PAN African e-Network Project

PGDIT
Networking Fundamental
Semester - II
Session - 2
Dr. A.V Singh

Networking Devices

Network Structure

Define the elements of communication

3 common elements of communication

message source

the channel

message destination

Define a network
data or information networks capable of carrying many different types
of communications

Describe how messages are communicated

Data is sent across a network in small chunks called segments

Define the components of a network

Network components

hardware

software

End Devices and their Role in the Network

End devices form interface with human network & communications network
Role of end devices:

client
server
both client and server

Identify the role of an intermediary device in a data network and be able

to contrast that role with the role of an end device
Role of an intermediary device
provides connectivity and ensures data flows across network

Define network media and criteria for making a network media choice
Network media

this is the channel over which a message travels

LAN Device SymbolsLayer 1

Repeater

Transceiver

Hub

LAYER 1Repeater

Cleans up (regenerates) and repeats the signal.

Used when a networks cabling extends beyond its
capability.

LAYER 1Transceiver
Cat 5 UTP

Fiber

Transmitter and Receiver of electronic signals

specialized repeater.
Connects different media technologies
Also called a MAU (Media Attachment Unit)

LAYER 1Hub

The Cloud

Simply a multi-port repeater.

Used to connect multiple devices to the
same network drop.

Hubs are multiport repeaters

The difference between the two devices is the number of ports
While a repeater has just two ports, a hub generally has from four to twentyfour ports
Sometimes hubs are called concentrators

Hubs come in three basic types:

Passive A passive hub serves as a physical connection point only.
Passive hub does not need electrical power.

Active An active hub must be plugged into an electrical outlet because it

needs power to amplify the incoming signal before passing it out to the
other ports

Intelligent Intelligent hubs are called smart hubs. These devices

function as active hubs and include a microprocessor chip and diagnostic
capabilities

LAN Device SymbolsLayer 2

Bridge

Switch

LAYER 2Bridge

Connects two LAN segments.

Keeps traffic local by filtering traffic
based on MAC Addresses.

 The bridge makes decisions about whether or not to

pass signals on to the next segment of a network
When a bridge receives a frame on the network, the
destination MAC address is looked up in the bridge
table to determine whether to filter, flood, or copy the
frame onto another segment

LAYER 2Switch

The Cloud

Connects multiple LAN segments.

Can be called a multi-port bridge.
Provides full bandwidth out each port.

A switch is sometimes described as a multiport bridge

A bridge may have just two ports linking two network segments

All switching equipment performs two basic operations.

Switching data frames
Building and maintaining switching tables

Switching alleviates congestion and reduces traffic by increasing

the number of collision domains.

Switches micro segment a network

Layer Three Devices

Router

The Cloud

LAYER 3Router

Can be used to connect different Layer 2

devices and different topologies.
Makes decisions based on network addresses
(IP Addresses).

Transmission Terminology

Simplex Communication
A simplex system is a communication system in
which the message can be send in one direction
only.
Radio and TV boardcasting are eg
Transmitter Receiver User

User

Half Duplex communication

A half-duplex system provides for communication in both directions, but

only one direction at a time (not simultaneously). Typically, once a party
begins receiving a signal, it must wait for the transmitter to stop
transmitting, before replying.

An example of a half-duplex system is a two-party system such as a

"walkie-talkie" style two-way radio, wherein one must use "Over" or
another previously-designated command to indicate the end of
transmission, and ensure that only one party transmits at a time, because
both parties transmit on the same frequency.

Full Duplex Communication

A full-duplex, or sometimes double-duplex system, allows

communication in both directions, and, unlike half-duplex, allows this
to happen simultaneously. Land-line telephone networks are fullduplex, since they allow both callers to speak and be heard at the
same time. A good analogy for a full-duplex system would be a twolane road with one lane for each direction. For example: Telephone,
Mobile Phone, etc.

Bandwidth

Bandwidth is defined as the amount of information that can flow through a

network connection in a given period of time.

Why Bandwidth is important:

It is limited by physics and technology.
Bandwidth is not free.
Bandwidth requirement are growing at a rapid rate.
Bandwidth is critical to network performance.

Serial Communication
Serial communication is the process of
sending data one bit at a time, sequentially, over
a communication channel or computer bus.
Serial communication is used for all long-haul
communication and most computer networks,
where the cost of cable and synchronization
difficulties
make
parallel
communication
impractical

Parallel Communication
Parallel communication is a method of sending several
data signals simultaneously over several parallel
channels. It contrasts with serial communication; this
distinction
is
one
way
of
characterizing
a
communications link
A parallel link transmits several streams of data (perhaps
representing particular bits of a stream of bytes) along
multiple channels (wires, printed circuit tracks, optical
fibres, etc.) where as a serial link transmits a single
stream of data.

