Chapter 2: Data Transmission

Chapter Two
Data Transmission
&
Transmission Media
Outline
Signal
Analog
Digital
Transmission Mode
Parallel Transmission
Serial Transmission
Digital Transmission
Digital to digital Modulation

Analog to digital Modulation
Analog Transmission
Digital to analog transmission

Analog to analog transmission
Transmission Media
Guided
Unguided - wireless
Networking
Transmission of data across
network connections
.
To be transmitted, data must be

transformed to electromagnetic
signals
Position of the Physical Layer
Service send stream data from sender to receiver

Node-to-node delivery
Transmission medium control on the direction of data flow
Services
convert
data (bit
pattern) to
signal
Determines
maximum
limit of data
rate
transmission
depend on
the design
of physical
hardware
and
software
providing
clocking
mechanis
m to
control
sender
and
receiver
timing of
the transfer
set of
techniques
that allows
the
simultaneou
s
transmission
of multiple
signals
across a
single data
link
Create
direct
connection
two devices
such as
phones or
computers
Analog Signal
Analog Signal
Analog and Digital Data

Analog data human voice
captured by a microphone and
converted to an analog signal
Digital data form 0s and 1s

converted to a digital signal when
transferred from one position to another
Analog Signal
Analog and Digital Signals

Analog signals can have an
infinite number of values in a
range
Digital signals can have only a
limited number of values.
Analog and Digital Signals

Means by which data are propagated
Analog
Continuously variable
Various media
wire, fiber optic, space
Speech bandwidth 100Hz to 7kHz

Telephone bandwidth 300Hz to 3400Hz
Video bandwidth 4MHz
Digital
Use two DC components
Analog Signal
Comparison of Analog and Digital

Signals
Analog Signal
Periodic and Aperiodic Signals

In data communication, we commonly use
periodic analog signals and aperiodic (nonperiodic) digital signals.
Periodic signal completes a pattern within a measurable

time frame, called a period and repeats that pattern over
subsequent identical periods.
Pattern repeated over time
Completion of one full pattern cycle
Aperiodic signal changes without exhibiting a pattern or

cycle that repeats over time
Pattern not repeated over time
Analog Signal
Analog Signals
Classified as:
Simple (Sine Wave) cannot
be decomposed into smaller
signals
Composite composed of
multiple sine waves
Analog Signal
A sine wave
Changes over the course of a cycle is smooth

and consistent, continuous, rolling flow
Each cycle consist of a single arc above the time axis
and followed by a single arc below it
Mathematically describe:
s(t) = A sin (2ft + )
Analog Signal
Sine Wave
Can be described by 3 characteristics:
Peak Amplitude (A)
maximum strength of signal

volts
Frequency (f)
Rate of change of signal

Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second
Period = time for one repetition (T)
T = 1/f
Phase ()
Relative position in time
Analog Signal
Amplitude
Represents the absolute value of its highest intensity,

proportional to the energy it carries
For electrical signal, peak amplitude measured in volts
Analog Signal
Period and frequency
Period amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs to

complete one cycle
Frequency no. of periods in one second.
Frequency and period are inverses of each other.
f = 1/T ; T = 1/f
Analog Signal
Units of periods and frequencies

Period
UNIT
Seconds (s)
EQUIVALENT
1s
UNIT
EQUIVALENT
Frequency
hertz (Hz)
1 Hz
Milliseconds (ms)
103 s
kilohertz (KHz)
103 Hz
Microseconds
(ms)
106 s
megahertz (MHz)
106 Hz
Nanoseconds
(ns)
109 s
gigahertz (GHz)
109 Hz
Picoseconds (ps)
1012
terahertz (THz)
1012 Hz
Analog Signal
Example 1
Express a period of 100 ms in microseconds, and express

the corresponding frequency in kilohertz.
Solution
From Table 3.1 we find the equivalent of 1 ms.We make
the following substitutions:
100 ms = 100 10-3 s = 100 10-3 106 ms = 105 ms
Now we use the inverse relationship to find the
frequency, changing hertz to kilohertz
100 ms = 100 10-3 s = 10-1 s
f = 1/10-1 Hz = 10 10-3 KHz = 10-2 KHz
Frequency
Analog Signal
is the rate of change with

respect to time.
Change in a short span of time
means HIGH FREQUENCY.
Change over a
loooooonnnnggg span of time
means LOW FREQUENCY.
Analog Signal
More about Frequency..
If a signal does not change at

all, its frequency is ZERO.
If a signal changes
instantaneously, its frequency is
INFINITE. (1/0)
Analog Signal
Components of Speech
Frequency range (of hearing) 20Hz-20kHz
Speech 100Hz-7kHz
Easily converted into electromagnetic

signal for transmission
Sound frequencies with varying volume
converted into electromagnetic
frequencies with varying voltage
Limit frequency range for voice channel
300-3400Hz
Analog Signal
Conversion of Voice Input into

Analog Signal
Phase
describes the position of the waveform
relative to time zero.
measured in degrees or radians
360 = 2 rad;
1 = 2/360 rad;
1 rad = 360/(2)
Analog Signal
Relationships between different phases
Example 2
Analog Signal
A sine wave is offset one-sixth of a cycle with

respect to time zero. What is its phase in
degrees and radians?
Solution
We know that one complete cycle is 360
degrees.
Therefore, 1/6 cycle is
(1/6) 360 = 60 degrees = 60 x 2p /360 rad =
1.046 rad
Analog Signal
Sine wave examples
Analog Signal
Sine wave examples (continued)
Analog Signal
Sine wave examples (continued)
Analog Signal
Time and Frequency Domain

Time-domain (instantaneous
amplitude with respect to time)
Frequency domain (peak amplitude
with respect to frequency)
An analog signal is best represented
in the frequency domain.
Analog Signal
Time and frequency domains
10
Analog Signal
Time and frequency domains (cont.)
Analog Signal
Time and frequency domains (cont.)
Analog Signal
Composite Signal
A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in

data communications.
e.g.: Electric energy distribution, burglar
alarm.
Phone conversation if use single signal it
just yield a buzz
Changes of one or more of its characteristics
need to be done to make it useful.
The signal will become a Composite Signal
(which made of many simple sine waves)
11
Analog Signal
Fourier Analysis
According to Fourier analysis,

any composite signal can be
represented as a combination of
simple sine waves with different
frequencies, phases, and
amplitudes.
Analog Signal
Square wave
Fundamental frequency frequency f is dominant
Analog Signal
Three harmonics (frequency 3f)
12
Analog Signal
Adding first three harmonics
Analog Signal
Frequency spectrum comparison
Frequency spectrum description of a signal using the frequency

domain and containing all its components
Analog Signal
Composite Signal and Transmission

