Building

Building Construction
hazara buildcon private ltd

INDUSTRIAL TRAINING/ PROJECT WORK REPORT
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the
Bachelor of Technology
in
CIVIL ENGINEERING
By
DHEERAJ SHARMA
An ISO 9001:2008 Certified Institution

Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to M.D.University, CIVIL
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
GURGAON COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
GURGAON-122413
JUNE 2014
COMPANY/Employers CERTIFICATE
To WHOMSOEVER IT MAY CONCERN
This is to certify that Mr.DHEERAJ SHARMA, S/o Mr. K.G.SHARMA bearing College Roll
No.1006009, a student of Gurgaon College of Engineering, Gurgaon has done his 4 months
Project/training from 03/02/2014 to 03/06/2014 for the partial fulfillment of B.Tech in Civil
Engineering at LARSEN AND TOUBRO .
The project work entitled DLF CAPITAL GREENS embodies the original work done by
Mr.DHEERAJ SHARMA for the above project training under the Guidance of Mr.ANKUR
JAIN. His performance was found to be excellent during the above project.
Project Manager
Managing Director
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

GURGAON COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
CANDIDATES DECLARATION
I hereby certify that the work which is being presented in the Project report entitled DLF
CAPITAL GREENS in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Bachelor of
Technology in Civil Engineering, and submitted in CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,
GURGAON COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, Maharishi Dayanand Univesity, Rohtak is an
authentic record of Project of my own work carried out during a period from 03/02/2014 to
03/06/y2014 under the supervision of Mr.ANKUR JAIN, CLUSTER MANAGER ,
CIVIL/Division, LARSEN AND TOUBRO, DLF CAPITAL GREENS,NEW MOTI NAGAR..
The matter presented in this report has not been submitted by me for the award of any other
degree/diploma of this or any other Institute.
DHEERAJ SHARMA
This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of our
knowledge.
Signature of Supervisor
Signature of Head, Civil Engg.
Table of Contents
Chapter No-01................................................................................................................ 7
Introduction................................................................................................................ 8
COMPANY PROFILE:-.............................................................................................. 10
Objective/Aim of the study............................................................................................ 11
Need of the study.................................................................................................. 12
Chapter No-2................................................................................................................ 13
STUDY AREA/CONSTRUCTION SITE Details............................................................13
Types of construction projects........................................................................14
Construction process................................................................................................ 15
Financial Advisor................................................................................................... 17
Interaction of expertise............................................................................................ 19
Procurement............................................................................................................... 19
Material Used in Construction............................................................................22
Construction phase......................................................................................................... 29
Your responsibilities checklist..........................................................................30
It is recommended that you have active involvement during construction........30
Arrangement of Rooms........................................................................................ 32
DRAWINGS.............................................................................................................. 51
Types of building construction........................................................................... 57
Chapter no-3.......................................................................................................... 70
SOFTWARE TOOLS/ANALYTICAL TOOLS ADOPED..........................................70
Elements of construction..................................................................................... 71
Chapter No-4................................................................................................................ 78
Result.................................................................................................................... 78
Estimation of Building Construction...............................................................79
Chapter No-5................................................................................................................ 81
Conclusion............................................................................................................. 82
Reference............................................................................................................ 84
Figure 1.................................................................................................................... 52
Figure 2.................................................................................................................... 53
Figure 3.................................................................................................................... 56
Table 1...................................................................................................................... 44
Table 2...................................................................................................................... 50
Table 3...................................................................................................................... 51
Chapter No-01
Introduction
Introduction
The basics needs of human existences are food, clothings & shelter. From times immemorial
man has been making efforts in improving their standard of living. The point of his efforts has
been to provide an economic and efficient shelter. The possession of shelter besides being a
basic, used, gives a feeling of security, responsibility and shown the social status of man.
Every human being has an inherent liking for a peaceful environment needed for his pleasant
living, this object is achieved by having a place of living situated at the safe and convenient
location, such a place for comfortable and pleasant living requires considered and kept in view.
A Peaceful environment.
Safety from all natural source & climate conditions
General facilities for community of his residential area.
The engineer has to keep in mind the municipal conditions, building bye laws, environment,
financial capacity, water supply, sewage arrangement, provision of future, aeration, ventilation
etc., in suggestion a particular type of plan to any client.
Building construction is the process of preparing for and forming buildings and building
systems. Construction starts with planning, design, and financing and continues until the
structure is ready for occupancy.
Far from being a single activity, large scale construction is a feat of human multitasking.
Normally, the job is managed by a project manager, and supervised by a construction
manager, design engineer, construction engineer or project architect. For the successful
execution of a project, effective planning is essential. Those involved with the design and
execution of the infrastructure in question must consider the zoning requirements,
the environmental impact of the job, the successful scheduling, budgeting, construction site
safety, availability and transportation of building materials, logistics, inconvenience to the public
caused by construction delays and bidding, etc.
Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property or construction of
buildings. The vast majority of building construction jobs is small renovations, such as addition
of a room, or renovation of a bathroom. Often, the owner of the property acts as laborer,
paymaster, and design team for the entire project. However, all building construction projects
include some elements in common design, financial, estimating and legal considerations. Many
projects of varying sizes reach undesirable end results, such as structural collapse, cost overruns,
and/or litigation. For this reason, those with experience in the field make detailed plans and
maintain careful oversight during the project to ensure a positive outcome.
Commercial building construction is procured privately or publicly utilizing various delivery
methodologies, including cost estimating, hard bid, negotiated price, traditional, management
contracting, construction management-at-risk, design & build and design-build bridging.
Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources must conform to local building
authority regulations and codes of practice. Materials readily available in the area generally
dictate the construction materials used (e.g. brick versus stone, versus timber). Cost of
construction on a per square meter (or per square foot) basis for houses can vary dramatically
based on site conditions, local regulations, economies of scale (custom designed homes are often
more expensive to build) and the availability of skilled trades people. As residential construction
8
(as well as all other types of construction) can generate a lot of waste, careful planning again is
needed here.
COMPANY PROFILE:The Construction industry of India is an important indicator of the development as it creates
investment opportunities across various related sectors. The construction industry has contributed
an estimated 6708 billion to the national GDP in 2011-12 (a share of around 9%). The industry
is fragmented, with a handful of major companies involved in the construction activities across
all segments; medium-sized companies specializing in niche activities; and small and medium
contractors who work on the subcontractor basis and carry out the work in the field. In 2011,
there were slightly over 500 construction equipment manufacturing companies in all of
India. The sector is labor-intensive and, including indirect jobs, provides employment to more
than 35 million people.
Hajara Building Pvt. Ltd was incorporated as a Public Sector Undertaking in November 1960.
Hajara Building Pvt. Ltd is a multinational engineering construction company under the aegis of
the Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India.
Hajara Building Pvt. Ltd aims to cement its position as a leading company in the construction
engineering and consultancy services, providing efficient and quality execution of projects. Its
main line of business is execution of civil Engineering Projects, rendering of Consultancy
Services and Development of Real Estate Projects.
Within a few years of its initiation, Hajara Building Pvt. Ltd spread its activities all over India in
fulfillment of its objectives discussed below. Hajara Building Pvt. Ltd zonal centers in important
centers like Calcutta, Hyderabad, Nasik, Mumbai, to name a few, work today as profit centers.
Hajara Building Pvt. Ltd today has the infrastructure to undertake and execute projects in any
corner of the country without difficulty. Hajara Building Pvt. Ltd has also had many fruitful
alliances with foreign companies and has operations in Mauritius, Nepal and Libya.
Objective/Aim of the study
To analyze the financial statements of Hajara Building Pvt. Ltd using various methods
like:
Cash flow statement
Balance sheet
Vouchers
Cash book
To determine the various accounting procedures in the Compilation of Accounts

Department of Hajara Building Pvt. Ltd.
Scope of study was very wide as it involved analyzing the financial procedures of the
company as well as to understand and learn about various accounting procedures of the
company.
To learn how various vouchers are prepared
To understand how fixed assets are managed by the company and how to work on the
Fixed Asset Management Software (FAMS) used by the company to maintain records of
all its fixed assets.
10
Need of the study
To provide best building construction

Less time consuming
More productivity
Less Price
Best services
Best Design
11
Chapter No-2
STUDY AREA/CONSTRUCTION SITE Details
12
Types of construction projects
1. Residential building construction
These building include any building in which sleeping accommodation provide for
normal residential purposes, with or without cooking and dining facilities .It includes
single and multifamily dwellings apartment house, lodgings or rooming house
restaurants and hostels.
2. Light commercial construction
3. Multi-family construction
4. Health-Care construction
5. Environmental construction
6. Industrial construction
7. Commercial building construction
8. Institutional construction
These buildings are used for different purposes, such as medical or other treatment or
care of persons suffering from physical or mental illness, diseases or infirmity, care of
infants, convalescents or aged persons and for penal detention in which the liberty of the
inmates is restricted. Institutional buildings ordinarily provide sleeping accommodation
for the occupants.
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9. Heavy civil construction
Each type of construction project requires a unique team to plan, design, construct and maintain
the project.
Construction process
Design Team
In the modern industrialized world, construction usually involves the translation of designs into
reality. A formal design team may be assembled to plan the physical proceedings, and to
integrate those proceedings with the other parts. The design usually consists of
drawings and specifications, usually prepared by a design team including surveyors, civil
engineers,
cost
engineers
(or quantity
surveyors), mechanical
engineers, electrical
engineers, structural engineers, fire protection engineers, planning consultants, architectural

