valves

Gate Valves

Gate Valves

Advantages

Limitations

High Capacity

Poor Control

Tight Shutoff

Cavitate at low pressure drops

Low Cost

Cannot be used for throttling

Little resistance to flow

Recommended Uses
Fully open/closed, non-throttling
Infrequent operation
Minimal fluid trapping in line

Applications
Oil
Gas
Air
Slurries
Heavy liquids
Steam
Noncondensing gases
Corrosive liquids
Best Suited For:
Frequent on-off service
Processes where "instantly" large flow is needed (ie. safety systems or cooling water systems)

BALL VALVES

Ball Valves
Advantages

Limitations

Low cost

Poor throttling characteristics

High capacity

Prone to cavitation

Low leakage and maintenance

Tight sealing with low torque
Recommended Uses
2

Fully open/closed, limited-throttling

Higher temperature fluids
Applications
Most liquids
High Temperatures
Slurries
Best Suited For:
Frequent on-off service
Processes where "instantly" large flow is needed (ie. safety systems or cooling water systems)
Liquid level or flow loops
Systems where the pressure drop across the valve is expected to remain fairly constant (ie. steady state
systems)

Butterfly Valves

Butterfly Valves
Advantages

Limitations

Low cost and maintenance

High torque required for control

High capacity

Prone to cavitation at lower flows

Good flow control

Low pressure drop
Recommended Uses
Fully open/closed or throttling services
Frequent operation
Minimal fluid trapping in line
Applications
Liquids
Gases
Slurries
Liquids with suspended solids
Best Suited For:

Frequent on-off service

Processes where "instantly" large flow is needed (ie. safety systems or cooling water systems)
Processes where large changes in pressure drop are expected
Processes where a small percentage of the total pressure drop is permitted by the valve
Temperature and pressure control loops

Diaphragm or Metal Bellows Type

Soft-Seated, Pilot Operated-Low Pressure (Diaphragm or Metal Bellows Type)

Advantages

Limitations
Not
recommended for

Good operation at very low set pressure (3-inch wc)

polymerizing
type services
without pilot
purge
Vital to match

Excellent seat tightness before relieving

soft goods with

process
conditions
Limited high

Excellent reseat tightness after relieving

pressure setting
(about 50 psig)

Ease of setting and adjusting set pressure and blowdown

Pop or modulating action available

Liquid service
limitations
Not generally

used in dirty
services without
options to
eliminate
introduction of
particles into the
pilot
Adaptable for remote pressure sensing

More wetted
parts exposed to
fluids. Exotic
materials can
result in an
expensive valve.

Short blowdown obtainable

Set pressure can be field tested while in service
Remote unloading available
Lift not effected by back pressure (when pilot discharges to atmosphere or is
balanced)
Fully open at set pressure with no overpressure

In-line maintenance of main valve

Typical applications:
Chemical, Fossil Power Plants, Pharmaceutical, Mining, Nuclear Power Plants, Water
treatments...

Globe Valves

A globe valve is a linear motion valve used to stop, start, and regulate fluid flow.

Globe Valves
7

Advantages

Limitations

Efficient throttling

High pressure drop

Accurate flow control valves

More expensive than other valves

Available in multiple ports

Recommended Uses
Throttling service / flow regulation
Frequent operation
Applications
Liquids
Vapors
Gases
Slurries
Corrosive Substances
Best Suited For:
Liquid level or flow loops
Systems where the pressure drop across the valve is expected to remain fairly constant (ie. steady state
systems)
Processes where large changes in pressure drop are expected
Processes where a small percentage of the total pressure drop is permitted by the valve
Temperature and pressure control loops

Pressure Relief Valves

Metal-to-Metal Seated, Pilot Operated - Pressure Relief Valves

Advantages

Limitations

Excellent seat tightness before relieving

Only pop action available

Excellent seat tightness after reclosing

Pressure limited to 1200 psig

Ease of setting and adjusting set pressure and

blowdown

Temperature limited to 1000F

Adaptable for remote pressure sensing

Short blowdown obtainable
Set pressure can be field-tested while in service
9

Excellent chemical and temperature compatibility

Dual pilot option allows in-service pilot
replacement

Check Valve

A check valve, clack valve, non-return valve or one-way valve is a mechanical device, a valve,
which normally allows fluid (liquid or gas) to flow through it in only one direction.
Advantages
Protection of any item of equipment that can be affected by reverse flow, such as
flowmeters, strainers and control valves.
To check the pressure surges associated with hydraulic forces, for example,
waterhammer. These hydraulic forces can cause a wave of pressure to run up and down
pipework until the energy is dissipated.
Prevention of flooding.
Prevention of reverse flow on system shutdown.
Prevention of flow under gravity.
Relief of vacuum conditions.
10

Applications
Boiler feedlines
Steam traps
Hot water circuits
Vacuum breakers
Blending

THE NEEDLE VALVE

It is called needle valve due to the shape of the closure member. It consists on a threaded stem
with a conical end.
This is simply a variation of the Globe valve and, as its name implies consists of a narrow,
tapered plug and port arrangement. The needle valve is, in itself, small in size and is used for
very fine and normally manual, control of fluid flow.

Unit

Advantages

Disadvantages
11

Needle

It gives good flow control;

It causes a high pressure drop &

It can have very high pressure

presents a greater risk of clogging due to

ratings.

entrained solids.

valve

Types of Pumps
Deep Piston Pump

This is the same as for shallow except the pump cylinder is attached to the bottom of the drop
pipe. As the piston moves up and down, it pumps water up through the drop. pipe. Deep-well
piston pumps can lift water from 600 feet. Double acting piston pumps can pump 65% more
water with only 15% more horsepower. Advantages and disadvantages for this type are the same
as for shallow piston pumps.

12

Centrifugal Pumps :

13

Out let of centrifugal pump

The operating principle of the centrifugal pump can be illustrated by considering the effect of
swinging a bucket of water around in a circle of water at the end of a rope. The force pushing the
water against the bottom of the bucket is centrifugal force. If a hole were cut in the bottom of the
bucket, water would flow through the hole. Further, if an intake pipe where connected to an air
tight cover over the top of the bucket, the flow of water out the hole would result in the
evelopment of a partial vacuum inside the bucket.

This vacuum would bring water into the bucket from a source at the other end of the intake. In
this way, continuous flow from the source and out through the bucket would be established. In
14

terms of real centrifugal pumps, bucket and lid correspond the pump casing, the hole and
intake pipe correspond to the intake and discharge of the pump, and the rope and arm perform
Centrifugal pumps can be used for depths up to about 15 feet. They are considered very
efficientfor capacities of over 50 gpm and pressures of less than 65 pounds per square inch. They
are con- sidered ideal for use as a booster pump to send water from a well pump to storage or to
a distribution system.