Medium
no transmission medium is perfect

each medium passes some frequencies;
weaken others;
blocks still others.
That will give this result
Figure 3.12
Signal corruption
13
Analog Signal
Bandwidth
range of frequencies that a medium

can pass;
without losing one-half of the power
contained in that signal.
It is a property of a medium: the
difference between the highest and the
lowest frequencies that the medium can
satisfactorily pass.
Analog Signal
Bandwidth
Analog Signal
Example 3
If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine

waves with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700,
and 900 Hz, what is the bandwidth? Draw the
spectrum, assuming all components have a
maximum amplitude of 10 V.
Solution
B = fh - fl = 900 - 100 = 800 Hz
The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300,
500, 700, and 900
14
Analog Signal
Example: Frequency spectrum
Analog Signal
Example 4
A signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest

frequency is 60 Hz. What is the lowest
frequency? Draw the spectrum if the signal
contains all integral frequencies of the same
amplitude.
Solution
B = fh - fl
20 = 60 - fl
fl = 60 - 20 = 40 Hz
Analog Signal
Example: Frequency spectrum
15
Analog Signal
Example 5
A signal has a spectrum with frequencies between 1000

and 2000 Hz (bandwidth of 1000 Hz). A medium can
pass frequencies from 3000 to 4000 Hz (a bandwidth of
1000 Hz). Can this signal faithfully pass through this
medium?
Solution
The answer is definitely no. Although the signal can
have the same bandwidth (1000 Hz), the range does
not overlap. The medium can only pass the
frequencies between 3000 and 4000 Hz; the signal is
totally lost.
Digital Signal
Digital Signal
Digital Signals
Bit Interval and Bit Rate
As a Composite Analog Signal
Through Wide-Bandwidth Medium
Through Band-Limited Medium
Versus Analog Bandwidth
Higher Bit Rate
16
Digital Signal
A digital signal
+ve voltage
zero voltage
Digital Signal
Bit Interval and Bit Rate
Bit interval time required to send one single bit

Bit rate no. of bit intervals per second (bps)
Figure 3.17
Digital Signal
Bit rate and bit interval
Example 6
A digital signal has a bit rate of 2000 bps. What is the

duration of each bit (bit interval)
Solution
The bit interval is the inverse of the bit rate.
Bit interval = 1/ 2000 s = 0.000500 s
= 0.000500 x 106 ms = 500 ms
17
Digital Signal
Digital Signal
Digital versus analog
Bandwidth Requirement
Bit
Rate
Harmoni
c
1
Harmonics
1, 3
Harmonics
1, 3, 5
Harmonics
1, 3, 5, 7
1 Kbps
500 Hz
2 KHz
4.5 KHz
8 KHz
10 Kbps
5 KHz
20 KHz
45 KHz
80 KHz
100 Kbps
50 KHz
200 KHz
450 KHz
800 KHz
The bit rate and the bandwidth are

proportional to each other.
Bandwidth (B) = n(bit rate) , third harmonic: Bandwidth,B = n + 3n
2
2
2
Digital Signal
Digital versus Analog Bandwidth

Analog Bandwidth range of
frequencies that a medium
can pass; in Hertz
Digital Bandwidth maximum

bit rate that a medium can
pass; in bps
18
Digital Signal
Higher Bit Rate
i.e:- using a modem with

modulation techniques that
allow a representation of
multiple bits in one single
period of an analog signal
Digital Signal
Advantages & Disadvantages

of Digital
Advantages
Cheaper
Less susceptible to noise
Disadvantage
Greater attenuation
Pulses become rounded and smaller

Leads to loss of information
Digital Signal
Attenuation of Digital Signals
19
Transmission Mode
&
Serial Transmission
Transmission Mode
Transmission Mode
Multiples bits are sent with each
clock tick
Only one way to sent data
Serial Transmission
1 bit is sent with each clock tick
Two subclasses :
Synchronous
asynchronous
Transmission Mode
Data Transmission
20
Transmission Mode
This mechanism is conceptually simple one

Use n wires to send n bits at one time
Advantages
speed can increase the transmission speed by the factor of n
over serial transmission
Drawback:
cost requires n communication line to transmit the data
stream
- expensive
- usually use for limited or short distance
Transmission Mode
Serial Transmission
Transmission based on bit by bit at one time therefore only need one
communication line
Advantages :
reduce cost of transmission

Since communication within devices is parallel, need conversion
between
the sender and the line (parallel -to-serial) and ,
between the line and the receiver (serial -to- parallel)
Transmission Mode
Asynchronous Transmission
In asynchronous transmission, we
send 1 start bit (0) at the
beginning and 1 or more stop
bits (1s) at the end of each byte.
There may be a gap between
each byte.
21
Transmission Mode
Asynchronous Transmission (cont)

Asynchronous here means asynchronous
at the byte level, but the bits are still
synchronized; their durations are the same.
Transmission Mode
Synchronous Transmission
In synchronous transmission,
we send bits one after another without
start/stop bits or gaps.
It is the responsibility of the receiver to
group the bits.
Transmission Mode
Asynchronous vs. Synchronous

Asynchronous
Slower transmission or low-speed

communication
Cheap and effective
E.g: Keyboard only one character at
one time and leave unpredictable gap of
time between each character
Synchronous
Faster transmission useful for high speed

application
22
Encoding Techniques
Digital transmission
Digital data, digital signal
Analog data, digital signal
Analog Transmission
Digital data, analog signal
Analog data, analog signal
Topics Covered:-
Digital data to digital signal

Line Coding technique to convert
binary data to digital signals
Block Coding method to improve
the efficiency of line coding
Analog data to digital signal

Digitization - Conversion of analog data
into digital data
Sampling technique for changing

analog data to binary data
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Quantization
23
Digital Data, Digital Signal

Digital signal
Discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses

Each pulse is a signal element
Binary data encoded into signal
elements
Use a conversion technique
Line coding
Conversion of PC Input to
Digital Signal
Digital Signals Carrying

Analog and Digital Data
24
Line Coding
Define the process of converting binary data to a

digital signal
In line coding, we will discuss about the:
Some Characteristics
Line Coding Schemes
Some Other Schemes
Line Coding: Characteristics
Signal Level VS Data Level