consultants, and archaeological consultants. The design team is most commonly employed by
(i.e. in contract with) the property owner. Under this system, once the design is completed by the
design team, a number of construction companies or construction management companies may
then be asked to make a bid for the work, either based directly on the design, or on the basis of
drawings and a bill of quantities provided by a quantity surveyor. Following evaluation of bids,
the owner will typically award a contract to the most cost efficient bidder.
The modern trend in design is toward integration of previously separated specialties, especially
among large firms. In the past, architects, interior designers, engineers, developers, construction
managers, and general contractors were more likely to be entirely separate companies, even in
the larger firms. Presently, a firm that is nominally architecture" or "construction management"
14
firm may have experts from all related fields as employees, or to have an associated company
that provides each necessary skill. Thus, each such firm may offer itself as "one-stop shopping"
for a construction project, from beginning to end. This is designated as a "design build" contract
where the contractor is given a performance specification and must undertake the project from
design to construction, while adhering to the performance specifications.
Several project structures can assist the owner in this integration, including design-build,
partnering and construction management. In general, each of these project structures allows the
owner to integrate the services of architects, interior designers, engineers and constructors
throughout design and construction. In response, many companies are growing beyond
traditional offerings of design or construction services alone and are placing more emphasis on
establishing relationships with other necessary participants through the design-build process.
The increasing complexity of construction projects creates the need for design professionals
trained in all phases of the project's life-cycle and develop an appreciation of the building as an
advanced technological system requiring close integration of many sub-systems and their
individual components, including sustainability. Building engineering is an emerging discipline
that attempts to meet this new challenge.
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Financial Advisor
Construction projects can suffer from preventable financial problems. Underbids ask for too
little money to complete the project. Cash problems exist when the present amount of funding
cannot cover the current costs for labor and materials, and because they are a matter of having
sufficient funds at a specific time, can arise even when the overall total is enough. Fraud is a
problem in many fields, but is notoriously prevalent in the construction field Financial planning
for the project is intended to ensure that a solid plan with adequate safeguards and contingency
plans are in place before the project is started and is required to ensure that the plan is properly
executed over the life of the project.
Mortgage bankers, accountants, and cost engineers are likely participants in creating an overall
plan for the financial management of the building construction project. The presence of the
mortgage banker is highly likely, even in relatively small projects since the owner's equity in the
property is the most obvious source of funding for a building project. Accountants act to study
16
the expected monetary flow over the life of the project and to monitor the payouts throughout the
process. Cost engineers and estimators apply expertise to relate the work and materials involved
to a proper valuation. Cost overruns with government projects have occurred when the contractor
was able to identify change orders or changes in the project resulting in large increases in cost,
which are not subject to competition by other firms as they have already been eliminated from
consideration after the initial bid.
Large projects can involve highly complex financial plans and often start with a conceptual
estimate performed by a building estimator. As portions of a project are completed, they may be
sold, supplanting one lender or owner for another, while the logistical requirements of having the
right trades and materials available for each stage of the building construction project carries
forward. In many English-speaking countries, but not the United States, projects typically use
quantity surveyors.
Legal Aspects
A construction project must fit into the legal framework governing the property. These include
governmental regulations on the use of property, and obligations that are created in the process of
construction.
The project must adhere to zoning and building code requirements. Constructing a project that
fails to adhere to codes will not benefit the owner. Some legal requirements come
from melamine considerations, or the desire to prevent things that are indisputably bad bridge
collapses or explosions. Other legal requirements come from malum prohibited considerations,
or things that are a matter of custom or expectation, such as isolating businesses to a business
17
district and residences to a residential district. An attorney may seek changes or exemptions in
the law governing the land where the building will be built, either by arguing that a rule is
inapplicable (the bridge design will not collapse), or that the custom is no longer needed
(acceptance of live-work spaces has grown in the community).
A construction project is a complex net of contracts and other legal obligations, each of which
must be carefully considered. A contract is the exchange of a set of obligations between two or
more parties, but it is not so simple a matter as trying to get the other side to agree to as much as
possible in exchange for as little as possible. The time element in construction means that a delay
costs money, and in cases of bottlenecks, the delay can be extremely expensive. Thus, the
contracts must be designed to ensure that each side is capable of performing the obligations set
out. Contracts that set out clear expectations and clear paths to accomplishing those expectations
are far more likely to result in the project flowing smoothly, whereas poorly drafted contracts
lead to confusion and collapse.
Legal advisors in the beginning of a construction project seek to identify ambiguities and other
potential sources of trouble in the contract structure, and to present options for preventing
problems. Throughout the process of the project, they work to avoid and resolve conflicts that
arise. In each case, the lawyer facilitates an exchange of obligations that matches the reality of
the project.
Interaction of expertise
Design, finance, and legal aspects overlap and interrelate. The design must be not only
structurally sound and appropriate for the use and location, but must also be financially possible
to build, and legal to use. The financial structure must accommodate the need for building the
18
design provided, and must pay amounts that are legally owed. The legal structure must integrate
the design into the surrounding legal framework, and enforce the financial consequences of the
construction process.
Procurement
Procurement describes the merging of activities undertaken by the client to obtain a building.
There are many different methods of construction procurement; however the three most common
types of procurement are traditional (design-bid-build), design-build and management
contracting.
There is also a growing number of new forms of procurement that involve relationship
contracting where the emphasis is on a co-operative relationship between the principal and
contractor and other stakeholders within a construction project. New forms include partnering
such as Public-Private Partnering (PPPs) aka private finance initiatives (PFIs) and alliances such
as "pure" or "project" alliances and "impure" or "strategic" alliances. The focus on co-operation
is to ameliorate the many problems that arise from the often highly competitive and adversarial
practices within the construction industry.
Traditional
This is the most common method of construction procurement and is well established and
recognized. In this arrangement, the architect or engineer acts as the project coordinator. His or
her role is to design the works, prepare the specifications and produce construction drawings,
administer the contract, tender the works, and manage the works from inception to completion.
There are direct contractual links between the architect's client and the main contractor. Any
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subcontractor will have a direct contractual relationship with the main contractor. The procedure
continues until building is ready for occupancy.
Design-build
This approach has become more common in recent years, and involves the client contracting a
single entity to both provide a design and to build that design. In some cases, the design-build
package can also include finding the site, arranging funding and applying for all necessary
statutory consents.
The owner produces a list of requirements for a project, giving an overall view of the project's
goals. Several D&B contractors present different ideas about how to accomplish these goals. The
owner selects the ideas he or she likes best and hires the appropriate contractor. Often, it is not
just one contractor, but a consortium of several contractors working together. Once these have
been hired, they begin building the first phase of the project. As they build phase 1, they design
phase 2. This is in contrast to a design-bid-build contract, where the project is completely
designed by the owner, then bid on, then completed.
Kent Hansen pointed out that state departments of transportation usually use design build
contracts as a way of progressing projects when states lack the resources. In such departments,
design build contracts are usually employed for very large projects
Management procurement systems
In this arrangement the client plays an active role in the procurement system by entering into
separate contracts with the designer (architect or engineer), the construction manager, and
individual trade contractors. The client takes on the contractual role, while the construction or
20
project manager provides the active role of managing the separate trade contracts, and ensuring
that they complete all work smoothly and effectively together.
Management procurement systems are often used to speed up the procurement processes, allow
the client greater flexibility in design variation throughout the contract, give the ability to appoint
individual work contractors, separate contractual responsibility on each individual throughout the
contract, and to provide greater client control.
Material Used in Construction

