Int. J. Pres. Ves.

& Piping 43 (1990) 301-316

Ductile Crack Growth of Semi-elliptical Surface Flaws in

Pressure Vessels
W. Brocks, H. K r a f k a , G. Kfinecke & K. W o b s t
Bundesanstalt ffir Materialforschung und -prfifung (BAM),
Unter den Eichen 87, D-1000 Berlin 45, Germany

A BSTRA CT
Experiments on ductile crack growth o f some axial surface flaws in a pressure
vessel have revealed the well-known canoe shape, i.e. a larger crack extension
has occurred in the axial direction than in the wall thickness direction. Two
tests have been analyzed by finite element calculations to obtain the variation
o f the J-integral along the crack front, and the stress and strain state in the
vicinity o f the crack. The local crack resistance depended on the local stress
state. To predict ductile crack extension correctly, JR-Curves have to account
for the varying triaxiality o f the stress state along the crack front.

INTRODUCTION
Crack initiation and stable crack growth in ductile materials are usually
described by J-resistance curves which are obtained from standard
specimens. Whereas the initiation value, Ji, is found to be independent of the
specimen geometry, J(Aa)-curves may vary with the shape and size of the
specimens, 1'2 No criteria exist for applying these curves to surface flaws in
components. A leak-before-break analysis requires reliable crack resistance
data up to 100% of the remaining ligament, which is beyond any accepted
condition of J-control. The analysis also needs a description of how the
crack shape will develop during stable growth. It is commonly assumed that
the flaw remains geometrically similar, i.e. the aspect ratio a/c is constant
while the crack grows. But evidence exists from experiments by Pugh 3 and
Milne 4 that the flaw shape may develop quite differently and expand in the
longitudinal direction under the surface more than in the wall thickness
direction. The consequences for a leak-before-break analysis are evident.
301
Int. J. Pres. Ves. & Piping 0308-0161/90/$03-50 1990 Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd,
England. Printed in Great Britain

302

W. Brocks, H. Kra[ka G. Kiinecke, K. Wobst

The present contribution reports on experimental investigations by

Wobst and Krafka s and elastic-plastic finite element (FE) analyses by
Brocks and Kfinecke 6 of test vessels containing an axial surface crack which
have been performed for two different materials and crack configurations to
analyze the transferability of JR-Curves from specimens to structures. The
variation of the J-integral along the crack front as well as the stresses in the
vicinity of the crack tip have been evaluated in order to study the
dependency of the local crack resistance on the local stress state. Continuing
earlier work by Brocks and Noack, 7 the ratio of the hydrostatic to the von
Mises effective stress is introduced to characterize the triaxiality of the stress
state. By introducing triaxiality-dependent resistance curves, a more realistic
assessment of the local ductile crack growth can be given.

TEST MATERIALS
The test materials were two German standard steels of the types
20 MnMoNi 5 5 and StE 460. The chemical composition and the mechanical
properties of these steels are given in Table 1. Crack resistance curves of both
steels, which were determined on different types of specimen, are shown in
Figs 1 and 2.
The JR-Curve of the steel 20 MnMoNi 5 5 in Fig. 1 was obtained from 20%
side-grooved compact tension specimens of thickness B -- 25 mm (CT25sg) at
a temperature of 22 4-2C according to the standard test procedures of
TABLE I
Chemical Compositions (Per Cent Mass) and Mechanical Properties (T-Orientation,
2 0 + T C , f = 2 10 4s l) of the lnvestigated Steels
Steel

Mn

Mo

Ni

Si

Cr

Cu

Al

N2

20MnMoNi55 0"19 1"43 0"49 0"56 0"22 0-14

0-07 0'023 0'009 0"009 --SIE460
0-17 1'52 0"01 0.62 0'28 0"04 0"18 0"03 0"010 0"009 0"009 0"012

20MnMoNi55

Lower yield point

Ultimate tensile strength
Elongation
Reduction of area
I MPa = 1 N/ram 2.