Pulse Rate VS Bit Rate
DC Components
Self-synchronization
Signal Level VS Data Level
no. of signal levels no. of values allowed in a

particular signal
no. of data levels no. of values used to represent
data
25
Pulse Rate VS Bit Rate
Pulse Rate no. of pulses per

second
Pulse minimum amount of time

required to transmit a symbol
Bit rate no. of bits per second
Mathematically, describe as:
BitRate = PulseRate x Log2 L
Data and Signals

Usually use digital signals for digital
data and analog signals for analog data
Can use analog signal to carry digital
data
Modem
Can use digital signal to carry analog

data
Compact Disc audio
DC Components
Some line coding leave a residual direct-current (dc) component

This component is an undesirable components with reasons: signal is distorted / create errors in the output when pass through a
system that does not allow passage of a dc component (i.e:
transformer)
extra energy residing on the line and useless
26
Self-Synchronization
includes timing information in the data being transmitted
can be achieved if there are transitions in the signal that alert the receiver
to the beginning, middle or end of the pulse
if the receivers clock is out of synchronization, the alerting points can reset
the clock
Line Coding Schemes
Unipolar
simple and primitive

use only one voltage level
1 - +ve value; 0 zero value
inexpensive to implement
2 problems: dc component
lack of synchronization
27
Polar
use two voltage level (+ve and ve)
NRZ (Nonreturn to Zero)

NRZ encoding
the value of the signal is always either +ve or ve
NRZ-L (Nonreturn Zero-level)

the level of the signal depends on the type of bit that it
represents
0 = positive voltage (+ve); 1 = negative voltage (-ve)
NRZ-I (Nonreturn Zero-invert)

inversion of the voltage level represents a 1 bit
0 = no changes; 1 = have transition between +ve and
ve voltage
Inverted if a 1 is encountered
NRZ-L and NRZ-I encoding
28
Return to Zero (RZ)
use three values: +ve, -ve and zero

i.e: 1 bit positive to zero, 0 bit negative to zero
disadvantage occupies more bandwidth (requires two signal changes to
encode 1 bit)
the most effective compare within these three alternative encoding
schemes.
Manchester
use an inversion at the middle of each bit interval for both

synchronization and bit representation.
binary 1 negative to positive, binary 0 positive to negative
Consider achieve same level of synchronization as RZ but only
involve two levels of amplitude
Differential Manchester Encoding
the inversion at the middle of the bit interval is used for

synchronization, BUT the presence or absence of an additional
transition at the beginning of the interval is used to identify the bit.
binary 0 transition; binary 1 no transition
29
Bipolar
use three voltage levels (+ve, -ve and zero)

a common bipolar encoding known as Bipolar Alternate Mark
Inversion (AMI) alternate 1 inversion
means : 0 = 0 voltage; 1 = alternation +ve and ve voltage
Modification of bipolar AMI to solve the problem of synchronizing
sequential 0s, especially for long-distance transmission known as BnZS (Bipolar
n-zero substitution)
Bipolar n-zero substitution (BnZS) wherever n consecutive zeros
occur in the sequence, some of the bits in these n bits become +ve
or ve (to help synchronization)
Other Schemes: 2B1Q
2 binary, one quaternary (2B1Q): uses 4 voltage levels

each pulse can represent 2 bits (more efficient)
Other Schemes: MLT-3
Multiline transmission, three level (MLT-3): ~ NRZ-I

use three levels signals (+1, 0, -1)
signal transit at the beginning of a 1 bit; no transition at the
beginning of 0 bit
30
Block Coding
to improve the performance of line coding

Need some kind of redundancy to ensure synchronization
Need to include other redundant bits to detect errors.
Steps in Transformation
Step 1 Division
Sequence of bits is divided into groups of m bits
Step 2 Substitution
substitute an m-bit code for an n-bit group

E.g: 4B/5B encoding
refer Figure 4.16
Step 3 Line Coding
use one of the line coding schemes to create a

signal
sometimes step 2 and 3 can be combined
Substitution in block coding
31
Some Common Block Codes: 4B/5B

Data
Code
Data
Code
0000
11110
1000
10010
0001
01001
1001
10011
0010
10100
1010
10110
0011
10101
1011
10111
0100
01010
1100
11010
0101
01011
1101
11011
0110
01110
1110
11100
0111
01111
1111
11101
Some Common Block Codes: 4B/5B (cont.)

Data
Code
Q (Quiet)
00000
I (Idle)
11111
H (Halt)
00100
J (start delimiter)
11000
K (start delimiter)
10001
T (end delimiter)
01101
S (Set)
11001
R (Reset)
00111
Some Common Block Codes: 8B/10B

Similar to 4B/5B;
Group of 8 bits of data is substituted
by a 10-bit code
More error detection capability
than 4B/5B
32
Some Common Block Codes: 8B/6T

designed to substitute an 8-bit group with a six symbol code;
each symbol is ternary, having one of three signal levels
each block of 8-bit data is encoded as units of ternary signals
(three levels)
Analog Data, Digital Signal
Sampling
Pulse Amplitude Modulation
Pulse Code Modulation
Sampling Rate: Nyquist
Theorem
How Many Bits per Sample?
Bit Rate
Sampling
Line coding and block coding use
for convert binary data to digital
signal
Voice or video created as analog
signal in order to store the
recording in the computer or send it
digitalized; need to change it
through process sampling
33
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
analog to digital conversion method

Technique : take analog signal samples it generate the series of
pulse based on the result of the sampling
sampling means measuring the amplitude of the signal at equal intervals
Use technique sample and hold
PAM has some application, but is not use in data communication.
However, it is the first step in aother popular conversion method call Pulse
Code Modulatiom (PCM)
Pulse Code Modulation
modifies the pulses created by PAM to create a completely digital signal

Quantization: method of assigning integral values in a specific range to
sampled instances
Quantization by using sign and magnitude
This figure illustrate a simple method of assigning sign and

magnitude to quantized Sample. Each value translate into its 7-bit
binary equivalent. The eighth bit indicates the sign
34
PCM
This figure shows the result of PCM of the original signal encoded into
unipolar signal
PCM is made up of PAM, quantization, binary encoding and line coding
From analog signal to PCM digital code
Sampling Rate: Nyquist Theorem

