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Performance
Lecture 1:
Introduction – Longitudinal
Static Stability
G. Dimitriadis
University of Liege
What is it about?
Introduction
• The study of the mechanics and
dynamics of flight is the means by
which :
–We can design an airplane to accomplish
efficiently a specific task
–We can make the task of the pilot easier by
ensuring good handling qualities
–We can avoid unwanted or unexpected
phenomena that can be encountered in
flight
Reference material
• Lecture Notes
• Flight Dynamics Principles, M.V. Cook,
Arnold, 1997
• Fundamentals of Airplane Flight
Mechanics, David G. Hull, Berlin,
Heidelberg : Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg, 2007, http://dx.doi.org/
10.1007/978-3-540-46573-7
Aircraft description
Flight Control
Pilot System
Airplane Response Task
Aileron
Elevator
Rudderon
(rudder+aileron)
Elevon
(elevator+aileron)
Other devices
Flaps Airbreak
Spoilers
•Combinations of control surfaces and other devices: flaperons,
spoilerons, decelerons (aileron and airbrake)
•Vectored thrust
Mathematical Model
Flight Condition
Input Output
Aileron
Aircraft
equations of Displacement
Elevator
Velocity
Rudder motion Acceleration
Throttle
Atmospheric Condition
Aircraft degrees of freedom
Six degrees of
freedom:
3 displacements
x: horizontal motion
y: side motion
z: vertical motion v
cg
3 rotations
x
x: roll
y: pitch y
z
z: yaw
c
s = b /2
c(y)
y
c /4 cg c /4
lT
lt
c
Airplane references (1)
• Standard mean
s
chord
s
(smc)
c= c ( y )dy / dy
s s
• Wing area
S = bc
• Aspect Ratio
AR = b 2 /S
Asymmetric Aircraft
Ruttan Bumerang
c /4 cg c /4
lF
lf
LT Lw
ac cg
MT
M0
lT hc
mg
h denotes the cg
c position
h0c
Equilibrium equations
• Steady level flight is assumed
• Thrust balances drag and they both
pass by the cg
• Force equilibrium:
Lw + LT mg = 0
• Pitching moment around cg equilibrium:
M = M 0 + Lw (h h0 )c LT lT + MT = 0
(nose up moment is taken to be positive)
Stable or Unstable?
• An equilibrium point can be stable,
unstable or neutrally stable
• A stable equilibrium point is
characterized by dM
M = 0 and <0
d
• A more general condition (takes into
account compressibility effects) is
dM dC m
M = 0 and <0 or Cm = 0 and <0
dL dCL
Degree of stability
Cm
1
3
Trim point
4
1: Very stable
2: Stable
3: Neutrally stable
4: Unstable
Pitching moment stability (1)
• The pitching moment equation can be
written as
Cm = Cm + CL (h h0 ) CL VT = 0
0 w T
• Where
M Lw LT
Cm = , CL w = , CL T =
1 1 1
V02 Sc V02 S V02 ST
2 2 2
• And the tailplane is assumed to be
symmetric so that MT=0
Pitching moment stability (2)
• For static stability dC m /dCL < 0 or,
approximately, dC m /dCL w < 0
• Then
dCm /dCL = (h h0 ) VT dCL /dCL
w T w
• Since M0 is a constant.
• Unfortunately, the derivative of the tail
lift with respect to the wing lift is
unknown
Wing-tail flow geometry
• The downwash effect of the wing deflects the
free stream flow seen by the tailplane by an
angle .
• Total angle of attack of tail: T=-+T
Tailplane Wing
T T
V0
Elevator V0
Trim tab
• So that
CLw d
T = 1
+ T
a d
Pitching moment stability (4)
• The tail lift coefficient can the be written
as a1 d
CL T = CL w
1 + a1T + a2 + a3
a d
• The pitching moment
a
equation
d
becomes
Cm = Cm 0 + CLw (h h0 ) VT
CLw 1
1 + a2 + a3 + a1T
a d
• And the derivative of the pitching
moment coefficient
becomes
dCm a1 d d d
= (h h0 ) VT
1 + a2 + a3
dCLw a d dCLw dCLw
• since T is a constant
Elevator angle to trim
• In order to trim the aircraft, Cm=0
• The elevator angle required to achieve
this is given by
1 LwC a d a a
=
V a
(C + C
m0 (h
Lw h )
0 ) 1
1 3
a a d a
1
a
T
T 2 2 2 2
These values of
elevator angle to trim
were obtained from a
Handley Page
Jetstream aircraft
Controls Free Stability
• Pilots don’t want to hold the controls
throughout the flight.
• The trim tab can be adjusted such that, if the
elevator is allowed to float freely, it will at an
angle corresponding to the desired trim
condition.
• This is sometimes called a hands-off trim
condition.
• Therefore the pilot can take his hands off the
elevator control and the aircraft will remain in
trim.
Elevator Hinge Moment (1)
• The pitching moment equation is (earlier
slides) a d
Cm = Cm 0 + CLw (h h0 ) VT
CLw 1
1 + a2 + a3 + a1T
a d
• The elevator angle, , is unknown and
must be eliminated from the equation
• Consider the elevator hinge moment
Tailplane
Elevator hinge H T
T
V0
Elevator
Trim tab
Elevator Hinge Moment (2)
• Since the elevator is free to rotate, the
elevator hinge moment must be equal to zero.
• Assuming small displacement, the elevator
hinge moment is a linear function of total
angle of attack, elevator angle and trim tab
angle, exactly like the lift. Therefore:
C H = b1 T + b2 + b3
a d a1b2
ab2 d
Discussion
• As with the controls fixed stability margin, the
controls free stability margin is positive when
the aircraft is stable.
• Similarly, the centre of gravity position must
be ahead of the controls free neutral point if
the aircraft is to be stable.
• Usually, the constants of the elevator and tab
are such that h'n>hn.
• An aircraft that is stable controls fixed will
usually be also stable controls free
Hands-off trim positions
• Assume that the aircraft is trimmed at a
hands-off position (elevator is free)
• If the pilot changes elevator angle and then
releases the control stick, the aircraft will
return to the old trim position.
• In order to adopt a new hands off trim position
the pilot must first move the elevator to the
desired angle and then adjust the trim tab.
• The correct tab angle is the one that requires
zero control force. The pilot can then take his
hands off the control stick.
Tab angle to trim
• At a hands off
trim position
a1 d a2b1 a2b3 a2b1
Cm = Cm 0 + CLw (h h0 ) VT
CLw
1
1 + a3
1 + a1T
1 = 0
a d a1b2 a3b2 a1b2
• Differentiating with respect to wing lift
coefficient but allowing to vary gives
d 1 1
= ( hn h) = K n
dCLw ab ab
a3VT 1 2 3
a3VT 1 2 3
a3b2 a3b2
K n c
K nc
cg ac
h0c
hc
hn c
hn c
c
Longitudinal stability when cg ahead of ac
Lw
LT ac cg