Analog Transmission
Analog transmission is a transmission method of conveying voice,
data, image, signal or video information using a continuous signal
which varies in amplitude, phase, or some other property in
proportion to that of a variable.
There are two basic kinds of analog transmission, both based on
how they modulate data to combine an input signal with a carrier
signal. Usually, this carrier signal is a specific frequency, and data is
transmitted through its variations. The two techniques are amplitude
modulation (AM), which varies the amplitude of the carrier signal,
and frequency modulation (FM), which modulates the frequency of
the carrier

Benefits & drawback of analog Transmission

Analog transmission is still very popular, in particular for shorter distances,

due to significantly lower costs and complex multiplexing and timing
equipment is unnecessary, and in small "short-haul" systems that simply do
not need multiplexed digital transmission.

However, in situations where a signal often has high signal-to-noise ratio

and cannot achieve source linearity, or in long distance, high output
systems, analog is unattractive due to attenuation problems. Furthermore,
as digital techniques continue to be refined, analog systems are
increasingly becoming legacy equipment.

Recently, some nations, such as the Netherlands, have completely ceased

analog transmissions on certain media, such as television,for the purposes
of the government saving money.

Digital Transmission

A method of storing, processing and transmitting

information through the use of distinct electronic
or optical pulses that represent the binary digits
0 and 1

Advantages of Digital
Less expensive
More reliable
Easy to manipulate
Flexible
Compatibility with other digital systems
Only digitised information can be transported
through a noisy channel without degradation
Integrated networks

Transmission Media
Guided Media
Unguided Media

Guided Media
Coaxial Cable
Twisted Pair Cable
Fiber-Optic Cable

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable consists of a copper conductor surrounded by a layer

of flexible insulation.

The center conductor can also be made of tin plated aluminium

cable allowing for the cable to be manufactured inexpensively. Over
this insulating material is a woven copper braid or metallic foil that
acts as the second wire in the circuit and as a shield for the inner
conductor. This second layer, or shield also reduces the amount of
outside electromagnetic interference. Covering this shield is the
cable jacket.

STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)

STP cable combines the techniques of cancellation,
shielded, and twisted wires.
STP reduces electrical noise within the cable such as
pair to pair coupling and crosstalk. STP also reduces
electronic noise from outside the cable such as
electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency
interference (RFI). STP cable shares many of the
advantages and disadvantages of UTP cable. STP
provides more protection from all types of external
interference. However, STP is more expensive and
difficult to install than UTP.

UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)

UTP is a four-pair wire medium used in a variety of
networks. Each of the eight copper wires in the UTP
cable is covered by insulating material. In addition, each
pair of wires is twisted around each other.
This type of cable relies on the cancellation effect
produced by the twisted wire pairs to limit signal
degradation caused by EMI and RFI. To further reduce
crosstalk between the pairs in UTP cable, the number of
twists in the wire pairs varies. Like STP cable, UTP cable
must follow precise specifications as to how many twists
or braids are permitted per foot of cable.

Wave Length
The wavelength of an electromagnetic wave is determined by how frequently
the electric charge that generates the wave moves back and forth.

Facts About Wavelength

Wavelengths that are not visible to the human eye are
used to transmit data over optical fiber.
These wavelengths are slightly longer than red light and
are called infrared light. Infrared light is used in TV
remote controls.
The wavelength of the light in optical fiber is either 850
nm, 1310 nm, or 1550 nm. These wavelengths were
selected because they travel through optical fiber better
than other wavelengths.

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Radio, microwaves, radar, visible light, x-rays, and gamma rays are all types of electromagnetic
energy. If all the types of electromagnetic waves are arranged in order from the longest
wavelength down to the shortest wavelength, a continuum called the electromagnetic spectrum is
created

Visible Spectrum
Human eyes were designed to only
sense electromagnetic energy with
wavelengths between 700 nanometers
and 400 nanometers (nm).
A nanometer is one billionth of a meter
(0.000000001
meter)
in
length.
Electromagnetic
energy
with
wavelengths between 700 and 400 nm
is called visible light.
The longer wavelengths of light that are
around 700 nm are seen as the color
red.
The shortest wavelengths that are
around 400 nm appear as the color
violet. This part of the electromagnetic
spectrum is seen as the colors in a
rainbow

Fiber Optics
The part of an optical fiber through which
light rays travel is called the core of the
fiber.
Light rays can only enter the core if their
angle is inside the numerical aperture of
the fiber.
Likewise, once the rays have entered the
core of the fiber, there are a limited number
of optical paths that a light ray can follow
through the fiber. These optical paths are
called modes.