Ree
Rm
Alo
Z

(MPa) ~
(MPa)
(%)
(%)

StE 460

Sheet

Round

Sheet

Round

459
604
17
63

466
609
16
66

480
647
19
67

490
647
20
64

I
JR

/
/
N/ram /

Ji-_

o T-S I c~.~

T-L

Io

In

1'

... j ,,.,,/~ ) "c

. : .L ~!,, L~.-.
0i

' '

szw

.6

1.2

1.8

Aa

mm 2 . 4

Fig. i. JR-curve of the steel 20 MnMoNi 5 5 obtained at a temperature of 22 + 2 C from

20% side grooved CT25 specimens in T-L and T-S orientation (SZW = stretch zone width).

' ' '

Tj])l'O'

I
L

'

/
6

400

e',

. . . . . . .

l ....

, , , , , i

.5

1.5

SZW

A~

Symbol
Kind

....

....

mm

I
2.5

>

Specimen
Dimensions In mm

] "o1 ".1 wo oo/Wo Wo-oo

CT25s9
2

CT25

31 -.-x

OEC(T)

25
25
40

191 50
- i

0.5

25

125

0.8

5O0
50

25
I oo

0.2

40

0.5
0.8

25

4; - - +

5.--0

CC(T)sg

20

16

61 --4.

7;---i:l
8~ - - - - 0

9"--qD
10 - - - ~

Fig. 2.

ccO)

40

125

0.1

I0
112.5

0.5
0.8

62.5
25

JR-Curves of the steel StE 460 obtained at a temperature of 22 + 2~'C from different
specimens, CT25sg, CT25, DECT and CCT, in T-L orientation.

304

W. Brocks, H. Kralka G. Kiineeke, K. Wobst

ASTM E 813 s and DVM-Merkblatt. 9 The specimens were cut in the T-L
and T-S orientations, corresponding with the definition given in ASTM E
399, t out of that part of the sheet from where the circular inserts for the
vessel tests were taken. The analytical blunting lines were calculated from
two formulas; those described by ASTM E 8139 and Cornec, Heerens and
Schwalbe.I1 The best fits of all the test results are summarized in Table 2. No
significant differences have been found between the JR(Aa)-values of the two
orientations, thus indicating that the varying stress state along the crack
front will cause the crack shape, rather than any anisotropy of the material.
The JR-Curves of the steel StE 460, which were determined on centrecracked tensile panels (CCT), on double-edge cracked tensile panels
(DECT) and on compact tension specimens CT25, are compared in Fig. 2.
The blunting line in this figure was also established from an analytical
approach by Cornec, Heerens and Schwalbe.11 More details of these tests
are given in Ref. 12. The more gradual slopes of the JR-Curves of the CT and
DECT specimens are produced by greater constraints in the ligament
direction in these specimens than in the CCT specimens. The result that the
slopes of the JR-Curves increase in the demonstrated sequence accords with
other published results.13-17 The results are summarized in Table 2.
Table 2 shows different J~-values for initiating a stable crack in both steels
for differently dimensioned specimens. These J~-values result from JR-Curves
TABLE 2
Fracture Resistance of Various Specimens; Results from JR-Curve Testing
Spec#nen

B (B,)
(ram)

Material 20MnMoNi55
CTsg
25
{19j
CT

25

Material StE 460

CTsg
25
CT

DECT
DECT
CCTsg
CCTsg
CCTsg
CCT
CCT
CCT

25
40
40
20
20
20
40
40
40

(19t

(16t
(16)
(16)

W
(mm)

a/W

Ji
(N/mm)

dJ/da (N/mm 2)
A~ = 01

1"0

20

50
50

0"5
05

139
115

85
143

83
149

81
157

50
50
500
125
50
50
50
125
125
125

0"5
0'5
0"8
0"8
0"2
0-5
0"8
0" 1
05
0'8

117
122
148
123
141
127
130
94
149
100

146
244
147
183
521
544
742
746
323
592

t53
171
140
192
296
308
277
506
265
541

161
91
132
203
217
225
194
239
201
486

B n = net thickness after side grooving (sg): W = specimen width.

Ductile crack growth Of axial sur/'aceflaws

305

and values for the stretch zone width, SZW, which were determined either as
averaged results of several tests o r - - i n a few c a s e s - - o f a single test according
to the single specimen method. The scatter of J~ does not imply that the steels
show different initiation values depending on the specimen geometry. All
that may be concluded is that different J~-values have been determined in
single tests because the test conditions were not perfectly reproducible with
respect to the material state or loading.