According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate must
be at least 2 times the highest frequency.
35
Example 4
What sampling rate is needed for a signal with a bandwidth
of 10,000 Hz (1000 to 11,000 Hz)?
Solution
The sampling rate must be twice the highest frequency in
the signal:
Sampling rate = 2 x (11,000) = 22,000 samples/s
Example 5
A signal is sampled. Each sample requires at least 12 levels
of precision (+0 to +5 and -0 to -5). How many bits should
be sent for each sample?
Solution
We need 4 bits; 1 bit for the sign and 3 bits for the value. A
3-bit value can represent 23 = 8 levels (000 to 111), which
is more than what we need. A 2-bit value is not enough
since 22 = 4. A 4-bit value is too much because 24 = 16.
Example 6
We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate,
assuming 8 bits per sample?
Solution
The human voice normally contains frequencies from 0 to
4000 Hz.
Sampling rate = 4000 x 2 = 8000 samples/s
Bit rate = sampling rate x number of bits per sample
= 8000 x 8 = 64,000 bps = 64 Kbps
36
Advantages of Digital
Transmission
Digital technology
Low cost LSI/VLSI technology
Data integrity
Longer distances over lower quality lines
Capacity utilization
High bandwidth links economical
High degree of multiplexing easier with digital
techniques
Identify
and
present next lecture
Security &
Privacy
Encryption
Integration
Can treat analog and digital data similarly
Digital-to-Analog
Digital-to-Analog Conversion
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Bit/Baud Comparison
37
Analog Transmission
Analog Signals Carrying Analog

and Digital Data
Analog Transmission
Analog Transmission
Analog signal transmitted without
regard to content
Represent analog or digital data
Attenuated over distance
Use amplifiers to boost signal
Also amplifies noise
Digital-to-Analog
4 possible
combinations
of data and
signal types
Analog data, analog signal

Digital data, analog signal
Analog data, digital signal
Digital data, digital signal
Digital Data with Analog Signals
This method is used to send computer information over

transmission channels that require analog signals, like a fiber optic
networks, computer modems, cellular phone networks, and
satellite systems.
An electromagnetic carrier wave is used to carry the information

over great distances and connect digital information users at
remote locations.
The digital data is used to modulate one or more of the

parameters of the carrier wave (carrier signal)
Carrier signal refers to high frequency signal acts as a basis for the
information signal produce by the sending device or source
signal
38
Digital-to-Analog
Modulation
a process converting binary data (low-pass analog signal) to a band pass
analog signal or the process of modifying some characteristic of a wave (the
carrier) so that it varies synchronized with the instantaneous value of another
wave (the modulating wave) in order to transmit a message. The modified
characteristic may be frequency, phase, and/or amplitude.
Digital-to-analog modulation
a process of changing one of the analog signal characteristic based on the
information in a digital signal
Digital-to-Analog
Digital-to-Analog
A signal is composed of 1 or more bits

In data transmission more concern about the efficiency of data
movement from one destination to another
Signal required system efficient
bandwidth required to
transmit bits
The baud rate determine the bandwidth required to send signal
Defines as
Bit rate=baud rate x number of bits per signal
Bit rate baud rate
Bit rate is the number of bits per second.

Baud rate is the number of signal units per second.
Baud rate is less than or equal to the bit rate
39
Digital-to-Analog
An analog signal carries 4 bits in each signal unit. If 1000

signal units are sent per second, find the baud rate and
the bit rate
Baud rate = 1000 bauds per second (baud/s)

Bit rate = 1000 x 4 = 4000 bps
Digital-to-Analog
The bit rate of a signal is 3000. If each signal

unit carries 6 bits, what is the baud rate?
Baud rate = 3000 / 6 = 500 baud/s
Digital-to-Analog
Amplitude changing while frequency and phase remain constant

The presence of a carrier wave to indicate a binary one and its absence to
indicate a binary zero.
A popular ASK technique called on-off keying (OOK), for example it is used at
radio frequencies to transmit Morse code (referred to as continuous wave
operation).
Drawback :
highly susceptible to noise interference refer to unintentional voltage
probably affected by heat or electromagnetic induction created by
other sources
Advantages:
reduction in the amount of energy required to transmit information
40
Digital-to-Analog
Digital-to-Analog
Find the minimum bandwidth for an ASK signal

transmitting at 2000 bps. The transmission mode is halfduplex.
In ASK the baud rate and bit rate are the same. The
baud rate is therefore 2000. An ASK signal requires a
minimum bandwidth equal to its baud rate. Therefore,
the minimum bandwidth is 2000 Hz.
Digital-to-Analog
Given a bandwidth of 5000 Hz for an ASK signal,

what are the baud rate and bit rate?
In ASK the baud rate is the same as the bandwidth,

which means the baud rate is 5000. But because the
baud rate and the bit rate are also the same for ASK,
the bit rate is 5000 bps.
41
Digital-to-Analog
Given a bandwidth of 10,000 Hz (1000 to 11,000 Hz),

draw the full-duplex ASK diagram of the system. Find the
carriers and the bandwidths in each direction. Assume
there is no gap between the bands in the two directions.
For full-duplex ASK, the bandwidth for each direction is

BW = 10000 / 2 = 5000 Hz
The carrier frequencies can be chosen at the middle of each band
(see Fig. 5.5).
fc (forward) = 1000 + 5000/2 = 3500 Hz
fc (backward) = 11000 5000/2 = 8500 Hz
Digital-to-Analog
Digital-to-Analog
In Frequency Shift keying (FSK) frequency of the carrier signal is

varied to represent binary 0 and 1
Peak amplitude and phase remain constant
FSK not affected noise because receiving device focus on the
specific frequency change over a number of period and ignore
the voltage
The common FSK is Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK)
42
Digital-to-Analog
In FSK, easier to analyze as two different coexisting frequencies

FSK spectrum is a combination of two ASK spectra centered on fc0
and fc1
Digital-to-Analog
Find the minimum bandwidth for an FSK signal

transmitting at 2000 bps. Transmission is in halfduplex mode, and the carriers are separated by 3000
Hz.
For FSK
BW = baud rate + fc1 - fc0