Building material is any material which is used for a construction purpose. Many naturally
occurring substances, such as clay, sand, wood and rocks, even twigs and leaves have been used
to construct buildings. Apart from naturally occurring materials, many man-made products are in
use, some more and some less synthetic. The manufacture of building materials is an established
industry in many countries and the use of these materials is typically segmented into specific
specialty trades, such as carpentry, plumbing, roofing and insulation work. They provide the
make-up of habitats and structures including homes.
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Fabric: The tent used to be the home of choice among nomadic groups the world over. Two well
known types include the conical teepee and the circular yurt. It has been revived as a major
construction technique with the development of tensile architecture and synthetic fabrics.
Modern buildings can be made of flexible material such as fabric membranes, and supported by a
system of steel cables.
Mud and clay: The amount of each material used leads to different styles of buildings. The
deciding factor is usually connected with the quality of the soil being used. Larger amounts of
clay usually mean using the cob/adobe style, while low clay soil is usually associated with sod
building. The other main ingredients include more or less sand/gravel and straw/grasses.
Rammed earth is both an old and newer take on creating walls, once made by compacting clay
soils between planks by hand; now forms and mechanical pneumatic compressors are used. Soil
and especially clay is good thermal mass; it is very good at keeping temperatures at a constant
level. Homes built with earth tend to be naturally cool in the summer heat and warm in cold
weather. Clay holds heat or cold, releasing it over a period of time like stone. Earthen walls
change temperature slowly, so artificially rising or lowering the temperature can use more
resources than in say a wood built house, but the heat/coolness stays longer.
Peoples building with mostly dirt and clay, such as cob, sod, and adobe, resulted in homes that
have been built for centuries in western and northern Europe as well as the rest of the world, and
continue to be built, though on a smaller scale. Some of these buildings have remained habitable
for hundreds of years.
Rock: Rock structures have existed for as long as history can recall. It is the longest lasting
building material available, and is usually readily available. There are many types of rock
throughout the world all with differing attributes that make them better or worse for particular
22
uses. Rock is a very dense material so it gives a lot of protection too, its main draw-back as a
material is its weight and awkwardness. Stone walls have been built for as long as humans have
put one stone on top of another. Eventually different forms of mortar were used to hold the
stones together, cement being the most commonplace now. Circular huts were constructed from
loose granite rocks throughout the Neolithic and early Bronze Age. Granite continued to be used
throughout the Medieval period and into modern times. Slate is another stone type, commonly
used as roofing material in many parts of the world where it is found. Mostly stone buildings can
be seen in most major cities, some civilizations built entirely with stone such as the Pyramids in
Egypt, the Aztec pyramids and the remains of the Inca civilization.
Thatch: Thatch is one of the oldest of building materials known; grass is a good insulator and
easily harvested. Many African tribes have lived in homes made completely of grasses year
round. In Europe, thatch roofs on homes were once prevalent but the material fell out of favor as
industrialization and improved transport increased the availability of other materials. Today,
though, the practice is undergoing a revival.
Cement: In the most general sense of the word, cement is a binder, a substance that sets and
hardens independently, and can bind other materials together. Cement used in construction is
characterized as hydraulic or non-hydraulic. Hydraulic cements (e.g., Portland cement) harden
because of hydration, chemical reactions that occur independently of the mixture's water content;
they can harden even underwater or when constantly exposed to wet weather. The chemical
reaction that results when the anhydrous cement powder is mixed with water produces hydrates
that are not water-soluble. Non-hydraulic cements (e.g., lime and gypsum plaster) must be kept
dry in order to retain their strength. Cement is made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate)
with small quantities of other materials (such as clay) to 1450 C in a kiln, in a process known as
23
calcinations, whereby a molecule of carbon dioxide is liberated from the calcium carbonate to
form calcium oxide, or quicklime, which is then blended with the other materials that have been
included in the mix. The resulting hard substance, called 'clinker', is then ground with a small
amount of gypsum into a powder to make 'Ordinary Portland Cement', the most commonly used
type of cement (often referred to as OPC). Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is manufactured in
the form of different grades, the most common in India being Grade-53, Grade-43, and Grade33. Ordinary Portland Cement-Grade 43 is largely used for residential, commercial, and other
building construction purposes. It has a compressive strength of 560 kg per square cm. Ordinary
Portland Cement-Grade 53 is known for its rich quality and is highly durable. Hence it is used
for constructing bigger structures like building foundations, bridges, tall buildings, and structures
designed to withstand heavy pressure. Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar
and most non-specialty grout. The most common use for Portland cement is in the production of
concrete. Portland cement may be grey or white. The most important use of cement is the
production of mortar and concretethe bonding of natural or artificial aggregates to form a
strong building material that is durable in the face of normal environmental effects. Concrete
should not be confused with cement, because the term cement refers to the material used to bind
the aggregate materials of concrete. Concrete is a combination of a cement and aggregate.
Concrete: Concrete is a composite building material made from the combination of aggregate
and a binder such as cement. The most common form of concrete is Portland cement concrete,
which consists of gravel, sand, Portland cement and water. After mixing, the cement hydrates and
eventually hardens into a stone-like material. This is the material referred to by the term
concrete. For a concrete construction of any size, as concrete has a rather low tensile strength, it
is generally strengthened using steel rods or bars. This strengthened concrete is then referred to
24
as reinforced concrete. In order to minimize any air bubbles that would weaken the structure, a
vibrator is used to eliminate any air that has been entrained when the liquid concrete mix is
poured around the ironwork. Concrete has been the predominant building material in this modern
age due to its longevity, formability, and ease of transport. Recent advancements, such as
Insulating concrete forms, combine the concrete forming and other construction steps. All
materials must be taken in required proportions as described in standards. For concrete the ratio
of cement: sand: gravel is 1: 2 : 3. For wall construction the ratio of cement to sand ratio is 1 : 6.
For plastering the ratio of cement to sand is 1:4. In any case the mixture should be used with in 3
to 4 hours for best results.
Metal: Metal is used as structural framework for larger buildings such as skyscrapers, or as an
external surface covering. There are many types of metals used for building. Steel is a metal
alloy whose major component is iron, and is the usual choice for metal structural building
materials. It is strong, flexible, and if refined well and/or treated lasts a long time. Corrosion is
metal's prime enemy when it comes to longevity. The lower density and better corrosion
resistance of aluminum alloys and tin sometimes overcome their greater cost. Brass was more
common in the past, but is usually restricted to specific uses or specialty items today. Metal
figures quite prominently in prefabricated structures such as the semi cylindrical hut, and can be
seen used in most cosmopolitan cities. It requires a great deal of human labor to produce metal,
especially in the large amounts needed for the building industries. Other metals used include
titanium, chrome, and gold, silver. Titanium can be used for structural purposes, but it is much
25
more expensive than steel. Chrome, gold, and silver are used as decoration, because these
materials are expensive and lack structural qualities such as tensile strength or hardness.
Glass: Glassmaking is considered an art form as well as an industrial process or material. Clear
windows have been used since the invention of glass to cover small openings in a building. They
provided humans with the ability to both let light into rooms while at the same time keeping
inclement weather outside. Glass is generally made from mixtures of sand and silicates, in a very
hot fire stove called a kiln and are very brittle. Very often additives are added to the mixture
when making to produce glass with shades of colors or various characteristics (such as
bulletproof glass, or light remittance). The use of glass in architectural buildings has become
very popular in the modern culture. Glass "curtain walls" can be used to cover the entire facade
of a building, or it can be used to span over a wide roof structure in a "space frame". These uses
though require some sort of frame to hold sections of glass together, as glass by itself is too
brittle and would require an overly large kiln to be used to span such large areas by it.
Plastic: Plastic pipes penetrating a concrete floor, roofs and walls of a building for electrical
wiring, water and sewerage purposes. The term plastics cover a range of synthetic or semisynthetic organic condensation or polymerization products that can be molded or extruded into
objects or films or fibers. Their name is derived from the fact that in their semi-liquid state they
are malleable, or have the property of plasticity. Plastics vary immensely in heat tolerance,
hardness, and resiliency. Combined with this adaptability, the general uniformity of composition
and lightness of plastics ensures their use in almost all industrial applications today.
Foam: Foamed plastic sheet to be used as backing for fire stop mortar. More recently synthetic
polystyrene or polyurethane foam has been used in combination with structural materials, such as
concrete. It is light weight, easily shaped and an excellent insulator. It is usually used as part of a
26
structural insulated panel where the foam is sandwiched between wood or cement or insulated
concrete forms where concrete is sandwiched between two layers of foam.
Cement composites: Cement bonded composites are made of hydrated cement paste that binds
wood or alike particles or fibers to make pre-cast building components. Various fibrous materials
including paper and fiberglass have been used as binders. Wood and natural fibers are composed
of various soluble organic compounds like carbohydrates, glycosides and phenolics. These
compounds are known to retard cement setting. Therefore, before using a wood in making
cement boned composites, its compatibility with cement is assessed. Wood-cement compatibility
is the ratio of a parameter related to the property of a wood-cement composite to that of a neat
cement paste. The compatibility is often expressed as a percentage value. To determine woodcement compatibility, methods based on different properties are used, such as, hydration
characteristics, strength, interfacial bond and morphology.
Modern industry: Modern building is a multibillion dollar industry, and the production and
harvesting of raw materials for building purposes is on a world wide scale. Often being a primary
governmental and trade key point between nations. Environmental concerns are also becoming a
major world topic concerning the availability and sustainability of certain materials, and the
extraction of such large quantities needed for the human habitat.
Building Products:-In the Market palace the term building products often refers to the readymade
particles/sections made from various material that are fitted in architectural hardware and
decorative hardware parts of a building. The list of building products exclusively exclude the
building materials, which are used to construct the building architecture and supporting fixtures
like windows, doors, cabinets, etc. Building products do not make any part of a bajingo rather
they support and make them working in a modular fashion. It also can refer to items used to put
27
such hardware together such as glues, caulking, paint, and anything else bought for the purpose
of constructing a building.
Construction phase
Once the plans are drawn, the materials have been chosen, and your finance is arranged, the next
steps in the building process are likely to be:
1.
Finding a builder (and subcontractors if you are managing the building project
yourself).
2.
Getting tenders and quotes.
3.
Revising the budget, if necessary.
4.
Making your selection of builder and subcontractors.
5.
Signing the contracts.
6.
Making sure the appropriate insurance has been organized.
7.
Applying for building and resource consents if not already underway - the
applications may already have been lodged by you or your architect or designer.
8.
Construction starts:
Monitoring progress
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Making progress payments