Advantages
Produces a smooth and even flow. Some types pump some sand. Centrifugal pumps are also
usually reliable with a good service life (1).
Disadvantages
Centrifugal pumps lose their prime easily, and their efficiency depends upon on operating under
design heads and speed (1)

Pump Impeller Types

Impellers of pumps are classified based on the number of points that the liquid can enter the
impeller and also on the amount of webbing between the impeller blades.
Impellers can be either single suction or double-suction. A single-suction impeller allows liquid
to enter the center of the blades from only one direction. A double-suction impeller allows liquid
to enter the center of the impeller blades from both sides simultaneously. The illustration below
shows simplified diagrams of single and double-suction impellers
Impellers can be open, semi-open, or enclosed. The open impeller consists only of blades
attached to a hub. The semi-open impeller is constructed with a circular plate (the web) attached
15

to one side of the blades. The enclosed impeller has circular plates attached to both sides of the
blades. Enclosed impellers are also referred to as shrouded impellers. Figure 5 illustrates
examples of open, semi-open, and enclosed impellers.

The impeller sometimes contains balancing holes that connect the space around the hub to the
suction side of the impeller. The balancing holes have a total cross-sectional area that is
considerably greater than the cross-sectional area of the annular space between the wearing ring
and the hub. The result is suction pressure on both sides of the impeller hub, which maintains a
hydraulic balance of axial thrust.
There are two basic types of impellers. volute and turbine. Turbine impellers are surrounded by
diffuser vanes which provide gradually enlarging passages in which the velocity of the water is
slowly reduced thus transforming the velocity head into pressure head. Volute impellers are
characterized by having no diffusion vanes. Instead, its impeller is housed in a case which
isspiral shaped and in which the velocity of the water is reduced upon leaving the impeller, with
16

resultant increase in pressure.

Turbine Multistage

Turbine Multistage pumps operate under the same principle as the turbine-impeller centrifugal
pump except there are one or more impellers mounted close together on a vertical shaft. The
bowls are positioned below the water level, and the discharge pipe and shaft extend to a motor
on the surface.
These pump are usually used for high capacity from deep wells - up to 1500 feet deep. The
capacity and pressure depends on design, diameter, and number of impellers.
Advantages
Produces smooth, even flow and is easy to frost proof. The long drive shaft requires a straight
and vertical well casing.
Disadvantages
To repair the pump, it must be pulled from the well.Submersible Multistage Pumps
This type operates like a centrifugal pump except that several impellers are mounted together on
a vertical shaft. The impellers and motor are in a housing which is positioned below the
waterlevel.
Submersible pumps can lift from up to 1000 feet deep. The pump capacity and pressure depends
on diameter, speed, and number of impellers.

Advantages
Submersible pumps produce a smooth and even flow and are easy to frost proof. They also have
a short pump shaft to the motor.

17

Disadvantages
This pump type is easily damaged by sand in the water, and repair requires pulling the pump out
of the well. Helical Rotor Pumps
The helical rotor pump operates like an auger to force water up through the pump. The motor and
auger are in a housing under the water level. The capacity of the pump depends on the design of
the rotor. Water can be pumped from depths of up to 1000 feet and well casings can be 4 inches
or larger in diameter.
Advantages
Helical rotors produce a smooth and even flow, and they are easy to frost proof. In addition,
there is a short pump shaft to the motor. Sand also damages these pumps less than any other type.
Disadvantages
Repair of the pump requires pulling it from the well.

18

SEWAGE PUMPING STATIONS

1.GENERAL

1.1 Flooding
Sewage pumping structures and electrical and mechanical equipment shall be protected from
physical damage by the 100-year flood. Sewage pumping stations shall remain operational and
accessible and shall not be inundated by the 100-year flood (hurricane flood surges excepted).
Design consideration shall be given to groundwater elevations and the risk of floating dry wells
or empty wet wells.
1.2 Accessibility
The station shall be readily accessible by maintenance vehicles during any weather.
The station shall be inaccessible to the general public (by a locked fence or enclosure, by built
underground, etc.).
1.3 Grit
Where it is necessary to pump sewage prior to grit removal, the design of the wet well and pump
station piping shall receive special consideration such as grit removal facilities to avoid
operational problems from the accumulation of grit.

2. DESIGN
2.1 Type
19

Sewage pumping stations may be wet/dry well, suction lift, or submersible. Screw type lift
stations may also be allowed. All equipment shall be designed specifically for the handling of
raw or pretreated sewage, as appropriate.
2.2 Structures
2.2.1 Separation
Dry wells, including their superstructure, shall be completely separated from the wet well.
2.2.2 Equipment Removal
Provision shall be made to facilitate removal of pumps, motors, and other equipment.
2.2.3 Access
Suitable and safe means of access for persons wearing self-contained breathing apparatus shall
be provided to dry wells, and to wet wells containing either bar screens or mechanical equipment
requiring inspection or maintenance. For built-in-place pump station dry wells, a stairway with
rest landings shall be provided at vertical intervals not to exceed 12 feet (3.7 m). For factorybuilt pump station dry wells over 15 feet (4.6 m) deep, a rigidly fixed landing shall be provided
at vertical intervals not to exceed 10 feet (3.0 m). Where a landing is used, a suitable and rigidly
fixed barrier shall be provided to prevent an individual from falling past the intermediate landing
to a lower level. Where acceptable to the Department, an elevator may be used in lieu of
landings in a factory-built station, provided emergency access is included.
Reference should be made to applicable safety codes which, if they are more stringent
than provided herein or in the specifications, shall govern.
The provisions of Section 46.5 also apply.
2.2.4 Construction Materials

20

Due consideration shall be given to the selection of materials because of the presence of
hydrogen sulfide and other corrosive gases, greases, oils, and other constituents frequently
present in sewage.
2.3 Pumps and Pneumatic Ejectors
2.3.1 Multiple Units
Multiple pumps or pneumatic ejectors shall be provided. A minimum of three (3) pumps should
be provided for stations handling flows greater than 1 MGD (3800 m 3/d).

Units should be designed to fit actual flow conditions and shall be of such capacity that with
any one unit out of service the remaining units will have capacity to handle maximum
anticipated sewage flows.
2.3.2 Protection Against Clogging
All units shall be designed specifically for the handling of the types of sewage they will be
subjected to.
Pumps handling sanitary sewage from 30 inch (76 cm) or larger diameter sewers shall be
preceded by readily accessible bar racks to protect the pumps from clogging or damage. Bar
racks should have clear openings not exceeding 22 inches (6 cm). Where a bar rack is provided,
a mechanical hoist shall also be provided. Where the size of the installation warrants,
mechanically cleaned and/or duplicate bar racks shall be provided. Appropriate protection from
clogging should also be considered for small pumping stations.
2.3.3 Pump Openings
Except where grinder pumps or septic tank effluent pumps are used, pumps shall be capable of
passing spheres of at least 3 inches (8 cm) in diameter, and pump suction and discharge piping
shall be at least 4 inches (10 cm) in diameter. See Section 37.2 for the size of force mains.