E X P E R I M E N T A L P R E S S U R E VESSEL TESTS
Figure 3 shows the dimensions of the test vessel and the location of the outer
surface notch. The test flaw was located in a round of 6 5 0 m m diameter
which has been welded into the middle of the cylindrical part o f the vessel.
The vessel was annealed for stress relief at a temperature of 580 + 20C for
90 min after welding.
The flaw was parallel to the axis of the vessel and to the longitudinal
rolling direction of the steels 20 M n M o N i 5 5 and StE 460. In the following,
the two vessel tests will be called VT1 and VT2 (Table 3). Lengths and depths
of the machined notches, which were 2% = 180-4 mm, ao - 15.0 m m for VT 1
and 2% = 190.7 ram, ao = 20.2 m m for VT2, respectively, were designed so
that initiation and stable crack growth could occur from a 5 m m (VT1) and
7.5 m m (VT2) fatigue crack at a pressure lower than the plastic collapse load.

Fig. 3.

3000mm

~1

Test vessel with axial surface flaw.

TABLE 3
Vessel Tests: Geometry, Material Data and Loading

Vessel test
Pressure vessel
Inner radius, r~
Length of cylindrical part, L
Wall thickness t
t/rl
Surface flaw
Length 2c
Depth a

VTI

(mm)
(mm)
(mm)

750
3 000
40
0"053

750
3 000
39'8
0"053

(mm)
(mm)

180-4
21 "6
0'239
0"540
1'156

192 1
28"0
0'292
0"705
1352

20MnMoNi55
460
609

StE 460
490
647

a/('
a/f
Folias-faclor mr
Material (round)
Yield strength, %
Ultimate stress, %
Hardening exponent of
Ramberg-Osgood power law, n
Fracture initiation, Ji

VT2

(MPa)
(MPa)

7'1
120

(N/ram)

7-4
1l0

Internal pressure at initiation, p~

Maximum, Pro.,

(MPa)
(MPa)

22"4
24'2

20"0
22"36

Calculated yield load, py

Collapse load Pv

(MPa)
(MPa)

17'5
21'2
1'14
0-83
1"38

21"0
192
116
109
106

Pm,,/'PF
P>,"PF
PmSPv

~/.

i 97

"

o 4/12 potentiol
v 5/12
~2/lO p i c k u p s
L00 o 1/9
]
U
X18/24 ]
}~ I 1 / 2 3
~
~ .
I

Fig. 4. Calibration of the dc potential

probe on the vessel: potentials at various
pick-ups versus flaw area, S, during the
machining process of the notch (VTI).

9.80
13.33

200
~JV ~
0
0

~SIm~
aULuVj

,~

----~ 23.81
--4~ 62.S0
1000
2000 rnrn2
S ---""