Approving variations to structure or materials
Building inspections by the Building Consent Authority (BCA) inspectors.
9.
Final stages:
completion and final inspections for the code compliance certificate

retentions and remedial work
Final payment.
10.
Dealing with problems when things go wrong.
11.
Landscaping.
Often these steps happen together, or in a different order, depending on your circumstances.
Your responsibilities checklist
It is recommended that you have active involvement during construction.
Before work begins:
Make sure building consent has been issued.
Make sure that you understand all the documentation have the architect or builder
explain the plans and specifications to you and make sure you are happy with the design
changes during construction are likely to be costly.
From March 2012, if the work is restricted building work, make sure the appropriate
licensed building practitioners will be designing and carrying out or supervising out the
work.
Talk to a lawyer about the contract.
Ensure that the site is cleared and ready for the builder to start work.
29
Make sure your builder has unhindered access to the site.
While work is in progress:
Develop a good working relationship with your builder. If you have any concerns
about the work, discuss them right away.
Keep changes to a minimum and instruct your builder in writing about all variations
to the specified work and ensure you get a written costing. Be aware any changes you make
may mean you have to amend your building consent.
Choose materials and finishes carefully and approve them before use.
If you are responsible for choosing the appliances and any other materials or fittings
and fixtures, make sure they are already bought when the builder reaches that stage.
Keep to the payments schedule and pay promptly.
When the work is complete:
Report any urgent defects to your builder promptly and in writing.
List any non-urgent defects for your builder to correct at an agreed time.
Settle the final account promptly.
It is your responsibility to apply for a code compliance certificate when the building
work is complete.
Vision/fantasy/idea - a concept never intended to be built, may be an aesthetic or

structural design exercise
30
Proposed - a building concept that is under review by a government
Approved - a building concept that will be constructed in the near future
Deferred - a building concept that may be constructed in the far future
Cancelled - a building concept that usually has lost funding or support, in some cases
construction already started
Under-construction - a fully designed building currently being built
Topped-out - a fully designed building that has reached its highest point
Complete/built - a fully designed building that has been fully built, excluding future
expansions
Arrangement of Rooms
LIVING ROOM
KITCHEN
STORE ROOM
31
BED ROOM
OFFICE ROOM
BATH & W C
DRESSING ROOM
VERANDAH
STAIR CASE
LIVING ROOMS:This is the area is for general use. Hence the living & drawing room should be planned near the
entrance south east aspects. During colder day the sun is towards the south & will receive
sunshine which is a welcoming feature. During summer sunshine ti the northern side & entry of
sunrays from southern or south east aspects do not arise.
KITCHEN:Eastern aspects to admit morning sun to refresh & purity the air.
READING ROOM/ CLASS ROOM:32
North aspects this makes more suitable since there will be no sun from north side for most part
of the year.
BED ROOM:
Bed may also be provided with attached toilets, there size depends upon the number of beds, they
should be located so as to give privacy & should accommodate beds, chair, cupboard, etc., and
they should have north or west south west aspect.
BATH & W.C:
Bath and w.c are usually combined in one room & attached to the bed room and should be well
finished. This should be filled with bath tub, shower, wash-hand basin, w.c, shelves, towels,
racks brackets, etc., all of white glazed tiles. Floor should be mosaic or white glazed files.
Instead of providing all bed room with attached bath and W.C separated baths & latrines may
also be provided
VERANDAH:There should verandah in the front as well as in the rear. The front verandah serves setting place
for male members & weighting place for visitors. The back verandah serve a ladies apartment for
their sitting, working controlling, kitchen works etc., verandah project the room against direct
sun, rain & weather effect. They used as sleeping place during the summer and rainy season &
are used to keep various things verandah also give appearance to the building. The area of a
building may vary from 10% to 20% of the building.
STAIR CASE:33
This should be located in a easily accessible to all members of the family, when this is intended
for visitors it should be in the front, may be on one side of verandah. It meant for family use
only, the staircase should be placed the rear. The stairs case should be well ventilated & lighted
the middle to make it easy & comfortable to climb. Rises & threads should be uniform through to
keep rhythm while climbing or descending.
Some helpful points regarding the orientation of a building are as follows:
Long wall of the building should face north south, short wall should face.
East and west because if the long walls are provided in east facing, the wall.
Absorb more heat of sun which causes discomfort during night.
A verandah or balcony can be provided to wards east & west to keep the rooms cool.
To prevent suns rays & rain from entering a room through external doors & windows
sunshades are required in all directions.
ORIENTATION:After having selected the site, the next step is proper orientation of building. Orientation
means proper placement of rooms in relation to sun, wind, rain, topography and out look and
at the same time providing a convenient access both to the street and back yard.
The factors that affect orientation most are as follows.
Solar heat
Wind direction
Humidity
34
Rain fall
Intensity of wind site condition
Lightings and ventilation
SOLAR HEAT:Solar heat means suns heat; the building should receive maximum solar radiation in
winter and minimum in summer. For evaluation of solar radiation, it is essential to know
the duration of sunshine and hourly solar intensity on exposed surfaces.
WIND DIRECTION:The winds in winter are avoided and are in summer, they are accepted in the house to the
maximum extent.
HUMIDITY:High humidity which is common phenomenon is in coastal areas, causes perspiration, which is
very uncomfortable condition from the human body and causes more disomfort.
RAIN FALL:Direction and intensity of rainfall affects the drainage of the site and building and hence, it is very
important from orientation point of view.
INTENSITY OF WIND:Intensity of wind in hilly regions is high and as such window openings of comparatively small
size are recommended in such regions.
SITE CONDITIONS:-
35
Location of site in rural areas, suburban areas or urban areas also effects orientation, sometimes
to achieve maximum benefits, the building has to be oriented in a particular direction.
LIGHTING:Good lighting is necessary for all buildings and three primary aims. The first is to promote the
work or other activities carried on within the building. The second is to promote the safety of
people using the buildings. The third is to create, in conjunction to interest and of well beings.
VENTILATION:Ventilation may be defined as the system of supplying or removing air by natural or mechanical
mean or from any enclosed space to create and maintain comfortable conditions. Operation of
building and location to windows helps in providing proper ventilation. A sensation of comfort,
reduction in humidity, removal of heat, supply of oxygen is the basic requirements in ventilation
apart from reduction of dust.
DESIGNS
DESIGN OF SLABS
Slabs are to be designed under limit state method by reference of IS 456:2000.
When the slab is supported in two way directions it acts as two way supported slab.
A two way slab is economical compared to one way slab.
SLAB DESIGN: fck = 15 N/mm2 fy =415 N/m2
Span
i. Shorter span:- Lx = 5.8m longer span:-Ly =7.62m
ii. Check Lx/Ly= 7.62/5.8 =1.3<2 Hence the slab has to be designed as two way slab.
36
iii. Providing over all depth of slab as 5, 120mm eff. depth= D-15-/2 =120-15-10/2=100mm
iv. Condition:- supported on four sides.
v. Load calculation:- Dead load = 25x0.12x1 = 3.0KN/m Live load =2x1 = 2.0KN/m Floor finish
=1x1 = 1x1KN/m = 6.0 KN/m
vi. Bending moment calculation:(as per IS code 456-2000)
Type of panel:Two adjacent edges are discontinuous
ax(+) = 0.049 ax(-) = 0.065
ay(+) = 0.035 ay(-) = 0.047
(+ve) B.M at mid span in shorter directions.
Mx(+) = ax(+)wlx2
= 0.049x6x5.8^2= 9.9kn-m
factored B.M = 9.9x1.5 =14.85kn-m
Spacing and diameter:
As per sp-16. Provide 8mm bars at 210mm spacing.
(-ve) B.M at continuous edge in shorter direction.
Mx(-) =ax (-) wlx2
=0.062x6x(5.8)^2
=13.12kn-m
factored B.M = 13.12x1.5=19.67kn-m
(+ve) B.M at mid span in longer directions.
My(+)= ay(+)wlx2
37
= 0.035x6x(5.8)^2 =7.06kn-m
factored B.M=7.06x1.5
=10.69kn-m (-ve)
B.M at continuous edge in longer direction.
My(-ve) = ay (-ve)wlx2
=0.047x6x(5.8)^2 =9.48kn-m
factored B.M=9.48x1.5 =14.22kn-m.
Check for depth:

Permissible depth=100mm
Mu.lim =0.36.Xumax(1-0.42Xumax)fckbd^2
D
14.86x10^6= 0.36.Xumax (1-0.42x0.48)15x1000d^2

d= 84.71 < 100mm Hence ok.
LOADS ON BEAMS
Bl: BEAM
SPAN=5.8m (shorter span) Assuming beam size = 9"x16"(230x405mm) Height of the wall10%3m
Load calculations Wall load - 0.23x3x19 =13.111Cn/m Self load 0.23x0.406x25 =2.331Cn/m
Slab load W = 6KN Lx = 5.8 WLx/3= (6x5.8)/3 = 11.61Cdm Total load = 13.11+2.33+11.6 =
27.041<n/m
DESIGN OF STIRRUPS:
B1 :BEAM
38
Calculation of shear force
Va= Vb = total load 2 =27.04x5.8 =78.4 16KN
Calculanon of nortnal shear
Tv =Vu =1.5x78.416x1r3 =137
Bd 230x373 CalcuLton of peranssibLe shear stress Tc = . of tension steel =Su - 100 Bd
Ast = ">,c16 -'gyp =402.12=1'7 4 Pt = 402.12x100 = 60.
2307373
Tc =030 Tc c Tv 0.05 < 0.76 Hence provide sheer reinSarcensent.
Design of shear:
Vs = (Tv-Tc)1x1 =0.76-0 50)x230x373 =22 301s3C
Calculation: Sus =223Q =339 lattai D(ms) 373 Prom sp-16 table no 62 we will get cha &
spacing.
He provide tan (ha @ 20 cna cc spacing.
Check for spacing: Spacing should be provided min of the following.