21

2.3.4 Priming
The pump shall be so placed that under normal operating conditions it will operate under a net
positive suction head, except as specified in Sections 33 and 34.
2.3.5 Electrical Equipment
Electrical systems and components (e.g., motors, lights, cables, conduits, switchboxes, control
circuits, etc.) in raw sewage wet wells, or in enclosed or partially enclosed spaces where
hazardous concentrations of flammable gases or vapors may be present, shall be designed for
safe use under such conditions to the extent practicable. In addition, equipment located in the
wet well shall be suitable for use under corrosive conditions. Each cable shall be provided with
watertight seal (and separate strain relief for flexible cables). A fused disconnect switch located
above ground shall be provided for all
pumping stations. When such equipment is exposed to weather, it shall meet the requirements of
weatherproof equipment (NEMA 3R or 4). Lightning arresters and phase protection (for 3-phase
motors) shall be provided. GFCI protection shall be provided for all outlets.

For each location requiring electrical power, the consulting engineer shall provide a written
description of the type of power needed (voltage, amperage, phase, etc.) and shall give his
written assurance (either in the P/S or in a separate letter) that the proper power will be available
and when it will be available at each site. Phase protection and phase loss warning shall be
provided for 3-phase power. Phase protection shall prevent automatic equipment restarting
attempts upon power restoration until all three phases are restored.
2.3.6 Intake
Each pump should have an individual intake. Wet well design should be such as to avoid
turbulence near the intake. Intake piping should be as straight and short as possible.
2.3.7 Dry Well Dewatering
22

A sump pump equipped with dual check valves shall be provided in the dry wells to emove
leakage or drainage, with the discharge located above the maximum high water level in the wet
well. A connection to the pump suction is also recommended as an auxiliary feature. Water
ejectors connected to a potable water supply shall not be
. All floor and walkway surfaces should have an adequate slope to a point of provided drainage.
Pump seal water shall be piped to the sump. Shallow valve pits, etc. may be gravity drained to
the wet well as allowed in Section 34.4.
2.3.8 Pumping Rates
The pumps and controls of main pumping stations, and especially the pumping station(s) to the
treatment works or operated as part of the treatment works, should be capable of discharging
sewage at approximately its rate of delivery to the pump station. Wet well , influent flow rates,
and pumping capacity shall all be balanced to ensure sufficient capacity without excessive pump
run time or detention time in the wet well. See Section

2.4 Controls
2.4.1 Type
Control systems shall be of the transducer, air bubbler, encapsulated float or flow measuring
type. Float-tube control systems or existing stations being upgraded may be approved.
2.4.2 Location

The control system shall be located away from the turbulence of incoming flow and pump
suction.

2.4.3 Alternation
23

Provisions should be made to automatically alternate the pumps in use. Provisions shall be made
for simultaneous operation of multiple units when flow conditions warrant. Generally, when
multiple pumps are operating and the water level is falling, the pumps should not be sequenced
off, but all on pumps should remain on until the lowest control level is reached, then all pumps
should switch off together.

2.5 Valves
2.5.1 Suction Line
Suitable shutoff valves shall be placed on the suction line of each pump except on submersible
and vacuum-primed pumps.
2.5.2 Discharge Line
Suitable shutoff and check valves shall be placed on the discharge line of each pump discharging
into a pressurized header. The check valve shall be located between the shutoff valve and the
pump. Check valves shall be suitable for the material being handled. Except for premanufactured stations, check valves shall not be placed on the vertical portion of discharge
piping. Valves shall be capable of withstanding normal pressure and water hammer.
All shutoff and check valves shall be operable from floor level and accessible for
maintenance. External levers should be provided on swing check valves.
2.5.3 Location
Valves shall not be located in the wet well, except as provided in Section 34.4.

2.6 Wet Wells

2.6.1 Divided Wells
24

Consideration should be given to dividing the wet well into multiple sections,
properlyinterconnected, to facilitate repairs and cleaning.
2.6.2 Size
The wet well size and control setting shall be appropriate and in accordance with the pump
manufacturer's recommendations to avoid heat buildup in pump motor due to frequent starting
and to avoid septic conditions due to excessive detention time. No more than ten (10) pump
starts per hour should be allowed. For duplex stations, the design wet well volume in gallons
may be calculated as 15 min. x influent (gpm) / 8.
2.6.3 Floor Slope
The wet well floor shall have a minimum slope of one to one to the hopper bottom. The
horizontal area of the hopper bottom shall be not greater than necessary for proper installation
and function of the inlet.

2.7 Ventilation
Adequate ventilation shall be provided for all pump stations. There shall be no interconnection
between the wet well and dry well ventilation systems.
2.7.1 Ventilation in Pump Stations Less Than 350 gpm or Any Submersible
Type Not Requiring Entry. At a minimum, passive screened vent pipes shall be provided.
Mechanical ventilation as described below is recommended.
2.7.2 Ventilation in Pump Station of 350 gpm or Larger
Where the pump pit is below the ground surface, mechanical ventilation is required, so arranged
as to independently ventilate the dry well and the wet well if screens or mechanical equipment
requiring maintenance or inspection are located in the wet well. In pits over 15 feet (4.6 m)
25

deep, multiple inlets and outlets are desirable. Damper should not be used on exhaust or fresh air
ducts and fine screens or other obstructions in air ducts should be avoided to prevent clogging.
Switches for operation of ventilation equipment should be marked and located conveniently. All
intermittently operated ventilating equipment shall be interconnected with the respective pit
lighting systems, which shall override any automatic controls. Consideration should be given
also to automatic controls where intermittent operation is used. The fan wheel should be
fabricated from non-sparking material. Consideration should be given to installation of
automatic heating and/or dehumidification equipment.
2.7.2.1 Wet Wells
Ventilation may be either continuous or intermittent. Ventilation, if continuous, shall provide at
least 12 complete air changes per hour; if intermittent, at least 30 changes per
hour. Air shall be forced into the wet well rather than exhausted from the wet well.
2.7.2.2 Dry Wells
Ventilation may be either continuous or intermittent. Ventilation, if continuous, shall provide at
least 6 complete air changes per hour; if intermittent, at least 30 complete air changes per hour.
Air should be forced in, rather than exhausted.
2.8 Flow Measurement
Suitable devices for measuring sewage flow and/or run time should be considered at all
pump stations.
2.9 Water Supply
There shall be no physical connection between any potable water supply and a sewage pumping
station that under any conditions might cause contamination of the potable water supply. If a
potable water supply is brought to the station, it should comply with conditions stipulated under
Section 46.2.

26

3. SUCTION LIFT PUMPS

Suction lift pumps shall be of the self-priming or vacuum-priming type and shall meet the
applicable requirements of Section 32. Suction lift pump stations using dynamic suction lifts
exceeding the limits outlined in the following sections may be approved upon submission of
factory certification of pump performance and detailed calculations indicating satisfactory
performance under the proposed operating conditions. Such detailed calculations must include
static suction lift as measured from "lead pump off" elevation to center line of pump, friction and
other hydraulic losses of the suction piping, vapor pressure of the liquid, altitude correction,
required net positive suction head, and a safety factor of at least 6 feet (1.8 m).
The pump equipment compartment shall be above grade or offset and shall be effectively
isolated from the wet well to prevent the humid and corrosive sewer atmosphere from entering
the equipment compartment. Wet well access shall not be through the equipment compartment.
The combined total of dynamic suction lift at the "pump off" elevation and required net positive
suction head at design operating conditions shall not exceed 22 feet. Suction lift pumps shall be
equipped with an air release valve in the discharge piping. Drainage from the air release valve
shall be piped back to the wet well at elevation higher than the maximum wet well water level.