Ductile crack growth o.f axial surface flaws

307

This was done by J-assessments based on the Raju and Newman 1s formulas
and tables including a small-scale yielding correction. 19 The tests were
performed at a temperature of about 21C following the single specimen
procedure.
The global crack growth, fatigue cracking as well as stable crack growth,
was measured by the dc potential drop method. The sensitivity of the
potential probe was calibrated before by measurements in the course of the
notch machining (Steps 1-4 in Fig. 4) showing that there is a linear
relationship between the potential, U, and the area, S, of the flaw; but no
local crack extension can be measured by this method. Figure 5 shows the
potential pick-up positions on the vessel surface and the positions of the clip
gages, which measured the notch opening displacements, V, close to the
vessel surface at different points due to the internal pressure, for both test
configurations.
Figure 6 is a record of the test conditions during fatigue precracking of
VT1 by plotting the potential, U, versus the number of cycles, N. The
amplitude of the pulsating pressure, Ap = Pv - PL, was large, i.e. 15.9 MPa,
in the beginning to start the fatigue crack from the machined notch. With
increasing fatigue crack growth, the lower value, PL, was raised to 7"5 MPa,
thus reducing the amplitude to 8"9 MPa.
Potential versus notch opening displacement at the clip gage position 1
(see Fig. 5) during the static test VT1 is recorded in Fig. 7. A change of the
slope in the U versus F curve indicates the initiation of stable crack growth
and thus renders the corresponding value of the total COD at initiation, Vti.
The end of the static test phase is denoted by the subscript 'max'. The
pressure versus COD curves for both tests are shown in Fig. 8. The pressure
at initiation, Pi, follows from V~i in Fig. 7.
At the end of the stable crack growth in VT1 and VT2, the flawed rounds
were cut out and broken by tensile loading at a temperature of - 120C. The
crack surfaces are displayed in Fig. 9, showing that the intended extensions
of the crack have been realized, both with respect to the mean crack
extensions and to the crack shapes. The evaluation of the crack shape of VT2
is restricted to one half, only, as the other one has been reserved to
investigate the crack tip opening displacement at different crack front
positions by cuts perpendicular to the flaw surface. The maximum crack
growth does not occur perpendular to the vessel surface but in the axial
direction. The local crack growth, Aa, perpendicular to the fatigue crack
front, which has been obtained in both tests at Pmax, can be measured from
Fig. 9; it is plotted against the crack front angle, in Fig. 10. is 0 at the
deepest point of the crack and + 90 at the penetration points of the crack
front at the outer surface of the vessel. The maximum Aa along the crack
front is reached at ~-~ 70 for VT1 and ~-~ 80 for VT2. The crack

308

W. Brocks, H. KraJka, G. Kiinecke, K. Wobst

D.C. constant cu
cuPrent

power eupply

~__

vl

BS

v2

gl potential pickups
4 /

S
/
2 /
1 /
1/
veuel Lest' 1 /
V 1.2,3 notch crook
calibration:

12118

27

12111
/ 23
10 11 / 28
9 18 / 24
1G
18 4 / 12
dieplaoement

(a)
i
|

."~MIO
I

u,n_ r r - h

.:I!
-~/

! IilI..,,

i,

_.,.'~

-~,

(b)
Fig. 5. Clip gage positions for the measurement of notch opening displacements, V, and
pick-ups for the dc potential measurement at the surface flaw: (a) VTI; (b) VT2.

Ductile crack growth of axial surface flaws

309

i pressure in lUlPo

450
IJV

~:.~.~-~t~

16~.

Y:---" "" utf=zo'c)

350

I
" ,io~e

250 0""

BBBB
N----"

Fig. 6. Control diagram for the first fatigue precracking: potential versus number of cycles,
upper and lower pressure, Pu and PL, in the course of oscillating loading of the vessel (VTI).

l: o

~.~f.

- - U i &.2

~2o

I
I

Vti 0,6~

~00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

~'"' ......................
0.8
1.6 mm

V1

Fig. 7.

,.

Static loading of the vessel with the first fatigue crack: measured potential versus
notch opening displacement (VTI).

,.., 25

,.., 25

/-

0
n

2o

~ 2o

.-'

cl

,/i'
15

pt=20

exper tment
....

FE r a s u l t s

5p
0

0,0

0,5

1,,0

V [mm]

Fig. 8.

Vl

V2

experiment
FE r e s u l t s

....

0,0

0,,5

1..0

V ['mm]

(a)
(b)
Static loading of the vessel: internal pressure versus notch opening displacement,
comparison of experimental and numerical results: (a) VT1; (b) VT2.

(a)

stoble cr~]ck
-fotigue precrack
- notch

/
(b)
Fig. 9. Crack surfaces of the vessel tests: (a) Alternate phases of fatigue cracking and stable
crack growth in VT1 (20 MnMoNi 5 5); (b) fatigue crack and ductile crack in VT2 (StE 460).

I
E
E

X VT1.
d> VT2

o 6

0
-90

)<

-45

45

I
I
90

r3

Fig. 10

Variation of stable crack growth along the crack front at Pmax-

Ductile crack growth of axial surface flaws

311

propagation in the axial direction is three to four times larger than the crack
growth in wall thickness direction at = 0 . This 'canoe' shape of the ductile
crack has been observed before by Pugh, 3 Milne, 4 and other investigators,
but with no explanation.