(a) 0.75d = 0.75x373 =279.75 mm
(b) Asv fv =2x(45^2xv/4)x250 =153.2nun 0.4b 0.4x230
(c) design spacing 45cm c/c
Hence provide 6nun dia stirrups 15 cm c/c.
LOADS ON BEAMS:
B2: BEAM
39
SPAN=7.62m (longer span) Assuming beam size = 9"x16"(230x405mm) Height of the wall10'-3m
Load calculations
Wall load - 0.23x3x19 =13.111(n/m Self load 0.23x0.406x25 =2.331CnIm Slab load W
= 614g Ly = 7.62 WLy/3= (6x7.62)/3 = 15.24Kn/m Total load = 13.11+2.33+15.24 =
30.6SKn/m
DESIGN OF STIRRUPS: B2:BEAM
Calculation of shear force Va=Vb= total load
1 =30.68x7.62 =116.89ICN 1 Calculation of normal shear Tv =Vu =1.5x116.89x10^3 =2.04
Bd 230x373
Calculation of permissible shear stress
Tc = % of tension steel Pt = Ast x 100 Bd Mt = 2x16^2xp =402.12mm^2 4 Pt = 402.12x100
= 0.60% 230x373
Tc =0.50 Tc < Tv 0.05 < 0.85 Hence provide shear reinforcement.
= 0.60% 230x373
= 0.60% 230x373
40
Design of shear:
Vs = (Tv-Tc)bd 0.50)x230x373 =30.02KN
Calculation: Vus =230.02 =0.89KN/cm D(cm) 37.3 From sp-16 table no 62 we will get dia &
spacing.
Hence provide 6mm dia 15cm c/c spacing.
Check for spacing: Spacing should be provided min of the following.
(a) 0.75d = 0.75)673 =279.75 mm
(b) Asp fy =2x(6^2xp/4)x250 =153.2mm 0.4b 0.4x230
(c) design spacing 45cm c/c
Hence provide 6nun dia stirrups @ 15 cm c/c
DESIGN OF BEAMS:
Mu at Left span = 11.57710I-m Mu at Mid span = 19.18 KNI-ra Mu at Right span=
20.361CN-m
Check:Calculation limiting moment of resistances:
Mu =11.577 KN-m Mulimt *1138 fck bd2 0.138x20x230x305^2 = 59.05 KN-m Mu -:
Mulimit Hence it is designed as simply reinforcement beam using sp-16 tt =11.577x10^6
41
=1.39 ton 230x305 2 Refer table no.2 at sp-16 and read out the value of percentage of
reinforcement Corresponding to fy 415 NlnamA2 and fck = 20Nimm^2 Ford = 139 Pt ?
bd^2 1.35 0.409 1.40 0.426 1.39
Mu = 1.39 Pt = 0.422 bc1A2 Pt = 0.411 % Area of reinforcement
Pt = Astc100 Bd 0.422x230x405 100 = 393.093 mmA2 Ast required = 393.093 mm^2 Ast
provided: Hence provide 3 bars & 11 mmdia Ast provide =400 mmA2
Reinforcement of mid span:-Calculate limiting moment of resistances Mu =19.18 KN-m
Mulimt = 0.138 fck bdA2 =0.138x201230x305^2 = 59.05101-m Mu < Mulimit Hence it is
designed as singly reinforcement.
Mu = 1.39 Pt = 0.422
bc1A2 Pt = 0.411 % Area of reinforcement
Pt = Astc100 Bd 0.422x230x405 100 = 393.093 mmA2 Ast required = 393.093 mm^2 Ast
provided: Hence provide 3 bars & 11 mmdia Ast provide =400 mmA2
Reinforcement of mid span:-Calculate limiting moment of resistances Mu =19.18 KN-m
Mulimt = 0.138 fck bdA2 =0.138x201230x305^2 = 59.05101-m Mu < Mulimit Hence it is
designed as singly reinforcement.
BY USING SP-16 Mu -19.18x10^6 BdA2 130:605^2 - 0.66 Refer table no.2 at sp-16and
read out the value of percentage of reinforcement Corresponding to fy = 415N/mmA2 and
fck ='70 Nmm2
Mu pt
0.65 0.187 0.70 0.203 0.66 Pt =0.190% Reinforcement
Pt = Asm100 Bd 4.19k230x305 100 -133.285mm2
42
Ast provided
Hence provided 2mm bars & 12mm dia
Ast provided = 155.2mm2
Reinforcement of right span:Check: Calculate limiting moment of resistance:- Mu =20.36 KN-m Mulimi = 0.138 fel bdA2
0.138x20x230x305^2 = 59.05KN-m
Mu < Mulimit Hence it is designed as singly reinforcement. BY USING SP-16
Mu =20.36x10^6 Br2 230x305^2 =1.39 Mu Pt
Bc1A1
1.35 0.409 0.426 0.426 1.39
Pt = 0.422%
Reinforcement = Pt = Ast x100 bd
Ast =0.422x230x305
100
296.033mm2
Ast provided
Hence provide 3 bars and 12mm dia
Ast provided =300mm^2.
DESIGN OF BEAMS
Beam is a member which transfers the loads from slab to columns and then foundation to soil.
Beam is a tension member.
Span of slabs, which decide the spacing of beams.
43
Following are the loads which are acting on the beams.
Dead load
Live load
Wind load
DESIGN OF COLUMNS
Columns are compression members.
Larger spacing columns because stocking columns in lower stores of multi storied
buildings.
Columns are transmitted loads which are coming from slabs to foundations. Larger spans
of beams shall also be avoided from the consideration of controlling the deflection &
cracking.
COLUMNS:
The column which takes load are:
(a) Slab loads
(b) Beam loads
(c) Wall loads
(d) Self. Wt of column
44
Table 1
Total loads on column:

Loads from roof = 77.35KN Loads from floor = 94.58KN Self wt. of coltunn = 0.23x0.23x3x25
= 34.5KN total loads = 167KN Column Axial load:
Pu = 167 KN Cross section--- 230x230mm calculation: Pu = 167x10^3 = 0.15 fck*b*d
20x230x230
Calculation of Eccentricity:
45
e= 1 + b 500 30 = 400 + 21Q_ = 16.94m 500 30 e<20 mm
Mue = Pu*e = 167*0.020 = 3.34 Kn-m
Mue = 3.34x10^6 = 0.0112 fck bdA2 20x230x230^2
d' = 0.2
D
P = 0.02 fck
DESIGN OF FOOTING
Size of column (b) 230x380(a) Load = 400.69KN Self wt. of footing = 10% Bearing capacity of
soil = 250 Kn/m2 Area of footing Total load = 440.76KN Area of footing = 440.76/250 = 1.76m2
the side of the footing be in the same ratio of column 0.23x*0.38x =1.76 = 0.0874e21.76
x=4.4Sm Short side of footing = 0.234'4.48 = 1.0 m
Long side of footing = 0.38*4.48 = 1.70 m
Proved a rectangle footing 1mx1.7m
Up ward soil pressure = 440.76 = 259.27 Kn/m2 = 260 KN/m2 (1*1.7)
MOMENT CALCULATION:
Maximum bending moment along y- direction longer direction
Mm = q xl 8 (B-b)2
=260xl.7 8 (1-6023)"2
= 32.75 KN-in
Maxinnnn bending moment along x- direction shorter direction
Myy = q-b 8 (B-b)2
I 260xl 8(l.7-0.38)62
46
= 56.62 KN-in
Depth of footing:
Depth of footing form moment consideration d = v Myy/Qb = v 56.62x10^6/0.91x1000 d
=249.43 say 250 mm check for shear (two- way shear) W q[Lxb-(a+d)(b+d)] =250[1.7x1(0.38+250)(230+250)] =363.37 1C14
Normal shear stress:
V = 363.37x1063 = 654.72 N/ront2
[2(a+d)(b+d)d] [2(0.38+0.25)(0.23+0.25)0.25]
Tc = 0.65 NImm2.
Allowable shear stress:
Tv = k x Tc where k = 0.5+ 0.23 0.38 =1.10 k>1.1 Ka = 1.0 x 16 x fck Ka = 0.78 14/ mrn2
Tv < Tc safe to compute normal shear stress due to one way action area of tensile steel
required. Ast(yy) = Mw = 56.62x10^6 0.91X bd 0.91x 250x 0.23 Ast = 1082.08 nun2 Ast x
100 = 1082.08x100 bd 100x250x0.23 From table 23 Tc = allowable shear stress 0.27
blInun2
One way shear:

The critical section along (1-1) L a d =17200 -380-250 2 2 2 2 =410 nun
Shear force:
Upward pressure on the hatched area V= 260X1X0.410 =106.6
Normal shear:
47
Tv = y = 106.6 xl0A3 Bd 1 x1000x250 =0.42 Minna Tv >Tc in case of one way shear The
effective depth to be increase
Let the eff. Depth be 350 nun Tv = V
21(a+d)+(b+d)1d V =260[1.7x1-(0.38-
0.350)+(0.23+0.35)] V =101.4KN Nominal shear Tv = 101.4x103

24(0.38+0.35)+(0.23+0.35)0.35) = 0.110N nun2
Tc >Tc 0.6054 > 0.110 Hence safe Adopt eff depth = 35 nun Eff cover = 50 nun
Overall depth = 400 nun
Reinforcement in longitudinal direction:
Ast = 32.75 x106 0.872(2303650 =447.08 nun Spacing of 12 nun mid steel leaving a clearance
of 250mm on the either side S = 9504p*122 447.684 =239.99 mm Provide 12nun bars at 230
nun c/c
Reinforcement in shorter direction:

