleusis:
the faunal remains', PA.E ISI: 43-36.
Greenfield, H.J. and K. Fowler, n.d. 'The vertebrate fauna',
in Excavations at Megalo Nisi Galanis, Nomos Kozani.
Unpublished manuscript.
Halstead, P., 1987. 'Man and other animals in later Greek
prehistory', BSA 82:71-83.

152

MICHAEL B. COSklOPOULOS, HASKELJ GREENFIELD ..J.i\'DDEBOR.J.H RUSCILLO

Payne, S., 1972.. 'Partial recovery and sample bias: the results
of some sieving experiments', in E. S. Higgs (ed.), Papers in Economic PrehistOJy: -1-9-6-1-. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Payne, S., 1985. 'Zoo-archaeology in Greece: a reader's guide',
inN. Wilkie and W. D. E. Coulson (eds.), Contributions
to Aegean A.rchaeology: Studies in Honor of William A.
lvlcDona!d: 211-44. Minneapolis: University ofl\linnesota, Center for Ancient Studies.
Reese, D. S., 1987. 'Palaikastro shells and Bronze Age purple-dye production in the Mediterranean basin', BSA

8z: 2.01-6.
Sherratt, A. G., 198r. 'Plough and pastoralism: aspects of
the secondary products revolution', in I. Hodder, G. Isaac
and N. Hammond (eds.), Pattern !({the Pas/: Essays in
Honor ofDavid Clarke: 2.61-306. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
von den Driesch, A., and]. Boessneck, 1990. 'Die
Tierreste von den mykenischen Burg Tiryns bei
Nauplion/Peloponnes', in]. Weisshaar (ed.), Tirvns
Forschungen und Beridtte XI: 8;-r 6-1-. l\lainz: ~on
Zabern.