N U M E R I C A L ANALYSIS OF THE TESTS

Materially and geometrically nonlinear FE analyses of the two structures,
VT1 and VT2, were realized with Adina 2 based on the incremental theory
of plasticity by von Mises, Prandtl and Reuss and allowing for large strain in
the vicinity of the crack. The local J-integral was calculated by a postprocessor 21 based on the virtual crack extension method of DeLorenzi. 22
No crack growth was simulated in the FE model. Thus, all the calculated
values refer to the configuration of the initial fatigue crack, a 0 and co, only.
This appeared to be a severe restriction for the analysis of VT2.
The FE calculations, as well as a limit analysis by means of the Folias
factor, showed that the initiation of crack growth occurred near or beyond
full yielding of the smallest ligament (see Table 3).
Figure 8 shows a comparison of the pressure versus notch opening
displacement curves obtained in the vessel tests and in the FE analysis,
respectively. The curves indicate a slightly higher plastic limit load in the
experiment than in the FE calculation but they coincide at the initiation
pressure, p~. As no crack growth was simulated, the numerical results will
necessarily deviate from the experimental data beyond initiation.
Consequently, the calculated J-integral will deviate from the 'real' J-values
with increasing pressure. This deviation can be eliminated by remembering
that J is related to the work of external forces; the latter may be calculated
from the area, A, under the load versus load line displacement curve
A=

o ~m(V)d V = rit

fo

p(V)dV

(1)

Evaluating eqn (1) for both experimental and numerical data, a 'revised' J is
obtained by
JIA~(*) = JIFEI(O) x (Aexp/AFO

(2)

and plotted in Fig. 11 versus the crack front angle for the three pressure
values Pi, Py, Pmax" This revised J according to eqn (2) will be used for the
crack growth analysis. It shows a maximum at = 0 as in linear elastic
fracture mechanics but, with increasing plastification, two additional local
maxima develop at = 55 and = ___65 for VT1 and VT2, respectively.
The dashed lines denote the initiation values, J~, obtained from compact

312

IV. Brocks, H. Kralka, G. Kiinecke, K. Wobst

E
E
\

600

m
O
&
Y

Z
L-=

Pi
Pl
Pie=
Ji

400

soo

'k
0 PL
rtl Pu

Y Jl

400

200

0
-90

"-'e,-~6,..

-45

"

200

45

90
~ [o3

.............

-9O

''''''

-/.5

........

45

90
~ [ 3

(a)

(b)

Fig. I1. Variation of J-integral along the crack front from FE calculation, corrected by
experimental p versus V data according to eqn (2): (a) VTI ; (b) VT2.

specimens for the respective materials. According to these results, some

amount of stable crack extension has apparently occurred before the
potential curve of Fig. 7 indicated initiation. The variation of CTOD, 6,,
along the crack front is quite similar to that of J (see Fig. 12). This variation
of J and C T O D along the crack front does not accord with the variation of
stable crack extension, Aa, in Fig. 10.
An attempt to explain the canoe-shape phenomenon has been made by
Brocks and Ktinecke 6 for VT1 by introducing the local ratio oftriaxiality of
the stress state
Z(O) = maxr ak(r,
~o(r, O,
0, O)
O) o=o

(3)

where a h and a e are the hydrostatic and the von Mises effective stress, r is the
distance to the crack tip, and 0 is the angle to the ligament in a local polar
coordinate system. This ratio has proved to be a parameter characterizing

~COo3

-t

~o.3

-St

,,~....._ ~

-.,,,~ . _ . . . ~

o.1

i;L

PU

0,0
-90

..............................
-45
0
45
(a)

Fig. 12.

90
~ [o3

0.0
-90

-45

90

45

(b)

Variation of CTOD along the crack front: (a) VT1; (b) VT2.

C ]

Ductile crack growth o/"axial surface.flaws

313

o~2.5

1o
\
t-

"o 2 . 0

I..5
X

VT1..

VT2

1o0
-90

Fig. 13.

...........