Ast = Mw = 56.62x10^6 bd 230x350x0.90 = 781.50 mm2
The reinforcement in the central band width 1.7 provide in accordance with = Reinforcement in
central band width / total reinforcement in shorter direction. = 1.7/1 = Reinforcement in central
band =Ast x 2 = 2 =578.94 mm2 B+1 (1.7+1) Spacing of 10 nim dia bars at 190mmc/c The steel
48
for the remaining width = 781.50 -578.94 =20236 mm2 Provide 4 bars of 12min dia on either of
the central ban width
Developed length:
From IS 456-2000 L4 = dia vs 4Tbd =0.S7xfvx dia =0.87x415xdia =47 dia =47x12 =52Snun 4x
Tbd 4x(1.6x1.2) Available length from face of column (1000 230) -50 2 =8035 nun>528 nun
Load transfer from column to footing:
Nominal bearing stress in column concrete. Vbt = 440.76x10^3 = 5.04 NI mm2 Ac 230x380
Bearing stress un M15 concrete *125x20 =5N/ mni2
Allowable bearing stress =5V Al A2 v Al >2
A2 = 5v 1697400 230x380 = 4.40 limited 2 Allowable bearing stress = 2x5 =10 N/ mm2 >6067
The minimum steel required for dowel bars or loa transferring bar is 0.5% of column As = 0.5
x230x380 100 =437 mm2 No.of 12mm dia = 437x12^2 =3.86 v/4
Provide 4 nos of bars of 12nunbars development length of dowel bars Ld vs x dia 44 dia 4T bd
for 12 turn dia Ld =528 nun The dowel is to be extended by 528nun into column. Available depth
in footing Effective to the centre of 20 nun dia 350nun Deduct V2 x 20 =10 nun Deduct 12 nun
di
Net available distance 1350-10-12] =323 Provide bent of bars to [528-328] =200 nun.
49
DRAWINGS
PLAN
Table 2
Beam
50
Table 3
51
Figure 1
52
Layout Plan
Figure 2
The systematic layout planning (SLP) is a tool used to arrange a workplace in a plant by
locating two areas with high frequency and logical relationships close to each other. The
process permits the quickest material flow in processing the product at the lowest cost and least
amount of handling.
53
A tool is any physical item that can be used to achieve a goal, especially if the item is not
consumed in the process. Informally the word is also used to describe a procedure or process
with a specific purpose. Tool use by humans dates back millions of years, and other animals are
also known to employ simple tools.
Tools that are used in particular fields or activities may have different designations such as
"instrument", "utensil", "implement", "machine", or "apparatus". The set of tools needed to
achieve a goal is "equipment". The knowledge of constructing, obtaining and using tools
is technology.
A business process or business method is a collection of related, structured activities
or tasks that produce a specific service or product (serve a particular goal) for a particular
customer or customers. It can often be visualized with a flowchart as a sequence of activities
with interleaving decision points or with a Process Matrix as a sequence of activities with
relevance rules based on data in the process.
Material flow (MF) is the description of the transportation of raw materials, pre-fabricates,
parts, components, integrated objects and finally products as a flow of entities. The term applies
mainly to advance modeling of Supply chain management. As industrial material flow can easily
become very complex.
For complex systems, several different specialized simulation tools are developed. Typical tools
are:
Plant Simulation for production systems
54
Plant
Simulation is
computer
application
developed
by Siemens
PLM
Software for modeling, simulating, analyzing, visualizingand optimizing production
systems and processes, the flow of materials and logistic operations. Using Tecnomatix Plant
Simulation, users can optimize material flow, resource utilization and logistics for all levels
of plant planning from global production facilities, through local plants, to specific lines.
Within the Plant Design und Optimization Solution the software portfolio, to which Plant
Simulation belongs, is together with the products of the Digital Factory and of Digital
Manufacturing part of the Product Lifecycle Management Software (PLM).
The application allows
comparing
complex production alternatives,
including
the
immanent process logic, by means of computer simulations. Plant Simulation is used by

individual production planners as well as by multi-national enterprises, primarily to
strategically plan layout, control logic and dimensions of large, complex production
investments.[3] It is one of the major products that dominate that market space.
Auto Mod for logistics systems
Any logic
Levels of plant layout Design

There are four levels of detail in plant layout design,
1. Site layout: shows how the building should be located in a proper way.
2. Block layout: shows the sizes of departments in the buildings.
3. Detailed layout: shows the arrangements of equipment and workstations in the
departments.
55
4. Workstation layout: shows the locations of every part of the workstation.
Types of building construction

Concrete frame structure
Concrete frame structures are a very common - or perhaps the most common- type of modern
building. As the name suggests, this type of building consists of a frame or skeleton of concrete.
Horizontal members of this frame are called beams, and vertical members are called columns.
Humans walk on flat planes of concrete called slabs. Of these, the column is the most
important, as it is the primary load-carrying element of the building (See figure 2 at the bottom of
the page for an illustration of each of the major parts of a frame structure). If you damage a
beam in a building, it will usually affect only one floor, but damage to a column could bring
down the entire building.
Figure 3
56
When we say concrete in the building trade, we actually mean reinforced concrete. Its full name
is reinforced cement concrete, or RCC. RCC is concrete that contains steel bars, called
reinforcement bars, or rebars. This combination works very well, as concrete is very strong in
compression, easy to produce at site, and inexpensive, and steel is very very strong in tension.
To make reinforced concrete, one first makes a mould, called formwork, that will contain the
liquid concrete and give it the form and shape we need. Then one looks at the structural
engineer's drawings and places in the steel reinforcement bars, and ties them in place using wire.
The tied steel is called a reinforcement cage, because it is shaped like one. Once the steel is in
place, one can start to prepare the concrete, by mixing cement, sand, stone chips in a range of
sizes, and water in a cement mixer, and pouring in the liquid concrete into the formwork tilll
exactly the right level is reached. The concrete will become hard in a matter of hours, but takes a
month to reach its full strength. Therefore it is usually propped up until that period. During this
time the concrete must be cured, or supplied with water on its surface, which it needs for the
chemical reactions within to proceed properly.
Working out the exact 'recipe', or proportions of each ingredient, is a science in itself. It is
called concrete mix design. A good mix designer will start with the properties that are desired in
the mix, then take many factors into account, and work out a detailed mix design. A site engineer
will often order a different type of mix for a different purpose. For example, if he is casting a thin
concrete wall in a hard-to-reach area, he will ask for a mix that is more flowable than stiff. This
will allow the liquid concrete to flow by gravity into every corner of the formwork. For most
construction applications, however, a standard mix is used. Common examples of standard mixes
are M20, M30, M40 concrete, where the number refers to the strength of the concrete in n/mm2
or newtons per square millimeter. Therefore M30 concrete will have a compressive strength of
57
30 n/mm2. A standard mix may also specify the maximum aggregate size. Aggregates are the
stone chips used in concrete. If an engineer specifies M30 / 20 concrete, he wants M30 concrete
with a maximum aggregate size of 20mm. He does NOT want concrete with a strength of
between 20-30 n/mm2, which is a common misinterpretation in some parts of the world.
So the structure is actually a connected frame of members, each of which are firmly connected to
each other. In engineering parlance, these connections are called moment connections, which
means that the two members are firmly connected to each other. There are other types of
connections, including hinged connections, which are used in steel structures, but concrete frame
structures have moment connections in 99.9% of cases. This frame becomes very strong, and
must resist the various loads that act on a building during its life.
These loads include:
Dead Loads: the downwards force on the building coming from the weight of the building itself,
including the structural elements, walls, facades, and the like.
Live Loads: the downwards force on the building coming from the expected weight of the
occupants and their possessions, including furniture, books, and so on. Normally these loads are
specified in building codes and structural engineers must design buildings to carry these or
greater loads. These loads will vary with the use of the space, for example, whether it is
residential, office, industrial to name a few. It is common for codes to require live loads for
residential to be a minimum of about 200 kg/m2, offices to be 250 kg/m2, and industrial to be
1000 kg/m2, which is the same as 1T/m2. These live loads are sometimes called imposed loads.
58
Dynamic Loads: these occur commonly in bridges and similar infrastructure, and are the loads
created by traffic, including braking and accelerating loads.
Wind Loads: This is a very important design factor, especially for tall buildings, or buildings
with large surface area. Buildings are designed not to resist the everyday wind conditions, but
extreme conditions that may occur once every 100 years or so. These are called design
windspeeds, and are specified in building codes. A building can commonly be required to resist a
wind force of 150 kg/m2, which can be a very significant force when multiplied by the surface
area of the building.
Earthquake Loads: in an earthquake, the ground vigorously shakes the building both
horizontally and vertically, rather like a bucking horse shakes a rider in the sport of rodeo. This
can cause the building to fall apart. The heavier the building, the greater the force on it. Its
important to note that both wind and earthquake impose horizontal forces on the building, unlike
the gravity forces it normally resists, which are vertical in direction.
The concrete frame rests on foundations, which transfer the forces - from the building and on the building
- to the ground.
59
Some other important components of concrete frame structures are:
Shear Walls are important structural elements in high-rise buildings. Shear walls are essentially
very large columns - they could easily measure 400mm thick by 3m long - making them appear
like walls rather than columns. Their function in a building is to help take care of horizontal
forces on buildings like wind and earthquake loads. Normally, buildings are subject to vertical
loads - gravity. Shear walls also carry vertical loads. It is important to understand that they only
work for horizontal loads in one direction - the axis of the long dimension of the wall. These are
usually not required in low-rise structures.
Elevator Shafts are vertical boxes in which the elevators move up and down - normally each
elevator is enclosed in its own concrete box. These shafts are also very good structural elements,
helping to resist horizontal loads, and also carrying vertical loads.
WALLS IN CONCRETE FRAME BUILDINGS
Concrete frame structures are strong and economical. Hence almost any walling materials can be
used with them. The heavier options include masonry walls of brick, concrete block, or stone.
The lighter options include drywall partitions made of light steel or wood studs covered with
sheeting material. The former are used when strong, secure, and sound-proof enclosures are
required, and the latter when quick, flexible lightweight partitions are needed.
When brick or concrete blocks are used, it is common to plaster the entire surface - brick and
concrete - with a cement plaster to form a hard, long-lasting finish.
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CLADDING OF CONCRETE FRAME STRUCTURES
Concrete frame buildings can be clad with any kind of cladding material. Common cladding
materials are glass, aluminum panels, stone sheets, and ceramic facades. Since these structures
can be designed for heavy loading, one could even clad them in solid masonry walls of brick or
stone.
Steel Frame structure
Most steel construction is done with a type of steel called mild steel. Mild steel is a material
that is immensely strong. Take a circular bar of steel 1 inch / 25mm in diameter. If you were to
attach this bar securely to your ceiling, you could hang from it 20,000 Kg (which is 20 tons), or
any one of the following:
61
18 Honda City Cars
2 and a half African Elephants
1 and a half London City Route master Double-Decker Buses
We urge you to try this at home, unless you are married. This immense strength is of great
advantage to buildings. The other important feature of steel framing is its flexibility. It can bend
without cracking, which is another great advantage, as a steel building can flex when it is pushed
to one side by say, wind, or an earthquake. The third characteristic of steel is its plasticity or
ductility. This means that when subjected to great force, it will not suddenly crack like glass, but
slowly bend out of shape. This property allows steel buildings to bend out of shape, or deform,
thus giving warning to inhabitants to escape. Failure in steel frames is not sudden - a steel
structure rarely collapses. Steel in most cases performs far better in earthquake than most other
materials because of these properties.
However one important property of steel is that it quickly loses its strength in a fire. At 500
degrees Celsius (930 degrees F), mild steel can lose almost half its strength. This is what
happened at the collapse of the World Trade Towers in 2001. Therefore, steel in buildings
must be protected from fire or high temperature; this is usually done by wrapping it with boards
or spray-on material called fire protection.
Steel construction is most often used in
High rise buildings because of its strength, low weight, and speed of construction
Industrial buildings because of its ability to create large span spaces at low cost
Warehouse buildings for the same reason
Residential buildings in a technique called light gauge steel construction
Temporary Structures as these are quick to set up and remove
62
Light Gauze steel structure
Light gauge steel construction is very similar to wood framed construction in principle the wooden framing members are replaced with thin steel sections. The steel sections used here
are called cold formed sections, meaning that the sections are formed, or given shape at room
temperature. This is in contrast to thicker hot rolled sections that are shaped while the steel is
molten hot. Cold formed steel is shaped by guiding thin sheets of steel through a series of rollers,
each roller changing the shape very slightly, with the net result of converting a flat sheet of steel
into a C or S-shaped section.
The steel used here is coated with zinc (called galvanized) or a mixture of zinc and aluminum
(called zincalume or galvalume by some) to protect it from corrosion. The thickness of this
coating can be varied to suit a range of environments. Typically, marine environments require the
most protection and dry, arid regions the least.
The thicknesses of steel used here range from about 1 to 3mm for structural sections, and 1 to
2mm for non-structural sections. The members are sized to roughly correspond to wood
members: 2"x4" and 2"x6" are common sizes.
Like in wooden framed construction, a frame of steel members is first constructed, and
then clad with dry sheeting on both sides to form a load bearing wall. Construction with steel
follows the platform frame system of house building. Connections between members are made
with self tapping self drilling screws.
Contractors will usually order pre-punched sections - sections with factory-made holes in them so that wires and plumbing can be easily passed through the walls. The gaps between members
are filled with insulation.
63
This form of construction can also be used for non-structural framing, such as interior partitions
or external cladding. In fact, this form of construction was originally developed for interior
partitions in offices.
ADVANTAGES OF LIGHT GAUGE STEEL CONSTRUCTION
Light gauge steel structures have many of the advantages of light wood framed structures:
They are light, and allow quick building without heavy tools or equipment. Every component can
easily be carried by hand - a house is like a carpentry job on a larger scale. The main tool is a
light, handheld screw gun. Since steel is strong, LGS structures are lighter than wood framed
structures of equivalent strength.
Their higher strength allows greater spacing between members when compared to wood frame
construction: about 24" (600mm) for LGS vs. about 16" or 20" (400 or 500mm) for wood. Fewer
members translate to quicker construction times.
It is able to shape itself to any form, and can be clad and insulated with a wide range of
materials.
It is easy to change or modify this construction at any point in its lifespan.
There are a great range of systems and products catering to this type of construction.
In addition,
Light gauge steel structures are non-combustible, which is a code requirement for some types of
structures. Since steel loses its strength in fire quite easily, it must be protected from fire with fire
rated sheeting.
64
Light gauge steel structures do not rot, shrink, warp, or decompose like wood structures, and can
be used in areas where there is a probability of termite attack.
DISADVANTAGES OF LIGHT GAUGE STEEL CONSTRUCTION
Light framed structures allow the passage of sound more readily than the more solid masonry
construction.
Light gauge steel will lose strength in the advent of fire. Adequate fire protection must be used.
The easiest form of fire protection is to clad the steel with fire rated sheeting or drywall.
65
Wood Frame construction
Light wood framed construction is one of the most popular types of building methods for homes
in the United States and parts of Europe.
It has the following characteristics:
It is light, and allows quick construction with no heavy tools or equipment. Every
component can easily be carried by hand - a house essentially becomes a large carpentry
job. The main tool is a handheld nail gun.
It is able to adapt itself to any geometric shape, and can be clad with a variety of
materials.
There are a huge variety of products and systems tailored to this type of construction.
It has these negative characteristics:
It is not highly fireproof, as it is made of wood.

