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3. TEMPERATURE SENSORS
In this part, we will look at a platinum RTD resistance transducer. The construction of the
transducer is shown in Figure 2.
It consists of:
A thin film of platinum deposited on a ceramic substrate
Gold contact plates at either end
3.1
Operational Principles
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3.2 Characteristics
Set the slider of the 10k carbon resistor to mid-way and connect the circuit as
shown in Figure 3, with the digital multi-meter set to its 200mV or 2V DC range.
Switch ON the power supply and adjust the slider control of the 10k resistor so that
the voltage drop across the platinum RTD is 108mV as indicated by the digital multimeter.
This calibrates the platinum RTD for an assumed ambient temperature of 20C, since the
resistance of the RTD at 20C will be 108. Note that the voltage reading across the
RTD in mV is the same as the RTD resistance in , since the current flowing must be
108/108=1mA.
Note: If the ambient temperature differs from 20C, the voltage can be set to the correct
value for this ambient temperature if desired:
1. Set the voltmeter to its 20V range and measure the INT output from the IC
Temperature Sensor to obtain the ambient temperature in K by multiply the
output with 100 (K = output of INT 100), then C=K-273. This provides the
reference temperature.
2. RTD resistance = 100 + 0.385 * C. Set the voltage drop across the RTD for this
value.
Connect the +12V supply to the Heater Element input and note the values of the
voltage across the RTD with the voltmeter set to its 200mV (this representing the
RTD resistance) and the output voltage from the IC Temperature Sensor with
the voltmeter set to its 20V range, (this representing the temperature of the RTD) at
the time set in Table 1.
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Convert the two voltage readings to RTD Temperature (K) and RTD Resistance ()
and record the values in Table 1.
Table 1: Resistance-Temperature relationship
Time (minutes)
RTD
K
Temperature C
RTD Voltage (mV)
RTD Resistance ()
IC Voltage (V)
Plot the graph of RTD resistance () against temperature (C) on the axes provided
below (Graph 1). Extend your graph down to cover 0C.
Graph 1
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10
3.3
Questions
1. Enter the total change in the resistance of the RTD Transducer over the temperature
range 20-50C in .
2. Is the resistance/temperature characteristic linear?
3. Enter your estimated (extrapolated) resistance of the RTD Transducer from the graph
at 0C.
4. Calculate the power dissipation in the RTD Transducer at a temperature of 50C
when the standard circuit current of 1mA flows in it:
W.
Switch OFF the power supply.
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4. LIGHT SENSORS
In this part, we will look at a photovoltaic and a photoconductive cell, and their
applications to light measurement.
One of the PN regions is made very thin (1 micron). Light can easily pass through
this without much loss of energy.
When light reaches the depletion layer, it is absorbed and the released energy creates
electron-hole pairs which diffuse across the junction.
A voltage is set up and a current will flow if a resistance is connected across the
terminals.
When used as an energy source, they are known as solar cells.
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4.1.2 Characteristics
Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 5 with the digital multi-meter (ammeter) on
the 2mA range to measure the short circuit current between the Photovoltaic
Cell output and the ground. Fit an opaque box over the clear plastic enclosure to
exclude all ambient light.
Switch ON the power supply and set the 10k wire wound resistor to minimum for
zero output voltage from the power amplifier.
Switch OFF the power supply, set the multi-meter as a voltmeter to read the open
circuit output voltage. Switch ON the power supply and repeat the readings, adding
the results to Table 2.
Table 2: Current/Voltage-Light relationship
Lamp filament
Voltage (volts)
Short Circuit
Output Current
(A)
Open Circuit
Output Voltage
(V)
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10
Plot the graphs of Photovoltaic Cell short circuit output current and open
circuit output voltage against the Lamp Filament voltage on the axes provided
(Graph 2).
Graph 2
4.1.3 Questions
1. From the graph, estimate and enter the short circuit output current in A when the
lamp filament voltage is 7.5V.
2. Are the graphs linear?
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The resistance of the semiconductor material between the gold contacts reduces when
light falls on it as electron-hole pairs of charge carriers are created.
The change in resistance can be detected via an electrical circuit.
Another name for this device is Light Dependent Resistor (LDR).
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4.2.2 Characteristics
Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 7 and set the 10k carbon slider control to
setting 3 so that the Photoconductive Cell load resistance is approximately
3k as shown in the equivalent circuit in Figure 8.