3.1 Self-Priming Pumps

Self-priming pumps shall be capable of rapid priming and repriming at the "lead pump on"
elevation. Such self-priming and repriming shall be accomplished automatically under design
operating conditions. Suction piping should not exceed the size of the pump suction and shall
not exceed 25 feet (7.6 m) in total length. Priming lift at the "lead pump on" elevation shall
27

include a safety factor of at least 4 feet (1.2 m) from the maximum allowable priming lift for the
specific equipment at design operating conditions.
3.2 Vacuum-Priming Pumps
Vacuum-priming pump stations shall be equipped with multiple vacuum pumps capable of
automatically and completely removing air from the suction lift pump. The vacuum pumps shall
be adequately protected from damage due to sewage.

4. SUBMERSIBLE PUMP STATIONS

4.1 Construction
Submersible pumps and motors shall be designed specifically for raw sewage use, including
totally submerged operation during a portion of each pumping cycle and shall meet the
requirements of the National Electrical Code for such units. An effective method to detect shaft
seal failure or potential seal failure shall be provided, and the motor shall be of squirrel-cage type
design without brushes or other arc-producing mechanisms.

4.2 Pump Removal

Submersible pumps shall be readily removable and replaceable without entering, dewatering, or
manually disconnecting any piping in the wet well.
4.3 Electrical
4.3.1 Power Supply and Control
Electrical supply, control and alarm circuits shall be designed to provide strain relief and to
allow disconnection from outside the wet well. Terminals and connectors shall be protected from

28

corrosion by location outside the wet well or by the use of watertight seals. If located outside,
weatherproof equipment shall be used.
4.3.2 Controls
The motor control center shall be located outside the wet well, be readily accessible, and be
protected by a conduit seal or other appropriate measures meeting the requirements of the
National Electrical Code to prevent the atmosphere of the wet well from gaining access to the
control center. The seal shall be so located that the motor may be removed and electrically
disconnected without disturbing the seal.
4.3.3 Power Cord
Pump motor power cords shall be designed for flexibility and serviceability under extra hard
usage conditions and shall meet the requirements of the National Electrical Code standards for
flexible cords in wastewater pump stations. Ground fault circuit interruption protection shall be
used to de-energize the circuit in the event of any electrical failure in the cable. Power cord
terminal fittings shall be corrosion-resistant and constructed in a manner to prevent the entry of
moisture into the cable, shall be provided with strain relief appurtenances, and shall be designed
to facilitate field connecting.
4.4 Valves
Valves required under Section 32.5 shall be located in a separate valve pit. Accumulated water
shall be drained to the wet well or to the soil. Sewage leaking into the valve pit shall not be
drained to the soil. If the valve pit is drained to the wet well, an effective method shall be
provided to prevent sewage from entering the pit during surcharged wet well conditions. Check
valves that are integral to the pump may be located in the wet well provided that the valve can be
removed in accordance with Section 34.2.

29

5. ALARM SYSTEMS
Alarm systems SHALL be provided for all pumping stations. The alarm shall be activated in
cases of POWER FAILURE, high water elevation, pump failure, phase loss, or any cause of
pump station malfunction. Alarms for major pumping stations should be telemetered, including
identification of the alarm conditions, to a municipal facility that is manned 24 hours a day. If
such a facility is not available and 24-hour holding capacity is not provided, the alarm should be
telemetered to city offices during normal working hours and to the home of the person(s) in
responsible charge of the lift station during off-duty hours.

6. EMERGENCY OPERATION
Pumping stations and collection systems shall be designed to prevent or minimize bypassing
of raw, diluted, or partially treated sewage. For use during possible periods of extensive power
outages, mandatory power reductions, or uncontrolled storm events, consideration should be
given to providing storage/detention tanks or basins, which shall be made to drain to the station
wet well. Where such overflows affect public water supplies, shellfish production, or water used
for culinary or food processing purposes, a storage/detention basin or tank shall be provided
having 24-hour detention capacity at the anticipated overflow rate.

6.1 Overflow Prevention Methods

A satisfactory method shall be provided to prevent or minimize overflows in the event of

station failure. The following methods should be evaluated on an individual basis (the choice
should be based on least cost and least operational problems of the methods providing an
acceptable degree of reliability):
30

a. Storage capacity, including trunk sewers, for retention of 24-hour design return wet weather
flows (storage basins must be designed to drain back into the wet well or collection system after
the flow recedes);
b. Other methods meeting the requirements of Section 46.1.1
6.2 Equipment Requirements
6.2.1 General
The following general requirements shall apply to all internal combustion engines used to drive
auxiliary pumps, service pumps through special drives, or electrical generating equipment.
6.2.1.1 Engine Protection
The engine must be protected from operating conditions that would result in damage to
equipment. Unless continuous manual supervision is provided, protective equipment shall be
capable of shutting down the engine and activating an alarm on site and as provided in Section
35. Protective equipment shall monitor for conditions of low oil pressure and overheating,
except that oil pressure monitoring is not required for engines with splash lubrication. Oil level
monitoring for such engines is recommended.
6.2.1.2 Size
The engine shall have adequate rated power to start and continuously operate under all
connected loads.
6.2.1.3 Fuel
Reliability and ease of starting, especially during cold weather conditions, should be
considered in the selection of the type of fuel.
Above ground liquid fuel tanks exceeding 660 gallon single tank capacity or 1320 gallon
total capacity require a Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasure (SPCC) Plan and
containment in accordance with 40 CFR 112. It is recommended that all above ground liquid
31

fuel tanks have spill containment devices with a minimum capacity equal to the largest tank's
volume plus an allowance for precipitation.
6.2.1.4 Engine Ventilation
The engine shall be located above grade with adequate ventilation of fuel vapors and exhaust
gases.
6.2.1.5 Routine Start-up
All emergency equipment shall be provided with instructions indicating the need for
regular starting and running of such units at full loads.
6.2.1.6 Protection of Equipment
Emergency equipment shall be protected from damage at the restoration of regular
electrical power. In addition, emergency generating equipment shall be provided with a means
of disconnecting such equipment from the regular incoming power source during emergency
operating conditions in order to protect others who may be in contact with the failed power
system. In the case of automatic systems, such disconnect shall also be automatic. In the case of
manual systems, the load transfer switch or connection shall be designed such that it is
impossible to connect the auxiliary power source to the primary power source.
6.2.2 Engine-Driven Pumping Equipment
Where permanently-installed or portable engine-driven pumps are used, the following
requirements in addition to general requirements shall apply.
6.2.2.1 Pumping Capacity
Engine-driven pump(s) shall meet the design pumping requirements unless storage capacity is
available for flows in excess of pump capacity. Pumps shall be designed for anticipated
operating conditions, including suction lift if applicable.