BW = bit rate + fc1 - fc0 = 2000 + 3000 = 5000 Hz
Digital-to-Analog
Find the maximum bit rates for an FSK signal if the

bandwidth of the medium is 12,000 Hz and the difference
between the two carriers is 2000 Hz. Transmission is in
full-duplex mode.
Because the transmission is full duplex, only 6000 Hz is

allocated for each direction.
BW = baud rate + fc1 - fc0

Baud rate = BW - (fc1 - fc0 ) = 6000 - 2000 = 4000
But because the baud rate is the same as the bit rate, the
bit rate is 4000 bps.
43
Digital-to-Analog
In Phase Shift Keying the phase of the carrier signal is shifted to

represent data
Both peak amplitude and frequency remain constant while the phase
tend to change. e.g.: if the phase begin with 0 will represent binary 0,
then it can change to
binary 1 if begin with a phase 180
The common technique is 2-PSK or Binary PSK used two different phase
not susceptible to the noise degradation that affects ASK or bandwidth
limitations of FSK
Digital-to-Analog
Note: The figure illustrate the same relationship showing only the phase
A constellation diagram is a representation of a digital modulation
scheme in the complex plane
A constellation diagram can perform in some methods approach
depend on the variation of phase changes such as 2-PSK, 4-PSK and
8-PSK
Digital-to-Analog
Four variation
and each
phase
shift represent
2 bits
This technique
also known as
Quadrature
PSK (QPSK)
A pair of bits
represented
by each
phase = dibit
more efficient
coz able to
transmit data
twice
44
Digital-to-Analog
010
111
001
110
000
011
101
100
In 8-PSK each phase shift represent 3 bit (tribit)

8-PSK contribute 3 time efficiency compared to 2-PSK
Digital-to-Analog
In PSK, minimum bandwidth minimum bandwidth in ASK

Maximum bit rate in PSK Maximum bit rate in ASK
Digital-to-Analog
Find the bandwidth for a 4-PSK signal transmitting at

2000 bps. Transmission is in half-duplex mode.
For 4-PSK baud rate is the same as the bandwidth. 4-PSK carried
dibit, therefore bid rate = 2 x baud rate.
So:
2000bps = 2 x N baud rate
N baud rate = 2000/2
Baud rate = 1000
Baud rate = bandwidth = 1000Hz
45
Digital-to-Analog
Given a bandwidth of 5000 Hz for an 8-PSK signal, what

are the baud rate and bit rate?
For PSK the baud rate is the same as the

bandwidth, which means the baud rate is 5000.
But in 8-PSK the bit rate is 3 times the baud rate,
so the bit rate is 15,000 bps.
Digital-to-Analog
Quadrature amplitude
modulation is a combination of
ASK and PSK so that a maximum
contrast between each signal unit
(bit, dibit, tribit, and so on) is
achieved.
Digital-to-Analog
The number of amplitude shift < the number of phase shift

The reason : amplitude change is susceptible to noise and
require greater shift differences rather than phase changes
46
Digital-to-Analog
Digital-to-Analog
ITU-T
ISO
The bandwidth for QAM = bandwidth required for ASK and PSK
Digital-to-Analog
47
Digital-to-Analog
Modulation
Units
Bits/Baud
Baud rate
Bit Rate
Bit
4-PSK, 4-QAM
Dibit
2N
8-PSK, 8-QAM
Tribit
3N
16-QAM
Quadbit
4N
32-QAM
Pentabit
5N
64-QAM
Hexabit
6N
128-QAM
Septabit
7N
256-QAM
Octabit
8N
ASK, FSK, 2-PSK
Digital-to-Analog
A constellation diagram consists of eight equally spaced

points on a circle. If the bit rate is 4800 bps, what is the
baud rate?
The constellation indicates 8-PSK with the points 45

degrees apart. Since 23 = 8, 3 bits are transmitted with
each signal unit. Therefore, the baud rate is
4800 / 3 = 1600 baud
Digital-to-Analog
Compute the bit rate for a 1000-baud 16-QAM

signal.
A 16-QAM signal has 4 bits per signal unit since

log216 = 4.
Thus,
(1000)(4) = 4000 bps
48
Digital-to-Analog
Compute the baud rate for a 72,000-bps 64QAM signal.
A 64-QAM signal has 6 bits per signal unit since

log2 64 = 6.
Thus,
72000 / 6 = 12,000 baud
Analog-to-Analog
Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Frequency Modulation (FM)
Phase Modulation (PM)
Analog-to-Analog
This modulation is to represent analog data to analog signal

e.g.: radio each radio station has been assigned a
baseband bandwidth. The analog signal produced by each
radio station is low-pass signal, all in same range. To ensure
different stations able to listen, the low-pass signal need to be
shifted to a different range
49
Analog-to-Analog
Amplitude
Modulation
Frequency
modulation
Phase
Modulation
Analog-to-Analog
AM
transmission
Carrier
signal
modulated
Amplitude
varies
Changing
amplitude of the
Modulating signal
The total bandwidth required for

AM can be determined from the
bandwidth of the audio signal:
BWt = 2 x BWm.
Analog-to-Analog
50
Analog-to-Analog
Analog-to-Analog
Note:
Bandwidth of audio signal (speech and music)5 KHz,
therefore, minimum bandwidth for AM radio station = 10KHz.
Basically, for AM, allocate carrier frequency = 530Hz
1700KHz. Each Station Radio frequency must have minimum
distance 10Khz among each other
Analog-to-Analog
We have an audio signal with a bandwidth of 4 KHz. What

is the bandwidth needed if we modulate the signal using
AM? Ignore FCC regulations.
An AM signal requires twice the bandwidth of the

original signal:
BW = 2 x 4 KHz = 8 KHz
51
Analog-to-Analog
The total bandwidth required

for FM can be determined
from the bandwidth of the
audio signal:
BWt = 10 x BWm
Analog-to-Analog
Analog-to-Analog
52
Analog-to-Analog
The bandwidth of a stereo audio signal is

usually 15 KHz. Therefore, an FM station
needs at least a bandwidth of 150 KHz.
The FCC requires the minimum bandwidth
to be at least 200 KHz (0.2 MHz).
Analog-to-Analog
Analog-to-Analog
We have an audio signal with a bandwidth of 4 MHz.

