1

I. Read the following paragraphs. The topic sentence in each of the

following paragraph is underlined. If the topic sentence is weak, rewrite it
in the space provided:
1. Even though the procedures followed to enroll in an American University
vary according to each University, some steps are the same. First, you should
contact the registration office of the university you want to attend to get the
necessary forms and information concerning that particular universitys
entrance requirements. Then, you must follow the steps outlined in their
response. You probably have to spend copies of your high school diploma, get
letters of recommendation, and write an essay on why you want to study there.
You may have to achieve a certain score on the WOEFUL test and have your
scores forwarded to that university. Finally, you will have to contact the
American Embassy to start the procedures to obtain a student visa.
. . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
....
. . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
....
2. Many students cannot afford a car. The city bus service usually passes the
university so those students can get to class on the bus. Many universities
have a special shuttle bus that is provided for student transportation. Some
students like to ride to class on bicycle than to find a parking place for a car on
a crowded university campus. Those students who live close to campus or on
campus can enjoy a leisurely walk to their classes.
. . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
....
. . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
....
3. Apply to a foreign university is difficult. First, a student may feel alone by
being far from family and friends. Also, difficult in understanding a foreign
language can be very frustrating and can affect the students grades. It can be
very expensive to pay the cost of travel and housing in a different country.
Finally, if there is an emergency at home it is hard to get home in a hurry.
. . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
....
. . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
....
4. There are several kinds of airports. From an international airport, flights go
to other country as well as to cities in the same country. A national airport
usually only serves the cities within its nation. Rural airports usually link a town
with a nearby national airport. Private airport are those on airport military base
or a hospital. Individuals and companies can own their private airport.
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Kim Anh

. . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
....
. . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
....
5. There are several features of spoken English that make it difficult for me to
understand. First, many words are not pronounced as they are spelled, so
when I learn new words through reading, I sometimes dont understand them
when they are spoken. Second, native speakers contract words and phrases
what are you doing? becomes whacha doin?. Third, native speakers have a
wide range of accents. British accent is very different from a Texas one.
Fourth, there are a lot of idioms and slang expressions. These expressions
also differ depending on the area a speaker is from. Finally, there are sounds
that dont exist in my language that do exist in English and vice versa. These
sounds are difficult for me to distinguish.
. . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
....
. . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
....
II. Add the topic sentence for the following paragraph:
. . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
....
. . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
....
First, the fast-food restaurant is good for people who must have a quick bite
because of a busy schedule. Second, the food is inexpensive yet tasty. a
person can eat an enjoyable meal out an stay within a limited budget. Finally,
the food is usually consistent. For example, a cheeseburger from a well-known
fast food restaurant looks and tastes about the same no matter where in the
world it is purchased. Consequently, buyers know exactly what they are
getting.
III. Many paragraphs can be made better by adding details. Read the
following paragraphs.
Although seat belts have been shown to save lives, people give a
number of reasons for not using them. First, many people think they are
nuisance. Second, people are lazy. Third, some people don't believe they will
have an accident. Finally, some people are afraid the seat belt will trap them in
their car. All of these reasons seem inadequate, since statistics show that
wearing seat belts saves lives and prevents serious injuries.
The paragraph can be improved. Read the following questions:
(a) Why don't people like seat belts?
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Kim Anh

(b) In what way are people lazy?

(c) Why do people think they won't have an accident?
(d) Under what circumstances might people get trapped?
Asking and answering these kinds of questions will help strengthen the
paragraph. Now read the paragraph with details. Notice how adding the
answers to these questions has improved it.
Although seat belts have been shown to save lives, people give a
number of reasons for not using them. First, many people think they are
nuisance. They say the belt is uncomfortable and inhibits freedom of
movement. Second, many people are lazy. For them it is too much trouble to
put on and adjust a seat belt, especially if they are going a short distance.
Third, some people don't believe they will have an accident because they are
careful and experienced drivers. They think they will be able to respond quickly
to avoid crash. Finally, some people are afraid the seat belt will trap them in
their car. If they have an accident, they might not be able to get out of the car
that is burning, or they might be unconscious and another person won't be
able to get them out. All of these reasons seem inadequate, since statistics
show that wearing seat belts saves lives and prevent serious injuries.
Rewrite the following weak paragraphs by answering the questions and
using answers within paragraph:
1. When you plant a tree, you are helping your environment in many ways.
Your tree will provide a home and food for other creatures. It will hold the soil
in place. It will provide shade in the summer. You can watch it grow and
someday show your children or even grandchildren the tree you planted.
(a) What kind of home would the tree provide?
(b) What kind of food would the tree provide?
(c) What kind of creatures might use the tree?
(d) Why is holding the soil in place important?
(e) Why is shade important?
2. Airplanes and helicopters can be used to save people lives. Helicopters can
be used for rescuing people in trouble. Planes can transport people to
hospitals in emergencies. Helicopters and airplanes can be used to provide
medical services to people who live ion remote areas.
(a) In what situations do people need rescuing by helicopters?
(b) What kinds of disasters might happen?
(c) What kinds of emergencies may require transporting people to hospitals?
(d) How can helicopters and airplanes be used to provide medical services to
people in remote areas.
3. Studying in another country is advantageous in many ways. A student is
exposed to a new culture. Sometimes he or she can learn a new language.
Students can often have learning experiences not available in their own
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Kim Anh

countries. A student may get the opportunity to study at a university where a

leading expert in his or her field may be teaching.
(a) How can exposure to a new culture be an advantage?
(b) How can learning a new language be an advantage?
(c ) What kinds of experiences might a student have?
(d) What are the benefits of studying under a leading expert?