-45

, , , ,"r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45

90

[o]

Variation of the triaxiality of the stress state along the crack front, eqn (3).

the stress state in various specimen geometries 23 and has also been proposed
by Kordisch and Sommer. 24 Its physical significance for void growth in
elastic-plastic materials is well known from the investigations of
McClintock, 25 and Rice and Tracey. 26 The variations of the triaxiality
according to eqn (3) along the crack front (Fig. 13) reveal that the maxima of
crack growth occur close to the maxima of triaxiality. Another measure of
local crack tip constraint, i.e. the ratio J/(6t~y), has been proposed by
Steenkamp. 2~ Figure 14 shows that these curves have similar shapes to those
of g(~). Thus, both quantities seem to be suited to describe the local
triaxiality or crack tip constraint that appears to influence the local
resistance against ductile crack growth.
In the present paper, the z-parameter will be used to describe the
dependency of the local R-curves on the triaxiality of the stress state. For
simplicity, and as no other information about the progress of Aa(~) under
2.5
...J
or"

2.0

1,5

I X VT1 r
VT2

1.o 0

-90

Fig. 14.

..............

-45

i ..............

45

90

[o]

Variation of crack tip constraint along the crack front.

W. Brooks, H. Kra[ka, G. Kiinecke, K. Wobst

314

increasing J(tl)) was available for the surface flaws, these R-curves have been
approximated by straight lines. Ji is assumed to be a material constant not
depending on geometry or stress state. Assuming furthermore that upper
and lower limits of the slopes of the R-curves exist that correspond to the
limiting cases of plane strain and plane stress, respectively, an approximation function is: 6'28
AJ
D
A-~ (Z) = A + B tanh ~

--

(4)

The resulting Aa(~) predictions, by both the conventional method of using

JR-curves of compact specimens and an extended J-concept of z-dependent
local resistance curves, are plotted in Fig. 15.
The conventional concept of a unique characteristic J(Aa) overestimates
the real crack growth for VT1 at = 0 in the wall thickness direction up to
four times and is not able to predict the maximum crack growth for VT1 and
VT2 at = 70 and 80 , respectively. Commonly, an overestimation o f a
critical event is supposed to give a conservative prediction. But this is
different with respect to a leak-before-break assessment as the real crack
may become unstable due to its axial extension before it penetrates through
the vessel wall. Thus, a J(Aa) analysis may yield non-conservative estimates.
The improved concept of local JR-Curves depending on the triaxiality of
stresses gives a much better qualitative and quantitative explanation of the
ductile crack growth for VT1. It also gives a qualitatively better prediction of
Aa(O) for VT2, i.e. it reflects the ratio Aam~x :Aamin obtained in the experiment
as well as the approximate position o f Aamax. The quantitative results for
VT2 are still poor, which might be due to the restriction o f the FE analysis
which did not account for the geometry changes from the large amount of
crack growth.
4
E

~,
:1.

experiment

/__'.
o
-90

- -- -

0 G..:3

dJ/da,CT
d J/do( X )

"'
4~

' ~k
[&
I |---

&/ ;-

\
k

I...Jr,No,] :':

,-, 8
E
E

-~5

\\

dJ/do,CTL

-!-,

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

"---o
I . . . . . . .

45

. . . . . . . .

0
90

-90

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

-45

h,

,I

45

. . . . . .

90

C ]

(a)
(b)
Fig. 15. Variation of stable crack growth along the crack front at Pmax; test results
compared with conventional and improved J-based predictions: (a) VT1; (b) VT2.

Ductile crack growth of axial surface flaws

315

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The results reported here have been obtained in the course of investigations
supported by the Bundesminister fiJr Forschung und Technologie of the
Federal Republic of G e r m a n y under Contract N u m b e r 1500 490.

REFERENCES
1. McCabe, D. E., Landes, J. D. & Ernst, H. A., Prediction of heavy section
performance of nuclear vessel steels from surveillance size specimens. Trans. 7th
S M i R T Conf., Vol. G, 1983, paper G2/4.
2. Julisch, P. & Stadtmiiller, W., Valuation of a ductile vessel rupture by R-curve
analysis with CT specimens and wide plate tests. Trans. 8th SMiRT Conf., Vol.
G, 1985, paper G 3/1.
3. Pugh, C. E., HSST program quarterly report for Jan. to March 1983.
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