32

6.2.2.2 Operation
Unless continuous manual supervision is provided, the engine and pump shall be equipped to
provide automatic start-up and operation of pumping equipment. Provisions shall also be made
for manual start-up.
6.2.2.3 Portable Pumping Equipment
Where part or all of the engine-driven pumping equipment is portable, sufficient storage capacity
to allow time for detection of pump station failure and transportation and hook up of the portable
equipment shall be provided. This is likely to be 24 hours. A riser from the force main with
quick-connect coupling and appropriate valving shall be provided to hook up portable pumps.
6.2.3 Engine-Driven Generating Equipment
Where permanently-installed or portable engine-driven generating equipment is used, the
following requirements in addition to general requirements shall apply.
6.2.3.1 Generating Capacity
Generating unit size shall be adequate to provide power for pump motor starting current
and for lighting, ventilation, and other auxiliary equipment necessary for safe and proper
operation of the lift station. The operation of only one pump during periods of auxiliary power
supply must be justified. Such justification may be made on the basis of maximum anticipated
flows relative to single-pump capacity, anticipated length of power outage, and storage capacity.
Special sequencing controls shall be provided to start pump motors unless the generating
equipment has capacity to start all pumps simultaneously with auxiliary equipment operating.
6.2.3.2 Operation
33

Unless continuous manual supervision is provided, provisions shall be made for automatic and
manual start-up and load transfer. The generator must be protected from operating conditions
that would result in damage to equipment. Provisions should be considered to allow the engine
to start and stabilize at operating speed before assuming the load. Where manual start-up and
transfer is justified, storage capacity must meet the requirements of Section 36.2.3.3.
6.2.3.3 Portable Generating Equipment
Where portable generating equipment or manual transfer is provided, sufficient storage capacity
to allow time for detection of pump station failure and transportation and connection of
generating equipment shall be provided. The use of special electrical connections and double
throw switches is recommended for connecting portable generating equipment.

7. FORCE MAINS
7.1 Velocity
At design average flow a velocity of at least 2 fps (0.61 m/s) shall be maintained.
7.2 Size
Except where grinder pumps or septic tank effluent pumps are used, force mains shall be at
least 4 inches in diameter. See Section 32.3.3 for pump sizes.

7.3 Depth
The requirements of Section 23.2 shall apply.
7.4 Air and Vacuum Relief Valves

34

Automatic air relief valves shall be placed as needed (at high points) in the force main to prevent
air locking. Vacuum relief valves may also be necessary.

7.5 Termination
Force mains should enter the gravity sewer system at a point not more than 2 feet (61 cm)
above the flow line of the receiving manhole.

7.6 Design Pressure

The force main and fittings, including reaction blocking, shall be designed to withstand normal
pressure and pressure surges (water hammer).
7.7 Special Construction
Force main construction near streams or used for aerial crossings shall meet applicable
requirements of Sections 27 and 28.

7.8 Design Friction Losses

35

Friction losses through force mains shall be based on the Hazen and Williams formula or other
acceptable method. When the Hazen and Williams formula is used, the following values for "C"
shall be used for design.
Smooth plastic or smooth lined iron or steel - 130 to 140
Unlined iron or steel - 100 All other - 120 (maximum)
When initially installed, force mains will have a significantly higher "C" factor. The higher "C"
factor should be considered only in calculating maximum power requirements.
7.9 Separation from Water Mains
The requirements of Section 28.3 shall be met for all sewage force mains.
7.10 Identification
Where force mains are constructed of material which might cause the force main to be
confused with potable water mains, the force main should be appropriately identified.
.

Sewer Appurtenances
1. Manholes
They are used for inspection & cleaning. They placed when:
1. Intervals between manholes: 90-150m (300-500ft.)
2. Change in direction.
3. Change in pipe slope.
4. Change in pipe size.
36

- For total depth < 4m (12ft) 250mm (10) thick brick wall.
For any additional 2m depth additional 125mm thick.
- Concrete walls are often used in Iraq, Figs.(1).

- Manholes bottom:

Upper surface sloped toward the open channel, why? Channel depth should be equal to pipe
diameter to prevent sewage from spreading over manhole bottom, & odors result. Changes of
direction are made in channels.

- Drop manhole: What is the Difference Between a Drop Manhole and a Regular
Manhole?

37

A drop manhole is used in areas with a steep slope when one or more of the inlet pipes has an
invert elevation significantly higher than the invert of the outlet pipe. Typically the invert
elevation of the "stop" end of the inlet pipe is set to the invert elevation of the manhole.
However, in the case of a drop manhole, the stop invert of the pipe is not set to the manhole
invert elevation but is at a significantly higher elevation.

The following illustration shows a drop manhole.

Figure 15-1: Drop Manhole

It is a join between submain & a deeper sewer.

It is used when the drop between two sewers 0.6m (2ft).
- Manhole opening
Cast iron frame & cover 500-600mm (20-24).
- Manholes in large sewers 1520mm (60),

38

These sewers can be entered for inspection & need fewer manholes
-

Manhole cover & frame

For heavy city traffic 340kg (750Lb)

Light city traffic

245kg (540Lb)

Suburban traffic

150-180kg (325-400Lb)

Foot traffic

70kg (150Lb)

Covers shall be roughened to prevent slipperiness.

Perforated covers should not be used for sanitary sewers.
Ventilation should be done by stacks, not by openings.
39

Opening disadvantages: permitting rainwater, sand & grit to enter

sewers.
Ladder: steps made of epoxy coated cast iron.
2. Cleanouts:
They may be used instead of manholes as an economy measure. They permit
flushing the sewer with a fire hose & rods mat also be inserted to clear heavy
obstructions. Some cities not permit cleanouts.
They may be used at head end of small sewers.

They are openings into a storm or combined sewer for entrance of storm
runoff. They placed at:
1. Street intersections, they located near the intersection but not in it, why?
a Crosswalks will not flooded.
b. Inlets will not subjected to traffic wear & damage.
2. Midpoints of the blocks for > 150m (500ft) long. Locally 40m, why?
Inlets connected to:
1. A manhole, or
2. Through Ys at nearest points.
Design of curb- opening inlet
40

Curb- opening inlet

41

Capacity determination by using Manning formula,

Q = K (z/n) * S1/2* y8/3
Where:
Q = gutter flow,
z = reciprocal of transverse slope of gutter bottom,
n = 0.015,
S = gutter slope,
y = water depth in gutter at curb line,
K = constant = (units) = 22.6 (m/min, m)
= 0.56 (ft3/s, ft)

4. Catch Basins:
42

Catch basin is an inlet with a basin which allows debris to settle out. Outlet pipe is trapped in
order to prevent escape of odors from sewer & causes retention of floating matter. It is limited in
use, why.
Advantages:
Collect sand, grits, & floating objects.
Disadvantages:
1. Produce mosquitoes.
2. Source of odors.
3. Must be cleaned frequently, this is costly.
4.This done by pumping the basin contents into trucks by means of a portable centrifugal pump.
5. Flushing Devices
Formerly automatic flush tanks were used at upper ends of laterals where
grades are low. Now they dont used. The flush is 750L of water.
6. Grease & Oil Traps

Grease traps:
They used after sewers from kitchens, hotels, garages & restaurants to trap
grease which tends to accumulate on sewer walls & cause clogging.