What is the bandwidth needed if we modulate the
signal using FM? Ignore FCC regulations.
An FM signal requires 10 times the bandwidth

of the original signal:
BW = 10 x 4 MHz = 40 MHz
53
Transmission Impairments
Signal received may differ from signal
transmitted
Analog - degradation of signal quality
Digital - bit errors
Caused by
Attenuation and attenuation distortion
Delay distortion
Noise
Attenuation
Signal strength falls off with distance
Depends on medium
Received signal strength:
must be enough to be detected
must be sufficiently higher than noise to
be received without error
Attenuation is an increasing function

of frequency
Delay Distortion
Only in guided media
Occurs because velocity of
propagation varies with frequency

Velocity tend to be higher at the
center frequency and fall off toward
the two edges of the band
Critical for digital data
54
Noise (1)
Additional signals inserted between
transmitter and receiver
Divided into 4 categories
Thermal
Due to thermal agitation of electrons
Uniformly distributed across the bandwidth referred
as White noise
Significant for satellite communication
Intermodulation
Signals that are the sum and difference of original
frequencies sharing a medium
Noise (2)
Crosstalk
A signal from one line is picked up by another
Impulse
Consist of irregular pulses or spikes of short
duration and high amplitude
Generated by external electromagnetic
interference like lightning, fault and flaws in
communication system
Transmission
Media
55
Transmission Media
Topic Covered
Guided Media.
Twisted-Pair Cable
Coaxial Cable
Fiber-Optic Cable
Unguided Media : Wireless
Radio Waves
Microwaves
Infrared.
Transmission Media
Introduction
Physical Layer
Physical Layer
Receiver
Sender
Transmission Media
Cable or air
located below physical layer but controlled

by layer 1
Assume that belong to Layer 0
Transmission Media
Transmission Media
Notes
Data transmission thru electromagnetic ~ combination of electric

and magnetic field
Wired media ~ Signal traveling is directed and having physical
limitation
Twisted pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors ~
accept and transport signal in form of electric current
56
Transmission Media
Overview
Guided - wire
Unguided - wireless
Characteristics and quality determined
by medium and signal
For guided, the medium is more
important
For unguided, the bandwidth produced
by the antenna is more important
Key concerns are data rate and distance
Transmission Media
Design Factors
Bandwidth
Higher bandwidth gives higher data rate
Transmission impairments
Attenuation
Interference
Number of receivers
In guided media
More receivers (multi-point) introduce more
attenuation
Transmission Media
Electromagnetic Spectrum
57
Transmission Media
Guided Media
Twisted-Pair Cable
Coaxial Cable
Fiber-Optic Cable
Guided Media
Transmission Characteristics of
Guided Media
Frequency
Range
Typical
Attenuation
Typical
Delay
Repeater
Spacing
Twisted pair
(with
loading)
0 to 3.5 kHz
0.2 dB/km @
1 kHz
50 s/km
2 km
Twisted pairs
(multi-pair
cables)
0 to 1 MHz
0.7 dB/km @
1 kHz
5 s/km
2 km
Coaxial
cable
0 to 500 MHz
7 dB/km @
10 MHz
4 s/km
1 to 9 km
Optical fiber
186 to 370
THz
0.2 to 0.5
dB/km
5 s/km
40 km
Guided Media
Twisted-Pair Cable
Twisted pair of coppers with plastic insulation
2 Wires
1 To carry signals
2 for ground reference
The receiver uses the difference between 2 levels

Signal send on one wire
~ Interference & crosstalk may affect both wire and created
unwanted signals
~ If two are affected equally, receiver is immune
2 wires are parallel ~ the effect of unwanted signals is not same
coz different location
Twisting balances exposure of interference
No of Twist per unit length will influence cable quality, therefore
more twist mean better quality.
58
Guided Media
Twisted Pair - Transmission

Characteristics
Analog
Amplifiers every 5km to 6km
Digital
Use either analog or digital signals

repeater every 2km or 3km
Limited distance
Limited bandwidth (1MHz)
Limited data rate (100MHz)
Susceptible to interference and noise
Guided Media
Unshielded(UTP) vs. Shielded Twisted-Pair(STP)
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Common cable for
communication
Ordinary telephone wire
Cheapest
Easiest to install
Suffers from external EM
interference
Guided Media
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

IBM
metal foil OR braided mesh covering
each pair
improve noise tolerance ~ preventing
the penetration of noise or crosstalk
bulky & expensive
harder to handle (thick,heavy)
UTP Categories
Several categories of UTP cable exist:

Category 1Used for telephone communications; not
suitable for transmitting data
Category 2Capable of transmitting data at speeds of up
to 4 Mbps
Category 3Used in 10BASE-T networks; can transmit data
at speeds up to 10 Mbps
Category 4Used in Token Ring networks; can transmit data
at speeds up to 16 Mbps
Category 5Capable of transmitting data at speeds up to
100 Mbps
Category 5eUsed in networks running at speeds up to 1000
Mbps (1 Gbps)
Category 6Consists of four pairs of 24-gauge copper wires
that can transmit data at speeds up to 1000 Mbps
59
Guided Media
UTP Cable - Categories
Category
Bandwidth
Data Rate
Digital/Analog
Use
very low
< 100 kbps
Analog
Telephone
< 2 MHz
2 Mbps
Analog/digital
T-1 lines
16 MHz
10 Mbps
Digital
LANs
20 MHz
20 Mbps
Digital
LANs
100 MHz
100 Mbps
Digital
LANs
6 (draft)
200 MHz
200 Mbps
Digital
LANs
600 MHz
600 Mbps
Digital
LANs
7 (draft)
Table 6.1 Categories of UTP cables
Guided Media
UTP Connector
Common connector RJ45 (Registered Jack)

~Keyed Connector (connector can be inserted
only one way)
Guided Media
UTP Performance
Compare Attenuation vs. frequency & distance

Can pass a wide range of frequency
Attenuation sharply increases with frequency > 100 KHz
Gauge is the measure of the thickness of the wire
60
Guided Media
UTP Application
1. To provide voice & Data Channel in telephone line

2. To provide high data rate (use high bandwidth
capability of UTP) in DSL line
3. For LAN Network (10Base-T & 100Base-T)
Guided Media
Coaxial Cable (Coax)
Carries higher frequency ranges than UTP

Has central core conductor of solid or stranded wire enclosed in an
insulating sheath and encased in outer conductor of metal foil, braid or a
combination of two
Outer metallic wrapping
shield against noise
second conductor to complete the circuit
enclosed in an insulating sheath
Protected by a plastic cover
Guided Media
Coaxial Cable Standard

Table 6.2 Categories of coaxial cables
Category
Impedance
Use
RG-59
75
Cable TV
RG-58
50
Thin Ethernet
RG-11
50
Thick Ethernet
categorized by radio government (RG) rating. Each RG denote

unique set of physical specification consist:
wire gauge, type & thickness of insulation
(inner conductor)
construction of the shield
size & type of outer casing
61
Guided Media
Coaxial Cable Connector
common type is BNC - Bayone-Neill-Concelman