Switch ON the power supply and set the 10k wirewound resistor to minimum for
zero output voltage from the power amplifier.
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Plot the graph of Photoconductive Cell output voltage against the lamp filament
voltage on the axes provided in Graph 3.
Table 3: Voltage-Light relationship
Lamp filament
Voltage (volts)
Photoconductive
Cell Output (V)
Graph 3
From the graph, estimate and enter the Lamp Filament voltage when the circuit
output voltage is 3V.
Switch OFF the power supply.
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10
Figure 9: LVDT
Center coil is the primary and is supplied from an AC supply. The coils on either
side are secondary coils and labeled A and B.
Coils A and B have equal number of turns and are connected antiphase in series
so that the output voltage is the difference between the voltages induced in the
coils.
Output voltage changes in amplitude which increases with the movement of the
core from the neutral position to a maximum value. The phase changes according
to the direction of movement.
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5.1.2 Characteristics
Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 10 with the digital multi-meter on the 2V DC
range to monitor the output of the Full-Wave Rectifier. Switch ON the power
supply.
Set the GAIN COARSE control of Amplifier #1 to 100 and GAIN FINE control
to 0.2. Check that the OFFSET control is set for zero output with zero input and
adjust if necessary.
Adjust the core position by rotating the operating screw to the neutral position. This
will give minimum output voltage. Note the value of this voltage from the digital
multi-meter and record in Table 4.
Rotate the core control screw in steps of 1 turn for 4 turns in the clockwise direction
(when viewing the control from the left-hand side of the D1750 unit) and record your
results in Table 4. Then turn the control screw in the counter clockwise direction,
again recording the results in Table 4.
Table 4: Position-Output Voltage relationship
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Plot the graph of output voltage from the analog meter readings against core position
on the axes provided.
Graph 4
Switch OFF the power supply.
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The unit is attached to the beam under test and is arranged so that the variation in
length under loaded conditions is along the gauge sensitive axis
Loading the beam increases the length of the gauge wire and also reduces its
cross-sectional area. Both of these effects will increase the resistance of the wire.
The force on the beam can be detected through the change in resistance.
5.2.2 Characteristics
You will have 5 similar weights to increase the force loading on the strain gauge in
regular steps.
Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 12 and set Amplifier #1 GAIN COARSE
control to 100.
Switch ON the power supply and with no load on the strain gauge platform, adjust the
offset control of Amplifier #1 so that the output voltage is zero.
Place all five of your weights on the load platform and adjust the GAIN FINE
control to give an output voltage of 7.0V as indicated on the moving coil meter.
Note that this value of output value should cover all ranges of coins within the setting
of the GAIN FINE control.
Place one weight on the load platform and note the output voltage. Record the value
in Table 5.
Repeat the process, adding further weights one at a time, noting the output voltage at
each step and recording the values in Table 5.
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Plot the graph of output voltage against number of coins on the axes provided in Graph 5.
Graph 5
Enter the output voltage obtained with four coins on the platform.
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The beam from the LED is reflected back to transistor if a reflective surface is
placed at the correct distance on the rotating disc. A non-reflective surface breaks
the beam.
In this case, we have 3 LEDs and phototransistors, each corresponding to a ring of
the disc. The rotating disc is overlaid with Gray-coded adhesive as shown in
Figure 14.
Therefore, from the output of the transistor, the positional zone and rotational
speed can be derived.
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Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 15 with the digital multi-meter on the 20V DC
range.
Switch ON the power supply and rotate the drive shaft by hand to alter the LED
states.
Rotate the shaft until it is in the position with all LEDs OFF. Use the digital multimeter to measure the voltage at each of the outputs and record in Table 6.
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Turn the shaft until all LEDs are ON and repeat the readings, recording the results
again in Table 6.
Table 6: Output Voltage
Output Voltage (V)
LED OFF
LED ON
Output
A
B
C
With the shaft initially in the position with all LEDs OFF, rotate the shaft
counterclockwise, when looking at the coded side of the disc, and note the state of the
LEDs at each change of state.
Denote an LED OFF as logic state 0 and LED ON as logic state 1.
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When current flows through the flat slice of semiconductor at right angles to a
magnetic field, there is a force on each electron which tends to move it in one
particular direction (the motor principle)
The current is pushed to one side of the slice. The surplus of electrons on one side
means that this side is negatively charged, resulting in an EMF across the slice
(the Hall voltage VH) which is at right angles to both the current and the magnetic
field.