43

Pipe Appurtenances

1 General Description
This section includes the requirements for all pipe app
Rubber gaskets
Steel-bolted couplings

Gate valves
Sterilizing agents
Bituminous plastic cement
1.01 Related References
A. Standard Specifications
Section 106Control of Materials
Section 843Concrete Pipe

2 Materials
2.01 Rubber Gaskets for Concrete Pipe
A. Requirements
1. Type
Use rubber-type gaskets and o-rings that meet the requirements of AASHTO M 198,
Type A. However, pipe used in culvert construction does not need a hydrostatic
pressure test.

44

Ensure that pipe meets the applicable requirements of Section 843. If Section 843
and AASHTO M 198 differ,
B. Fabrication
General Provisions 101 through 150.
C. Acceptance
The Department will accept gaskets from approved QPL sources only.
D. Materials Warranty
A. Requirements
1. Coupling Types
Use steel-bolted couplings for joining all types of plain end pipe. Ensure the
couplings have the following
characteristics:
Wedge gasket and flared sleeve
One steel middle ring, two steel followers, two wedge-shaped rubber-compounded
gaskets, and steel bolts
Dimensions and type for the size and kind of pipe to be joined, including reducers
if required
2. Middle Rings
a. Ensure that middle rings size 0.375 in (10 mm) through 3 in (80 mm) are
fabricated from tubing and coldformed to provide proper flare at each end and to receive the wedge portion of the
gasket.
b. Ensure that middle rings size 4 in (100 mm) and larger are made from either bar
or plate-flash-welded, cold-formed, cold-expanded beyond the yield point of the
steel to size the ring and proof-test the weld.
45

c. Air-test all welded rings to ensure the weld is porous-free.

d. Use middle rings that have a bellowed portion between the flares provided for
the gaskets to accommodate pipe
deflection.
3. Followers
a. Ensure the followers meet these requirements:
Size Fabrication
0.375 in (10 mm) through 1.5 in (40 mm) One piece steel forgings.
Above 1.5 in (40 mm) through 5 in(130 mm) Cold-formed, two-piece
construction. 5 in(140 mm) through 20 in (500 mm) Hot forged from a single
piece circular plate & water quenched after forging for maximum strength. Above
20 in (500 mm) Use a special contoured mill section
- circle-rolled, flash-welded and cold-expanded beyond the yield point of the steel to
size the ring and proof-test the weld. All followers Have solid formed gasket recess,
free of seams or breaks, to confine the gasket.
4. Gaskets
Use gaskets that meet the requirements of ASTM D 2000 3AA708Z-B-13, with the
following exceptions: Color Jet black
Surface Nonblooming
Shore A Durometer hardness 75 5
Tensile strength 800 psi (5.5 MPa ) minimum
Elongation 175% minimum

a. Use a rubber compound that will not deteriorate from age or exposure to air
under normal storage or use conditions. Use natural or synthetic rubber that does
46

not contain reclaimed rubber. Use gaskets that are immune to impurities such as
odorants, liquid hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, and water normally found in natural
gas. To electrically bond the pipe ends to the center ring, make a permanent bond
from material that cannot corrode or deteriorate and is molded into the tip of the
gasket.
5. Bolts
Use bolts that have elliptical necks and track heads. Align the elliptical neck and the
elliptical hole in the follower so the bolt will not turn.
a. Ensure that the shank of the bolts has enough threads to compress the gasket.
Submit to the Engineer the manufacturers recommended torque for tightening the
bolts.
6. Coating
a. Unless otherwise specified, coat all metal parts in the shop to protect them
during shipping and storage. After installation, apply a coat of coal-tar enamel to
the coupling and uncoated ends of the pipe, according to
7. Certification
Submit a certification from the pipe, gasket, or joint manufacturer to the Engineer,
according to Subsection 106.05,
Materials Certification. The certificate shall describe the physical properties of the
rubber gasket and show the
results on hydrostatic tests of the gasket and pipe used in the Work.
B. Fabrication
General Provisions 101 through 150.
C. Acceptance
The Department will accept the material based on the certification.
D. Materials Warranty
47

General Provisions 101 through 150.

2.03 Gate Valves

A. Requirements
Use gate valves that meet the requirements of AWWA C 500.
B. Fabrication
General Provisions 101 through 150.
C. Acceptance
The Department will accept the material based on the certification.
D. Materials Warranty
General Provisions 101 through 150.
A. Requirements
Use hypochlorites that meet the requirements of AWWA B 300 for sterilizing water
systems. Section
B. Fabrication
General Provisions 101 through 150.
C. Acceptance
General Provisions 101 through 150.
D. Materials Warranty
General Provisions 101 through 150.

2.05 Bituminous Plastic Cement

A. Requirements
1. Type
48

Use a bituminous compound composed of steam-refined petroleum asphalt or

refined coal tar that is dissolved in a suitable solvent and stiffened with a mineral
filler with short mineral fibers.
a. Ensure that the material is smooth and uniform, not thick, livered, or separating
to a degree that it cannot be remixed by stirring. Ensure that the material can be
applied with a trowel, putty knife, or caulking gun without pulling or drawing and
has good adhesive and cohesive properties when applied to joint surfaces. You may
apply the material cold to seal the joints of bell-and-spigot or tongue-and-groove
storm or culvert pipe. Ensure that the bituminous plastic cement sets to a tough,
plastic coating, without blistering when applied 1/16 to 1/8 in (2 to 3 mm) thick on a
tinned metal panel and cured at room temperature for 24 hours.
Use bituminous plastic cement with these characteristics:
Minimum Maximum
Grease cone penetration 175.00 250
Weight, lbs/gal (kg/L) 9.75 (1.2)
Non-volatile, percent 75.00
Ash, by ignition, percent by weight 25.00 45

2. Use approved materials from those listed on QPL 21.

B. Fabrication
General Provisions 101 through 150.
C. Acceptance
Test as follows:

49

Test Method
D. Materials Warranty
General Provisions 101 through 150.

2.06 Preformed Plastic Gaskets

A. Requirements
1. Use cold-applied plastic gaskets that meet the requirements of AASHTO M 198,
Type B to seal tongue-and-groove
concrete culverts, precast manhole, and sewer pipes. However, do not perform the
Flash Point COC and Fire Point COC tests.
2. Use approved materials from those listed in QPL 21.
B. Fabrication
General Provisions 101 through 150.
C. Acceptance
The Department will accept materials only from facilities listed in QPL 21
. D. Materials Warranty
General Provisions 101 through 150.

50

Various Types of Pipes

The pipes are available in several types and sizes. They may be classified into three
groups according to the material used in their manufacturing.