Single-Mode Vs Multi-Mode

Multi-Mode and Single-Mode

Duplex Fiber

Fiber Optic Connectors

Connectors are attached
to the fiber ends so that
the
fibers
can
be
connected to the ports on
the
transmitter
and
receiver.
The type of connector
most commonly used with
multimode fiber is the
Subscriber
Connector
(SC).
On single-mode fiber, the
Straight
Tip
(ST)
connector is frequently
used.

UNGUIDED MEDIA (WIRELESS)

Radio Waves
Microwaves
Infrared

Computers send data signals electronically. Radio

transmitters convert these electrical signals to radio
waves. Changing electric currents in the antenna of
a transmitter generates the radio waves.
Radio waves radiate out in straight lines from the
antenna. However, radio waves attenuate as they
move out from the transmitting antenna. In a
WLAN, a radio signal measured at a distance of
just 10 meters (30 feet) from the transmitting
antenna would be only 1/100th of its original
strength.
Like light, radio waves can be absorbed by some
materials and reflected by others. When passing
from one material, like air, into another material, like
a plaster wall, radio waves are refracted. Radio
waves are also scattered and absorbed by water
droplets in the air.

Radio Waves

Microwaves
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies
between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves.
Microwaves are unidirectional.
Microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299
GHz.
Microwaves are used for unicast communication
such as cellular telephones, satellite networks,
and wireless LANs.

Infrared
Infrared signals, with frequencies from 300 GHz
to 400 THz (wavelength from 1mm to 770mm),
can be used for short-range communication.
Cannot be used outside a building because the
Suns rays contain infrared waves that can
interfere with communication.
Infrared signals can be used for short-range
communication in a closed area using line-ofsight propagation.

Wireless LAN Standards

802.11
A key technology contained within the 802.11 standard
is Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS). DSSS
applies to wireless devices operating within a 1 to 2
Mbps range. A DSSS system may operate at up to 11
Mbps but will not be considered compliant above 2
Mbps.

802.11b

802.11b increased transmission capabilities to 11 Mbps.

802.11b may also be called Wi-Fi or high-speed wireless and

refers to DSSS systems that operate at 1, 2, 5.5 and 11 Mbps. All
802.11b systems are backward compliant in that they also support
802.11 for 1 and 2 Mbps data rates for DSSS only. This backward
compatibility is extremely important as it allows upgrading of the
wireless network without replacing the NICs or access points.

802.11b devices achieve the higher data throughput rate by using a

different coding technique from 802.11, allowing for a greater
amount of data to be transferred in the same time frame. The
majority of 802.11b devices still fail to match the 11 Mbps bandwidth
and generally function in the 2 to 4 Mbps range.

802.11a
802.11a covers WLAN devices operating in the 5 GHZ
transmission band. Using the 5 GHZ range disallows
interoperability of 802.11b devices as they operate within
2.4 GHZ.
802.11a is capable of supplying data throughput of 54
Mbps and with proprietary technology known as "rate
doubling" has achieved 108 Mbps. In production
networks, a more standard rating is 20-26 Mbps.

802.11g
802.11g provides the same bandwidth as 802.11a but
with backwards compatibility for 802.11b devices using
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
modulation technology.
Cisco has developed an access point that permits
802.11b and 802.11a devices to coexist on the same
WLAN. The access point supplies gateway services
allowing these otherwise incompatible devices to
communicate.

Internet Addressing
A Technical Overview

Overview

Background
Internet Address History
Internet Address Allocators
Conclusions

Addresses -- How to get here from

there
Addresses provide information on how to locate
something, e.g., what route to take from here to
there.
Internet addresses combine
a routing portion, known as the network part
a name portion known as the host part

How to split an Internet address into the network

part and the host part has changed over time

The Beginning
Back when the TCP/IP protocols were first
being designed, there was a big argument
between fixed length and variable length
addresses
Fixed length will always be limited
But if you make it big enough, no one will notice

Variable length will always take more cycles to

process
But there are tricks you can play to minimize the
difference

The decision was made for fixed, 32 bit

addresses
Rumor has it, by a flip of a coin...