Type of BNC Connector
a. BNC Connector - end of cable to device
b. BNC T Connector - branch out of a cable
c. BNC Terminator use the end of the cable to
prevent signal reflection
Guided Media
Coaxial Cable Performance
Can be determined by the comparison of attenuation, its higher

in coaxial cable require more repeaters but more bandwidth
Guided Media
Coaxial Cable Application
1. Most versatile medium

2. Analog telephone line / long distance telephone
transmission
could carry 10 000 voice signals
Being replaced by fiber optic
3. Digital telephone line can carry up to 600 Mbps data
4. Cable TV network/Television Distribution entire network use
coax cable, common use is RG59
Ariel to TV
Cable TV
5. Ethernet LAN (10Base2 or Thinnet) - RG58 TX data at 10
Mbps range 185m
6. Thicknet (10Base5) - RG11 TX data at 10Mbps range 5000m
62
Guided Media
Coaxial Cable - Transmission

Characteristics
Analog
Amplifiers every few km

Closer if higher frequency
Up to 500MHz
Digital
Guided Media
Repeater every 1km

Closer for higher data rates
Fiber Optic Cable
Made of glass or plastic for the core and surrounded by a

cladding of lesser dense glass or plastic and transmit signals in the
form of light
Principle of light
I = Angle of Incidence
Critical Angle = property of substance
Uses reflection to guide light through optical
fibers
Guided Media
Fiber Optic Cable (cont.)

Design of Density of core and cladding
- reflected beam of light remained inside
the core
63
Guided Media
Optical Fiber - Transmission

Characteristics
Act as wave guide for 1014 to 1015 Hz
Portions of infrared and visible spectrum
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Cheaper
Wider operating temp range
Last longer
Injection Laser Diode (ILD)
More efficient
Greater data rate
Wavelength Division Multiplexing
Guided Media
Fiber Optic Cable

Propagation Mode
Guided Media
Multimode Mode
multiple beams at different paths
the light direction depend on the structure of the core
Multimode Step-Index fiber

Density of Core remains constant from center to edge
Lower density at the interface of the core & the cladding
change in density alters the angle of the beams
motion
Step index refer to suddenness changes
64
Guided Media
Multimode Graded-Index fiber

Decreases distortion in step-index fiber
Term index refers t index of refraction
The index refraction is related to density
Density decreases gradually with highest at the
center of core & lowest at the edge
Single Mode
Guided Media
Uses step index fiber & highly focused source beam to a

small range of angles closed to horizontal
manufactured with smaller diameter & lower density than in
multimode fiber
Propagation of different beam is almost identical and
delays are negligible
All beams reach at destination are together and can be
recombined with minor distortion.
Guided Media
Fiber Optic Standard
Table 6.3 Fiber types

Type
Core
Cladding
Mode
50/125
50
125
Multimode, graded-index
62.5/125
62.5
125
100/125
100
125
125
Single-mode
7/125
defined by the ratio of the core diameter to the cladding
65
Guided Media
Cable Composition
Figure 6.14
Fiber construction
Outer Jacket PVC or Teflon

Inner Jacket Kevlar strands material to strengthen the cable
Plastic cushion the fiber
Guided Media
Fiber Optic Cable Connector
Type of Fiber Optic Connector

a. Subscriber Channel(SC) - cable TV~ uses a PUSH/PULL
locking system
b. Straight-Tip Connector(ST) connection to networking
devices, uses bayonet locking, more reliable than SC
c. MT-RJ new connector & same size as RJ45
Guided Media
Fiber Optic Performance
Measurement of attenuation vs. wavelength

Attenuation is flatter than Twisted pair & Coaxial Cable require less repeaters
66
Guided Media
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Fiber Optic Cable Application
Backbone Network
wide bandwidth and cost effective

LAN Network
100Base-FX(Fast Ethernet) & 1000BaseX

WDM
transfer at data rate 1600Gbps

Cable TV
combination of fiber optic and coax

Long-haul trunks
telephone network covered 1500KM
capacity 20K 60K voice channel

Metropolitan trunks
covered 12KM
have 100K voice channels in a trunk group

Rural exchange trunks
between exchanges for average length 40 160KM
link towns and villages

Subscriber loops
Directly from exchange to a subscriber
May displace twisted pair and coax cable links
Guided Media
Fiber Optic Cable : Pros and Cons

ADVANTAGE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
High bandwidth
Less signal attenuation can run
50km not require regeneration but
for coax and twisted pair need
repeater for each 5km
Immune to EMV interference ~ not
effected to noise
Non-corrosive materials glass
more resistant than copper
Light weight
Immune to tapping
DISADVANTAGE
1. Expertise in installation
2. Unidirectional Channel
3. Expensive cable &
interfaces
UnGuided Media
Unguided Media / Wireless Communication
Figure 7.17
Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication
67
UnGuided Media
Antennas
Defined as electrical conductor (or system of..) used to
radiate electromagnetic energy or collect
electromagnetic energy
Transmission
Radio frequency energy from transmitter
Converted to electromagnetic energy by antenna
Radiated into surrounding environment
Reception
Electromagnetic energy impinging on antenna
Converted to radio frequency electrical energy
Fed to receiver
Same antenna often used for both
UnGuided Media
Wireless Propagation
Signal travels along three routes
Ground wave
Follows contour of earth
Up to 2MHz
E.g: AM radio
Sky wave
Used for amateur radio, BBC world service, Voice of
America
Signal reflected from ionosphere layer of upper
atmosphere
(Actually refracted)
Line of sight
Above 30Mhz signal is not reflected by the
ionosphere
May be further than optical line of sight due to
refraction
UnGuided Media
Propagation Method
Ground Propagation
Radio wave travel through the
lowest portion of atmosphere
low frequency omnidirectional
signal follows the earths

curvature
Distance depends on power of
the signal
68
UnGuided Media
Ground Wave Propagation
UnGuided Media
Propagation Method (cont.)

Sky Propagation
HF radiates upwards
into the ionosphere,

reflected back to
earth
Allow greater
distance with low
power signal
UnGuided Media
Sky Wave Propagation
69
UnGuided Media
Propagation Method (cont.)