It is not strong enough to resist major wind events such as tornadoes and hurricanes.
Every timber frame home structure is made of a few basic components:
Studs are vertical wooden members within the walls.
Joists are the horizontal wooden beams that support the floors.
Rafters are the sloping wooden beams that support the roof.
Sheathing is the sheets that are nailed over the studs to connect them securely and form the
wall surfaces.
66
Siding is the exterior cladding that covers the walls from the outside.
Let us examine the major types of light wood framed structures.
BALLOON FRAME STRUCTURES
While this is an outmoded form of wood construction no longer used today, it is good to
know what it is and why it is no longer used.
In balloon frame construction, if you had a two-storey house that was twenty feet high, you
would use a single 20 foot long vertical stud for both storeys. This made the studs heavy and
difficult to handle. The second problem was the gap between the two studs, which acted
passageways
for
the
spread
of
fire
from
the
lower
to
the
upper
storey.
For these reasons, balloon frame construction has been superseded by platform frame
construction, which is superior in all respects.
67
Chapter no-3
SOFTWARE TOOLS/ANALYTICAL TOOLS ADOPED
68
Elements of construction
FLOOR FINISHES AND HOW TO CHOOSE THEM
When choosing a floor finish, keep in mind the following:
How slippery or smooth it is; do not use very smooth finishes in bathrooms and
balconies
How abrasion resistant it is - do not use soft, quick wearing finishes in areas with heavy
foot traffic. Marble and wood have low abrasion resistance, for example, and granite and
cement tiles have high abrasion resistance.
Whether it is chemically neutral - some finishes react with acids, and should not be used
in kitchens
The climate: wood and carpets are perceived to be warm, so use them in cold climates,
and stone and tile are perceived to be cool, so use them in warm climates - unless you
have under floor heating or cooling, which changes things.
A detailed description of each of the most important floor finishes follows.
STONE
Stone is a great floor finish and is affordable in many countries; Italy and India are both known
for the variety and quality of stone they produce. There is a great advantage to stone that is
almost unique to floor finishes: you can polish it, and thus make it look and feel like new, at any
time in its life.
69
Granite is a volcanic rock (it was originally lava, that cooled to form solid rock) that has the
following properties:
It is very hard, strong, and abrasion resistant
It is resistant to acids
It can be polished to a mirror-like smoothness
These properties make it a great choice as a floor or countertop finish. It can also be used to
clad walls. However it is available mainly in dark colors - black, red, grey - with the possible
exception of Kashmir White Granite. This darkness in color does tend to limit its use in
certain areas.
Its surface can also be worked to produce a variety of textures other than smooth: granite can
be flamed, water blasted, sand blasted, bush hammered, or tumbled. These rough finishes are
mostly used outdoors, on pathways. The famous cobblestones of Europe are granite, for
instance.
Marble is a metamorphic rock (meaning that it was made by the intense pressures and heat
deep within the earth), and has the following properties:
Most marbles are soft, and not very abrasion resistant

They are not resistant to acids
They can be polished to a mirror finish
It is translucent - light can pass through it to the extent of a few millimeter
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Thus, marbles should not be used in high-traffic areas such as the entryways or
staircases of public buildings - granite would be much better in those cases. Since it is
not acid resistant, you should not use Marble under urinals (urine is acidic), and in
kitchens, where lemon juice and other acids are present. But marble is prized for the
beauty and richness of its finish; it also feels very special underfoot. It is available in
a wide variety of colors, mainly light colors.
Sandstone is a sedimentary rock (rock formed by ancient rivers that slowly deposited
material on their beds that built up layer by layer over millions of years). It has the
following properties:
It is abrasion resistant, but not always strong, as it is formed in layers.