IP version 4 Addresses
32 bit unsigned integers
possible values 0 - 4,294,967,295

Typically written as a dotted quad of octets

four 8 bit values with a range of 0-255 separated by .
For example, 202.12.28.129 can be written as below

202

12

28

129

1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

Internet Addresses
A subset of IPv4 addresses
One of an infinite number

Guaranteed globally unique by the IANA

Generally allocated by delegated authorities such as Internet
service providers or regional registries
Assumed to be routable
Bad assumption

Partitioned into two parts

A host part that identifies a particular machine on a local or wide
area network
A network part that gives routers information how to get to the
local or wide area network via the Internet

Internet Address
Structure
Originally, the architects of the Internet thought 256
networks would be more than enough
Assumed a few very large (16,777,216 hosts) networks
They were wrong (in case you were wondering)

Addresses were partitioned as below

8 bit network part, 24 bit host part

Network Part

Host Part

Classfull Addressing
Original addressing plan too limiting
More than 256 networks with many fewer hosts
than 224

Solution was to create address classes

Network Part
Class A
128 networks
16,777,216 hosts

Host Part

0
Network Part

Class B
16,384 networks
65,536 hosts

10
Network Part

Class C
2,097,152 networks
256 hosts

Host Part

110

Class D
Multicast
268,435,456
Addresses

1110

Class E
Reserved
268,435,456
Addresses

1111

Host Part

The Problem
Class A way too big
16 million hosts in a flat network is unthinkable

Class B too big

Even 65536 host addresses is too many in most
cases
Imagine 65534 hosts all responding to a broadcast

Class C too small

Most sites initially connecting to the Internet were
large Universities, 256 was too small for them

Need more flexibility!

Subnetting
Classfull addressing was a better fit than
original
but class A and B networks impossible to manage

Solution was to partition large networks

internally into sub-networks (subnets)
Typically class C (8 bit host part) sized subnets
although variable length subnets used too
"Real" Host Part
Network Part

"Subnet" Part

"Effective" Host Part

Classless Addressing
Forget what I just told you
Classfull addressing is officially Bad
3 sizes just dont fit all -- very wasteful

Better solution is to use variable length partitioning

between the host and network parts
Actual partitioning for a site provided by routing protocol
notation is dotted quad followed by a / and the network part
length, e.g., 202.12.28.129/26 First host on 64 host
network starting at 202.12.28.128

No need for subnets

202

12

28

129

1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

Network Part (26 bits)

Host Part
(6 bits)

Example of Classless Addressing

Prefix 202.12.28.0/22
1024 host addresses
announced as a single
network (important!)

202.12.28.0/22
1024 hosts

Consists of 7 subnets

202.12.28.0/23

202.12.28.0/25
512 hosts
202.12.28.128/26
202.12.28.0/24
202.12.29.0/24
202.12.28.192/26
256 hosts
256 hosts
202.12.29.0/24
202.12.28.0/25
202.12.28.128/25
202.12.30.0/24
128 hosts
128 hosts
202.12.31.0/25
202.12.28.128/26 202.12.28.192/26
202.12.31.128/25
64 hosts
64 hosts

202.12.28.30/23
512 hosts

202.12.30.0/24
256 hosts

202.12.31.0/24
256 hosts

202.12.31.0/25
128 hosts

202.12.31.128/25
128 hosts

Summary
Internet addresses are 32 bit fixed length
globally unique numbers
One subset of all IPv4 address spaces

Internet addresses have evolved over time

to be more flexible and to include
hierarchy
Currently, classless addressing is in use
providing arbitrary host and network part
lengths.

Multiple Choice Questions

Q1. The device used in a data communication network to perform the
conversion between analogue and digital signals, is called a ....
a) Front end processor.
b) Modem.
c) Decoder.
d) Multiplexer.
Q2. A router:
a) Determines on which outgoing link a packet is to be forwarded
b) Forwards a packet to all outgoing links
c) Forwards a packet to the next free outgoing link
d) Forwards a packet to all outgoing links, except the link upon which the
packet originated.

Q3. The device operating at Data link layer is

a) Bridge
b) Router
c) Repeater
d) None of the above
Q4. What is the central device in star topology?
a) STP server
b) Hub/switch
c) PDC
d) Router

Q5. Why are pairs of wires twisted together in UTP cable?

a. Twisting of the wires makes six pairs fit in the space of four pairs.
b. Twisting of the wires makes it low expensive
c. Twisting of wires makes it thinner
d. Twisting of wires reduces noise problems.

Q6. Which material is considered to be electrical semiconductor

a. Air
b. Silicon
c. Glass
d. Gold

Q7. Which of the following are the parts that make UTP cables (choose two)
a. Center core
b. Cladding
c. Twisted wire pairs
d. Shielding
e. Outer Jacket
f. Buffer
Q8.Which of the following cable is used to connect to a router to the serial port
of the PC
a. A roll over cable
b. An inverted cable
c. Cross over cable
d.

Straight- through cable

Q9. Which of the followings are the parts of the fiber cable?
a.
Braid
b. Core
c.
Cladding
d.
Twisted pair
e.
Buffer
f.
Shielding

Q10. Transmission media are usually categorized as

a. Fixed or unfixed
b. Guided or unguided
c. Determinate or indeterminate
d. Metallic or nonmetallic

Thank You
Please forward your query
To: avsingh@amity.edu
CC: manoj.amity@panafnet.com