Metallic pipes: the pipes such as CI Pipes, Steel pipes and GI Pipes.
Cement Pipes: the pipes such as Cement Pipes, Asbestos cement (AC) pipes,
cement concrete pipes.
Plastic Pipes: the pipes such as Un-plasticized PVC (UPVC ) pipes, Polythene Pipes
(low denisity)

Cast Iron (CI) Pipes

51

These pipes are mostly used in water supply. They are well suited for pressure and
can withstand external load because of their thickness. The pipes are easy in
manufacturing, layout and joining. These pipes are manufactured by vertical casting
in sand moulds, horizontal casting in sand moulds and centrifugal casting (spun
casting pipes).
Cast iron plumbing pipes
CI Pipes - Strong and heavy.
CI pipes are heavy in weight. Therefore transportation is costlier and they are not
suitable for inaccessible places. Due to heavy weight these are generally made in
short length. This increases layout and jointing cost. CI vertical casting pipes are not
of very good quality and can be replaced by centrifugal casting (spun casting)
pipes.

Steel Pipes
These pipes are extensively used for water supply. They are best suitable for long
distance pipe lines of high pressure and provide satisfactory performance during
service. These pipes have excellent mechanical properties and are ideally suited for
welding. The pipes are made in length more than twice the length of CI pipes; which
saves in transport, layout of pipe and joining cost. There is minimum damage to the
pipes in transportation. The pipes being light in weight are used for large diameter
pipe lines.

52

Cement Pipes

Main advantage of cement pipes in place of metallic pipes is their corrosion

resistance. These pipes are bulky, heavy and require careful transportation and
handling. The layout process of these pipes is costlier than steel pipes.
Asbestos Cement (AC) Pipes
These pipes are light in weight and easy in transportation and layout. They have
smooth internal surface and are not affected by corrosion (rust). The pipes are
extensively used for water supply systems. Holes can be drilled in these pipes.
These pipes are not costlier.

Un-plasticized PVC (UPVC) Pipes

53

These pipes are rigid PVC pipes. They are light in weight, tough, resistant to
chemical attack and large in length. Due to large in length the cost of handling is
much whereas transportation and installation cost is less. Smooth internal surface of
pipes provide less friction which results in saving of energy. These pipes are not
suitable for the area which is very hot.

PVC plumbing pipes PVC plumbing pipes PVC plumbing pipes ,PVC Pipes - Light
weight still powerfull.

54

RAINWATER HARVESTING
Introduction
A sufficient, clean drinking water supply is essential to life. Millions of people
throughout the world still do not have access to this basic necessity. After decades
of work by governments and organisations to bring potable water to the poorer
55

people of the world, the situation is still dire. The reasons are many and varied but
generally speaking, the poor of the world cannot afford the capital intensive and
technically complex traditional water supply systems which are widely promoted by
governments and agencies throughout the world. Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is an
option that has been adopted in many areas of the world where conventional water
supply systems have failed to meet peoples needs. It is a technique that has been
used since antiquity.

Examples of RWH systems can be found in all the great civilisations throughout
history. In industrialised needs of remote communities or individual households in
arid regions. Traditionally, in Uganda and Sri Lanka, for example, rainwater is
collected from trees, using banana leaves or stems as temporary gutters; up to 200
litres may be collected from a large tree in a single storm. Many individuals and
groups countries, sophisticated RWH systems have been developed with the aim of
reducing water bills or to meet the have taken the initiative and developed a wide
variety of RWH systems throughout the world.
It is worth distinguishing, between the various types of RWH practised throughout
the world. RWH has come to mean the control or utilisation of rainwater close to
the point rain reaches the earth. Its practice effectively divides into

56

Figure 1: Sigiriya, Sri Lanka. This reservoir cut into the rock was used centuries ago
to hold
harvested rainwater. Practical Action

Domestic RWH
RWH for agriculture, erosion control, flood control and aquifer replenishment.
Rainwater harvesting

Practical Action

It is worth bearing in mind that rainwater harvesting is not the definitive answer to
household water problems. There is a complex set of inter-related circumstances
that have to be considered when choosing the appropriate water source. These
include cost, climate, hydrology, social and political elements, as well as
technology, all play a role in the eventual choice of water supply scheme that is
adopted for a given situation. RWH is only one possible choice, but one that is often
overlooked by planners, engineers and builders.
57

The reason that RWH is rarely considered is often due to lack of information both
technical and otherwise. In many areas where RWH has been introduced as part of
a wider drinking water supply programme, it was at first unpopular, simply because
little was known about the technology by the beneficiaries. In most of these cases,
the technology has quickly gained popularity as the user realises the benefits of a
clean, reliable water source at the home. the town supply is unreliable or where
local water sources dry up for a part of the year, but is also In many cases RWH has
been introduced as part of an integrated water supply system, where often used as
the sole water source for a community or household. It is a technology that is
flexible and adaptable to a very wide variety of conditions, being used in the richest
and the poorest societies on our planet, and in the wettest and the driest regions of
the world.

Components of a domestic RWH system

DRWH systems vary in complexity, some of the traditional Sri Lankan systems are
no more that a pot situated under a piece of cloth or plastic sheet tied at its corners
to four poles. The cloth captures the water and diverts it through a hole in its
centre into the pot. Some of the sophisticated systems manufactured in Germany
incorporate clever computer management systems, submersible pumps, and links
into the grey water and mains domestic plumbing systems. Somewhere between
these two extremes we find the typical DRWH system used in a developing country
scenario. Such a system will usually comprise a collection surface (a clean roof or
ground area), a storage tank, and guttering to transport the water from the roof to
the storage tank. Other peripheral equipment is sometimes incorporated, for
example: first flush systems to divert the dirty water which contains roof debris
after prolonged dry periods; filtration equipment and settling chambers to remove
debris and contaminants before water enters the storage tank or cistern;
handpumps for water extraction; water level indicators, etc.
Typical domestic RWH systems.
Storage tanks and cisterns The water storage tank usually represents the biggest
capital investment element of a domestic RWH system. It therefore usually requires
58

careful design to provide optimal storage capacity while keeping the cost as low as
possible. The catchment area is usually the existing rooftop or occasionally a
cleaned area of ground, as seen in the courtyard collection systems in China, and
guttering can often be obtained relatively cheaply, or can be manufactured locally.
There are an almost unlimited number of options for storing water. Common
vessels used for very small-scale water storage in developing countries include such
examples as plastic bowls and buckets, jerrycans, clay or ceramic jars, cement jars,
old oil drums, empty food containers, etc. For storing larger quantities of water the
system will usually require a tank or a cistern. For the purpose of this document we
will classify the tank as an above-ground storage vessel and the cistern as a belowground storage vessel. These can vary in size from a cubic metre or so (1000 litres)
up to hundreds of cubic metres for large projects, but typically up to a maximum of
20 or 30 cubic metres for a domestic system. The choice of system will depend on
a number of technical and economic considerations listed below.

Figure 3: a) An owner built brick tank in Sri Lanka. b) A corrugated iron RWH tank in
Uganda.
Much work has been carried out to develop the ideal domestic RWH tank. The case
studies later in this document show a variety of tanks that have been built in
different parts of the world.