Line of Sight Propagation
Very HF transmitted in
straight lines from

antenna to antenna
(directly)
Radio transmission
cannot be completely
focused
UnGuided Media
Line of Sight Propagation
UnGuided Media
Line of Sight Transmission
Free space loss

Signal disperses with distance
Greater for lower frequencies (longer wavelengths)
Atmospheric Absorption
Water vapour and oxygen absorb radio signals
Water greatest at 22GHz, less below 15GHz
Oxygen greater at 60GHz, less below 30GHz
Rain and fog scatter radio waves
Multipath
Better to get line of sight if possible
Signal can be reflected causing multiple copies to be
received
May be no direct signal at all
May reinforce or cancel direct signal
Refraction
May result in partial or total loss of signal at receiver
70
UnGuided Media
Refraction
Velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of density

of material
~3 x 108 m/s in vacuum, less in anything else
As wave moves from one medium to another, its speed
changes
Causes bending of direction of wave at boundary
Towards more dense medium
Index of refraction (refractive index) is
Sin(angle of incidence)/sin(angle of refraction)
Varies with wavelength
May cause sudden change of direction at transition
between media
May cause gradual bending if medium density is varying
Density of atmosphere decreases with height
Results in bending towards earth of radio waves
UnGuided Media
Multipath Interference
UnGuided Media
Electromagnetic Spectrum (Bands)
Table 7.4 Bands

Band
Range
Propagation
Application
VLF
330 KHz
Ground
Long-range radio navigation
LF
30300 KHz
Ground
Radio beacons and

navigational locators
MF
300 KHz3 MHz
Sky
AM radio
HF
330 MHz
Sky
Citizens band (CB),

ship/aircraft communication
VHF
30300 MHz
Sky and
line-of-sight
VHF TV,
FM radio
UHF
300 MHz3 GHz
Line-of-sight
UHF TV, cellular phones,

paging, satellite
SHF
330 GHz
Line-of-sight
Satellite communication
EHF
30300 GHz
Line-of-sight
Long-range radio navigation
71
UnGuided Media
Radio Waves
Radio frequency 3 KHz to 1 GHz (low & medium)

Ominidirectional (propagate in all direction) susceptible to signal
interference
Radio waves in sky mode can travel long distance, good for long
distance broadcasting (e.g. AM radio)
Long or short distance has ability to penetrate wall
Application - Multicasting
-E.g Cordless phone, Paging, AM
& FM radio, television
Figure 7.20
UnGuided Media
Omnidirectional antennas
Microwaves
frequency 1 GHz to 300 GHz, microwave band is

wide and high data rate is possible
unidirectional narrowly focused, antenna must
be aligned
line of sight propagation, tower need to be direct
sight of each other and cannot penetrate through
wall
repeater required for long distance
Application Unicasting Communication
E.g cell phone, satelite network & wireless LAN
UnGuided Media
Microwaves (cont.)
Figure 7.21
Unidirectional antennas
2 type of antenna are parabolic dish and the horn

Parabolic dish
Based on the geometry of a parabola
Works as a funnel, catching a wide range of waves and directing to a
common point
More signal recovered rather than single point receiver
Horn antenna
Looks like gigantic scoop
Outgoing transmission ~ broadcast thru a stem and deflect a series of beam
by the curved head
Incoming transmission ~ collect by the scoop shape (horn) and deflect down
into the stem
72
UnGuided Media
Terrestrial Microwave
Parabolic dish
Focused beam
Line of sight
Long haul telecommunications
Higher frequencies give higher data
rates
UnGuided Media
Satellite Microwave
Satellite is relay station
Satellite receives on one frequency,
amplifies or repeats signal and transmits
on another frequency
Requires geo-stationary orbit
Height of 35,784km
Television
Long distance telephone
Private business networks
UnGuided Media
Satellite Point to Point Link
73
UnGuided Media
Satellite Broadcast Link
UnGuided Media
Broadcast Radio
Omnidirectional
FM radio
UHF and VHF television
Line of sight
Suffers from multipath interference
Reflections
UnGuided Media
Infrared
frequency 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelength from 1 mm

to 770nm)
short range communication
Have frequency but cannot penetrate wall
Advantages : not effected by other system
Useless for long range communication
Application
Infrared Data Association (IrDA) sponsoring &
promoting use of infrared though line of sight; like
keyboard, mouse, PCs and printers.
The standard define ~ data rate 75Kbps covered
8m distance.
Recent standard, data rate of 4 Mbps
74
LeCtUrE eNd
If you still blur about this chapter,
please do revision.
75

Chapter 2: Data Transmission

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Chapter 2: Data Transmission

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Chapter Two

Digital to digital Modulation

Digital to analog transmission

To be transmitted, data must be

Position of the Physical Layer

Service send stream data from sender to receiver

Analog and Digital Data

Digital data form 0s and 1s

Analog and Digital Signals

Analog and Digital Signals

Speech bandwidth 100Hz to 7kHz

Use two DC components

Comparison of Analog and Digital

Periodic and Aperiodic Signals

Periodic signal completes a pattern within a measurable

Aperiodic signal changes without exhibiting a pattern or

Changes over the course of a cycle is smooth

maximum strength of signal

Rate of change of signal

Relative position in time

Represents the absolute value of its highest intensity,

Period and frequency

Period amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs to

Units of periods and frequencies

Express a period of 100 ms in microseconds, and express

is the rate of change with

More about Frequency..

If a signal does not change at

Easily converted into electromagnetic

Conversion of Voice Input into

Relationships between different phases

A sine wave is offset one-sixth of a cycle with

Sine wave examples

Sine wave examples (continued)

Sine wave examples (continued)

Time and Frequency Domain

Time and frequency domains

Time and frequency domains (cont.)

Time and frequency domains (cont.)

A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in

According to Fourier analysis,

Fundamental frequency frequency f is dominant

Three harmonics (frequency 3f)

Adding first three harmonics

Frequency spectrum comparison

Frequency spectrum description of a signal using the frequency

Composite Signal and Transmission

no transmission medium is perfect

range of frequencies that a medium

If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine

Example: Frequency spectrum

A signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest

Example: Frequency spectrum

A signal has a spectrum with frequencies between 1000

Bit Interval and Bit Rate

Bit interval time required to send one single bit

Bit rate and bit interval

A digital signal has a bit rate of 2000 bps. What is the

Digital versus analog

The bit rate and the bandwidth are

Digital versus Analog Bandwidth

Digital Bandwidth maximum

Higher Bit Rate