It is usually highly resistant to acids
It has a rough finish, and cannot be mirror-polished, as it consists of grains
These properties mean that it is good for decks and external areas because of its anti-slip
properties. Since sandstone looks and feels very different from granite and marble, it has become
fashionable to use these in boutique stores. Steve Jobs famously saw bluish-grey sandstone on a
trip to Florence, and many years later insisted that that very stone be used in all apple stores
because of its 'integrity'. The stone is quarried from an area reserved for apple, cut into tiles, and
every piece graded individually for color tone by master craftsmen. The tiles are then arranged so
that pieces with similar color are placed together, which makes them seem more uniform to the
eye. It is obtained from this quarry, if you're interested.
71
TYPES OF WALLS
In terms of their function, all walls are either load bearing or non load bearing walls. A load
bearing wall is part of the structure of the building - it holds the building up. A non-load bearing
wall is only a partition that divides the various rooms of a building. You can demolish a wall if it
is a non-load bearing wall; you cannot move or demolish a load bearing wall.
It is not easy for a layman to determine whether a wall is load bearing or not. You must rely on
the advice of an experienced, licensed structural engineer.
Most modern multi-storey buildings are constructed with structural frames and non-load bearing
walls. Most residential buildings in the US and nearly all wood framed buildings are constructed
with load bearing walls of the platform frame or balloon frame types.
Masonry Walls: these are walls made of brick or cement blocks held together with cement
mortar and are often plastered with cement plaster on both surfaces. Cement blocks can also be
called Concrete Masonry Units or CMUs, and come in a variety of types, including
Solid Concrete Blocks
Hollow Concrete Blocks
Lightweight Aerated Concrete Blocks
Flash Concrete Blocks
Masonry walls are heavy, and require lots of skilled labor, which means that they are falling out
of favor in most countries in which labor is expensive. Their weight is also a problem in highrise buildings.
72
Other materials for walls include stone or furnace (ceramic) bricks. Stone that is cut into cuboids
with smooth faces is called dressed stone, and walls constructed with this type of stone are
called ashlars masonry walls. Walls that are made with rough (undressed) pieces of stone are
called random rubble walls.
For brick walls, a common thickness is 230mm(9"), and for concrete block walls, common
thicknesses are 200mm(8"), 150mm(6") and 100mm(4"). In the building trade, the thickness of
the walls excludes the plaster, so if a wall is plastered on both sides, its actual thickness will be
1" or 1.5" more than its stated thickness in an architectural drawing or contract.
To run electrical or any other wires or pipes in a brick wall, you have to first chase the wall.
Chasing is cutting a long groove in the wall in which you can install your services. Then you can
install a conduit - a plastic pipe - in the wall, fill in the gap around the conduit with cement
plaster, and then pull your electrical wires through the conduit. This takes time and effort.
Masonry walls cannot be constructed to an unlimited height - broadly speaking, most are
considered stable only to a height of 10-15 ft (3 - 4m). To construct a masonry wall higher than
that, you have to design a special wall that has intermediate structural members to support the
wall.
One problem with masonry walls is that they rely mainly on their weight to keep them in place;
each block or brick is only loosely connected to the next via a thin layer of mortar. This is why
they do not perform well in earthquakes, when entire buildings are shaken horizontally. Many
collapses during earthquakes occur in buildings that have load-bearing masonry walls.
THERMAL INSULATION EXPLAINED
73
Insulation is that property of any material that obstructs the flow of heat through it. In warm
countries, insulation serves to reduce the heat entering the building, and in cold countries, to
reduce the heat that escapes.
The thermal conductance (the ability to allow heat to pass through it) of any material, K, is
measured in Watts / m2.Kelvin, in metric units, for a given thickness of that material.
This means that if the thermal conductance of a slab of material 10 cm thick is 1 W/m2.K, then 1
Watt of heat will flow across one square meter of that slab if the difference in temperatures on
the two sides of the slab is 1 degree Kelvin. One degree Kelvin is exactly the same as one
degree Centigrade. If the difference in temperature of the two sides is 10C, (for example if the
temperature outside is 35C and inside, in an air-conditioned office, it is 25C), then 10 W of
heat will flow across our slab. One watt is equal to one Joule, a unit of energy, per second.
74
75
Chapter No-4
Result
76
Estimation of Building Construction
At the time of the house construction there are many steps to be followed such as preparation of
architectural drawings, structural drawings and obtaining approvals from concerned authorities
etc. After doing all these exercises when we start construction work then we have to work on the
preparation of budget, procurement of material and hiring the contractor etc and these processes
can be simplified if you have a detailed construction cost estimate.
Here are some notes to help you understand the importance of cost estimation: In most of the home construction projects, the money runs out before the home is completed.
This happens because the home owners do not have a stage by stage cost estimate. A detailed
cost estimate can help you avoid this problem.
From detail estimate you will get the information about all type of materials required for the
work and the information about the actual quantity of all the materials required. You can use this
knowledge to make agreement with the supplier in advance to avoid fluctuation in the market.
If you do not know the estimated quantity of material required to build your home, the
contractor may charge more amount to do the same work. With the detail estimate sheet you can
cross check the quotation provided by the contractor.
With the help of detail estimates we can arrange the materials according to the needs at site. This
will avoid unnecessary storage of materials, save the wastage of materials and blockage of
money. It will also save unnecessary carriage and time.
77
With arranging all the materials according to need it will help in smooth working and to avoid
wastage of labor.
This will help to arrange funds according to requirement.
Detail estimate also give the specification of the material required for the construction which
will help in checking of the quality of the materials at site.
If all the materials and labor will be arranged according to need it will help for timely completion
of construction work which will save the expenditure spent on storage, watchman etc.
Timely completion means timely use of house.

Big projects in India such as Delhi Metro were completed on time because they used these
estimation techniques to identify the exact quantity required step wise.
78
Chapter No-5
79
Conclusion
Hajara Building Pvt. Ltd is the largest Public sector construction Company. But it is not yet a
Schedule A company. Hajara Building Pvt. Ltd is a public sector company as a wholly
owned by Government of India Enterprise under the aegis of the Ministry of Urban
Development with 51% shares held by them.
Corporation achieved a total turnover of Rs.2981.98 crore as against Rs.2041.20 crore in the
previous year. For the year, profit before tax was Rs. 174.59 crore ( previous year Rs.239.95
crore).
Hajara Building Pvt. Ltd ,at present, has a very healthy order book of over 10,000 crore and
net worth of the company too,has shown exponential growth.The entire paid up share capital
of Rs. 120 crore of the company is held by the President of India and its nominees.There is
net increase in closing balance of Cash and Cash Equivalents for the year 2010-11 by
104515.07 lakhs.
ERP Software System is in final stages of implementation.
The turnover of Hajara Building Pvt. Ltd increased from Rs.1969.99 crore to Rs.2041.20
crore representing an increase of 4% and earned a Net Profit before tax of Rs.239.95 crore
after providing depreciation of Rs.3.07 crore and interest of Rs.3.22 crore.
The financial statements are prepared under the historical cost convention and generally
accepted accounting principles in accordance with the Companies Act,1956 and with the
compliance of Accounting Standards issued by the Institute of Chartered accountants of
India(ICAI) to the extent applicable.
Hajara Building Pvt. Ltd has Fixed Assets Management Software (FAMS) for maintaining
records of Fixed Assets and it manges its Fixed Assets very efficiently.
Currently Hajara Building Pvt. Ltd uses Oracle and Tally Software for maintaining all other
accounts.
80
Hajara Building Pvt. Ltd follows the following procedure for maintaining accounts:
Firstly, accounts for all sites of a project are compiled at unit in charge of
the project whether the project is undertaken in India or Outside India.
Then the acconts of all units are compiled at specific Zones of the
Company
Then these Zonal Accounts are compiled at the Corporate Office of Hajara
Building Pvt. Ltd,at Delhi, to prepare the final Consolidated Balance Sheet
of the Company as a whole.
The basic data for compilation of final accounts as to be furnished by various units to the Zone.
For a systematic and timely flow of information from the units, the various reports and returns
(Monthly/Quarterly/Annual) are to be submitted by units incharge,after proper and intelligent
scrutiny, to Zone/Head Office by the prscribed dates. The timely submission of these returns is to
be watched by Officer Incharge of Accounts in the Zone as well as Officer INcharge of the
Compilation Group in the Zonal Office.
81
Reference
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_layout_planning
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_process
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_flow
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AutoMod
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_Simulation
http://www.understandconstruction.com/wood-framed-construction.html
82

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hazara buildcon private ltd

An ISO 9001:2008 Certified Institution

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Signature of Head, Civil Engg.

To determine the various accounting procedures in the Compilation of Accounts

To learn how various vouchers are prepared

To provide best building construction

engineers, structural engineers, fire protection engineers, planning consultants, architectural

Management procurement systems

Material Used in Construction

Getting tenders and quotes.

Revising the budget, if necessary.

Making your selection of builder and subcontractors.

Signing the contracts.

Making sure the appropriate insurance has been organized.

Making progress payments

completion and final inspections for the code compliance certificate

Dealing with problems when things go wrong.

Make sure building consent has been issued.

Talk to a lawyer about the contract.

Make sure your builder has unhindered access to the site.

While work is in progress:

Keep to the payments schedule and pay promptly.

When the work is complete:

Report any urgent defects to your builder promptly and in writing.

Settle the final account promptly.

Vision/fantasy/idea - a concept never intended to be built, may be an aesthetic or

Proposed - a building concept that is under review by a government

Approved - a building concept that will be constructed in the near future

Deferred - a building concept that may be constructed in the far future

Under-construction - a fully designed building currently being built

Absorb more heat of sun which causes discomfort during night.

Intensity of wind site condition

Lightings and ventilation

Check for depth:

14.86x10^6= 0.36.Xumax (1-0.42x0.48)15x1000d^2

Check for spacing: Spacing should be provided min of the following.

Columns are compression members.

Total loads on column:

One way shear:

0.350)+(0.23+0.35)] V =101.4KN Nominal shear Tv = 101.4x103

Reinforcement in shorter direction:

Plant Simulation for production systems

Software for modeling, simulating, analyzing, visualizingand optimizing production

complex production alternatives,

immanent process logic, by means of computer simulations. Plant Simulation is used by

Auto Mod for logistics systems

Levels of plant layout Design

Types of building construction

Steel Frame structure

It is not highly fireproof, as it is made of wood.

Most marbles are soft, and not very abrasion resistant

It is abrasion resistant, but not always strong, as it is formed in layers.

Timely completion means timely use of house.

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