59

3 Rainwater harvesting

Practical Action Collection surfaces For domestic

rainwater harvesting the most common surface for collection is the roof of the
dwelling. Many other surfaces can be, and are, used: courtyards, threshing areas,
paved walking areas, plastic sheeting, trees, etc. In some cases, as in Gibraltar,
large rock surfaces are used to collect water which is then stored in large tanks at
the base of the rock slopes.
Figure 4: A typical corrugated iron sheet roof showing guttering Practical Action

Most dwellings, however, have a roof. The style, construction and material of the
roof affect its suitability as a collection surface for water. Typical materials for
roofing include corrugated iron sheet, asbestos sheet; tiles (a wide variety is found),
slate, and thatch (from a variety of organic materials). Most are suitable for
collection of roofwater, but only certain types of grasses e.g. coconut and anahaw
palm (Gould and Nissen Peterson, 1999), thatched tightly, provide a surface
adequate for high quality water collection. The rapid move towards the use of
corrugated iron sheets in many developing countries favours the promotion of RWH
(despite the other negative attributes of this material).

60

Guttering
Guttering is used to transport rainwater from the roof to the storage vessel.
Guttering comes in a wide variety of shapes and forms, ranging from the factory
made PVC type to home made guttering using bamboo or folded metal sheet. In
fact, the lack of standards in guttering shape and size makes it difficult for
designers to develop standard solutions to, say, filtration and first flush devices.
Guttering is usually fixed to the building just below the roof and catches the water
as it falls from the roof.
Some of the common types of guttering and fixings are shown in figure 5.
4 Rainwater harvesting

Practical Action

61

Figure 5: a variety of guttering types showing possible fixings

Manufacture of low-cost gutters

Factory made gutters are usually expensive and beyond the reach of the poor of
developing countries, if indeed available at all in the local marketplace. They are
seldom used for very low-cost systems. The alternative is usually to manufacture
gutters from materials that can be found cheaply in the locality. There are a
number of techniques that have been developed to help meet this demand; one
such technique is described below.

62

V- shaped gutters from galvanised steel sheet can be made simply by cutting and
folding flatgalvanised steel sheet. Such sheet is readily available in most market
centres (otherwise corrugated iron sheet can be beaten flat) and can be worked
with tools that are commonly found in a modestly equipped workshop. One simple
technique is to clamp the cut sheet between two lengths of straight timber and then
to fold the sheet along the edge of the wood. A strengthening edge can be added by
folding the sheet through 90o and then completing the edge with a hammer on a
hard flat surface. The better the grade of steel sheet that is used, the more
durable and hard wearing the product. Fitting a downpipe to V-shaped guttering
can be problematic and the V-shaped guttering will often be continued to the tank
rather than changing to the customary circular pipe section downpipe. Methods for
fixing
are shown in figure 6.

5 Rainwater harvesting

Practical Action First flush systems

Debris, dirt, dust and droppings will collect on the roof of a building or other
collection area. When the first rains arrive, this unwanted matter will be washed into
the tank. This will cause contamination of the water and the quality will be reduced.
Many RWH systems therefore incorporate a system for diverting this first flush
water so that it does not enter the tank.

63

The simpler ideas are based on a manually operated arrangement whereby the inlet
pipe is moved away from the tank inlet and then replaced again once the initial first
flush has been diverted. This method has obvious drawbacks in that there has to be
a person present who will remember to move the pipe.
Other systems use tipping gutters to achieve the same purpose. The most
common systuses a bucket which accepts the first flush and the weight of this water
off-balances a tipping gutter which then diverts the water back into the tank. The
bucket then empties slowly through a small-bore pipe and automatically resets. The
process will repeat itself from time to time if the rain continues to fall, which can be
a problem where water is really at a premium. In this case a tap can be fitted to the
bucket and will be operated manually. The quantity of water that is flushed is
dependent on the force required to lift the guttering. This can be adjusted to suit
the needs of the user. 6 Rainwater harvesting

Practical Action Another system

that is used relies on a floating ball that forms a seal once sufficient water has been
diverted . The seal is usually made as the ball rises into the apex of an inverted
cone. The ball seals the top of the waste water chamber and the diverted water is
slowly released, as with the bucket system above, through a small bore pipe. Again,
alternative is to use a tap. In some systems (notably one factory manufactured
system
Although the more sophisticated methods provide a much more elegant means of
rejecting the first flush water, practitioners often recommend that very simple,
easily maintained systems be used, as these are more likely to be repaired if failure
occurs.
7 Rainwater harvesting

Practical Action

Sizing the system

Usually, the main calculation carried out by the designer when planning a domestic
RWH system will be to size the water tank correctly to give adequate storage

64

capacity. The storage requirement will be determined by a number of interrelated

factors. They include:
local rainfall data and weather patterns
size of roof (or other) collection area
runoff coefficient (this varies between 0.5 and 0.9 depending on roof material and
slope)
user numbers and consumption rates
The style of rainwater harvesting i.e. whether the system will provide total or partial
supply (see the next section) will also play a part in determining the system
components and their size.
There are a number of different methods used for sizing the tank. These methods
vary in complexity and sophistication. Some are readily carried out by relatively
inexperienced, first-time practitioners while others require computer software and
trained engineers who understand how to use this software. The choice of method
used to design system components will depend largely on the following factors:
the size and sophistication of the system and its components
the availability of the tools required for using a particular method (e.g.
computers)
the skill and education levels of the practitioner / designer
Below we will outline 3 different methods for sizing RWH system components.
Method 1 demand side approach
A very simple method is to calculate the largest storage requirement based on the
consumption rates and occupancy of the building.
As a simple example we can use the following typical data:
Consumption per capita per day, C = 20 litres
Number of people per household, n = 6
65

Longest average dry period = 25 days

Annual consumption = C x n = 120 litres
Storage requirement, T = 120 x 25 = 3,000 litres

This simple method assumes sufficient rainfall and catchment area, and is therefore
only applicable in areas where this is the situation. It is a method for acquiring
rough estimates of tank size.
Method 2 supply side approach
In low rainfall areas or areas where the rainfall is of uneven distribution, more care
has to be taken to size the storage properly. During some months of the year, there
may be an excess of water, while at other times there will be a deficit. If there is
enough water throughout the year to meet the demand, then sufficient storage will
be required to bridge the periods of scarcity. As storage is expensive, this
should be done carefully to avoid unnecessary expense. This is a common scenario
in many developing countries where monsoon or single wet season climates prevail.
The example given here is a simple spreadsheet calculation for a site in North
Western Tanzania. The rainfall statistics were gleaned from a nurse at the local
hospital who had been keeping records for the previous 12 years. Average figures
for the rainfall data were used to simplify the calculation, and no reliability
calculation is done. This is a typical field approach to RWH storage sizing.
The example is taken from a system built at a medical dispensary in the village of
Ruganzu, Biharamulo District, Kagera, Tanzania in 1997.
8 Rainwater harvesting

Practical Action

Graph shows the comparison of water harvested and the amount that can be
supplied to the dispensary using all the water which is harvested. It can be noted
that there is a single rainy season. The first month that the rainfall on the roof
meets the demand is October. I we therefore assume that the tank is empty at the
end of September we can form a graph of cumulative harvested water and
66

cumulative demand and from this we can calculate the maximum storage
requirement for them dispensaryf

67

68

69

70

71