The value of this voltage is directly proportional to the strength of the magnetic
field.
By monitoring the value of this voltage, the sensor can thus be used for proximity
and speed measurement.
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6.2.2 Characteristics
Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 17. Set the Amplifier #1 GAIN
COARSE control 10, GAIN FINE to 0.8 and the motor drive voltage to zero. Switch
ON the power supply.
Set the drive shaft position so that the magnet in the Hall effect disc is horizontal (to
one side) so that there is no magnetic field cutting the Hall effect device.
Adjust the OFFSET control of Amplifier #1 for zero output indication on the
Moving Coil Meter.
Note the output voltage from the and + output sockets of the Hall effect device with
the digital voltmeter directly on the Hall Effect Sensor panel and the also
from the Moving Coil Meter. Record the results in Table 8.
Table 8: Output voltage
Magnetic
Field
None
Maximum
Digital Multi-meter
Output Voltage (-)(V)
Moving
Coil Meter(V)
Rotate the disc so that the magnet is directly above the Hall effect device. This
position will be indicated by the maximum output voltage.
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These readings illustrate the basic characteristics of the Hall effect device and indicate its
application to proximity detection. It is also suitable for speed measurement applications.
Transfer the digital multi-meter to the output of the Power Amplifier and apply an
input voltage of 2V to the motor so that the shaft rotates slowly. Press the Counter
RESET button and note the displayed value, this representing the shaft speed in
rev/sec. Record the result in Table 9.
Table 9: Shaft speed
Motor Voltage
Shaft Speed (rev/sec)
Hall Effect
Transducer
2V
4V
7V
10V
Repeat the procedure for the other values of motor drive voltage given in Table 9 for
Comparison. Switch OFF the power supply.
Hall effect devices are available for proximity detection, linear or angular displacement,
multiplier and current or magnetic flux density measurement applications.
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7. SOUND SENSOR
The construction of an ultrasonic transmitter/receiver for sound measurement is shown in
Figure 18. The receiver and transmitter are almost identical and consist of a slice of
ceramic material with a small diaphragm fixed to it, inside the case of the unit.
Certain ceramic materials produce a voltage when they are stressed (piezoelectric
principle).
Vibration of the diaphragm stresses the ceramic material and produces an output
voltage.
The reciprocal applies to the transmitter. An applied alternating voltage produces
stress which causes the ceramic slice to vibrate.
The dimensions of components are arranged so that there is resonance (best
response) at 40kHz. This is above audible range and is therefore referred to as
ultrasonic.
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7.2 Characteristics
Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 19. Set the AC Amplifier gain control to
1000 and Amplifier #1 GAIN COARSE control to 1 and GAIN FINE to 0.5.
Switch the Low Pass Filter time constant to 100ms.
Switch ON the power supply and adjust Amplifier #1 OFFSET to give zero
output on the Moving Coil Meter.
Note the bargraph display as you move your hand or any other object over the
ultrasonic devices. The display should respond, indicating the receipt of a signal of
frequency 40kHz by the ultrasonic receiver.
Place a small book (approximately 6 inches (15cm) x 4 inches (10cm)) or other flat
object 3 feet (90cm) above the ultrasonic transducers. Slowly move the object closer
to the transducers, watching the output reading on the bargraph display, until the
object is covering the transducers.
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At which of the following positions is the maximum output obtained? (Choose one)
(a) Object in contact with the Ultrasonic Transducers.
(b) Object 4 inches (10cm) above the unit.
(c) Object 12 inches (30cm) above the unit.
(d) Object 3 feet (90cm) above the unit.
Remove any other equipment from the vicinity so that you have free access to the
ultrasonic transmitter/receiver area.
Increase the Amplifier #1 GAIN FINE control to 1.0. Hold a thin object such
as a pencil approximately 6 inches (15cm) above the ultrasonic transducers, move it
horizontally and vertically and note the effect on the output response. This indicates
how critical the direction angle is for the device.
Put a sheet of paper over the ultrasonic transducers to intercept the path and move
your hand up and down above the transducers.
In this exercise, the received signal has been amplified rectified, filtered (to remove all
unwanted frequencies) and then amplified again to operate the display.
Pulsed ultrasonic devices can be used for distance measurement to reflecting surfaces by
measurement of the time between the transmission and return of the pulsed signal.
8. REPORT
The report should log the results from the experiment with your own interpretations,
observations and conclusions. You should try to answer all questions in the manual.
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