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Kim Anh

DEVELOPING IDEAS AND SUPPORTING TECHNIQUES

I. Developing ideas:
1. Making a list:
Example:
T.S: The following is how I get comfortable when I get home from school on
Thursday.
Listing: Get children to bed
Washing them, stopping arguments, cleaning up toys
Making a drink
Watching television
Quiet except for the television
Sitting there with magazines and television
Getting washed sweat off my body
Putting on a fresh nightgown
Getting washed bubble bath and Calgon
Eating something.
Two ham sandwiches
Iced tea with lots of sugar
Frozen vanilla pudding
Favorite position on couch
Hot water
Exercise:
Make a list of ideas to support the following topic sentence:
There are a number of reasons why I stopped smoking
2. Brainstorming:
Look at the following writing:
Owning a car provides number of benefits. Such as, a home owner can make
more noisy than someone who lives in a apartment without having to worry
that every small noise might disturbs the neighbors. Unlike apartment dwellers,
home owners can also put holes in walls and recreates without being
concerned about losing part or all of security deposit. Owning is also an
advantage because the interest on mortgage payments can be deducted on
their income tax. In addition, real estate generally appreciates in value over the
years.
Find out mistake in the above brainstorming writing.
Produce a brainstorming writing on: Televisions always have bad effects on
children.
3. Clustering:
Develop the topic sentence " Students who buy a house to live will have a lot
of advantages" by using clustering
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Kim Anh

4. Outlining:
Make an outline on the topic: Travelling abroad
5. Treeing:
Develop the topic sentence: " Vietnamese people' life style is different from
that of western people" by using treeing
6. Flowchart:
Develop the topic sentence '" Unhappiness results from lack of education" by
using flowchart

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Kim Anh

II. Supporting technique:

1. Examples: An example is a specific instance that explains a more general
idea. Red is an example of a color, the United State is an example of a
country, a lemon is an example of a fruit, and so on. Because examples are
specific( smaller, more limited, and often more concrete), they are often easier
to understand than more general ideas, and perhaps that is why writers often
use them.
Model paragraph:
Some of the most interesting words in English are the actual names of the
people first involved in the activities suggested by the meanings of the words.
The word Boycott, for instance, derives from the case of Sir Charles Boycott
(1832-970, a land agent in Ireland whose tenants ostracized him because he
refused to lower their rents. Vidkun Quisling' name quickly become an
infamous addition to English language during World War II. He was a
Norwegian politician who betrayed his country to the Nazis, and his name,
quisling, is now synonymous with traitor. Perhaps a more common example is
Levis. These popular blue jeans are named after Levis Srauss, the man who
first manufactured them in San Francisco in 1850. Perhaps most omnipresent
of all is the sandwich, named for the Fourth Earl of Sandwich ( 1718-92), who
created this quick portable meal so that he would not have to leave this
gambling table to eat. Other words in this unique category include lynch, watt,
davenport, and zeppelin.
Now ask yourself:
1. What examples is the author giving?
2. How many examples are given?
Analysis:
Topic sentence: Some of the most interesting words in English are the actual
names of people first involved in the activities suggested by the meaning of the
words.
Example: Boycott
Example:
Example:
Example:
Example:
Example:
Example:
Structures of examplication:
If writers wish to do so, they can remind their readers that they are giving
examples by using signal words or phrases. Using one of these signals is like
saying to the reader: " Pay attention: now I am giving you an example". Most
writers do not use a signal every time they give an example. When many
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Kim Anh

examples are given, it is so often enough to give only one or two signals: or a
writer may decide that the paragraph is so easy to understand that no signal is
necessary.
When a writer decides to use a signal, it can appear in the same sentence as
the general idea or in the sentences following the general idea.
Group I: Noun and Verb Signals
A. Some words in English represent people's names. A good [ example/
illustration] of this is the word lynch
( noun signal)
( example)
B. Some words in English represent people's names. This (can be
illustrated ) by the word boycott.
C Other words in this category [ include] lynch and boycott.
Group II: Sentence connectors:
A. Some English words represent proper-names. [ For instance/ For example,]
the word quisling originated with Vidkun Quisling.
B. Some English words represent proper names. The word quisling, for
example, for instance, originated with Vidkun Quisling.
Write a paragraph on the following topic using examples:
People in love often have strange behavior.
Group III: Phrase signals:
A phrase ( a group of words) is not a complete sentence: It is part of a
sentence.
A. Words [ like, such as] lynch and quisling represent proper names.
B. [Such words as ] lynch and quisling represent proper names.
C. Some words represent proper names. Lynch and quisling are such words.
2. Physical description
Write a description of your classmate
3. Facts:
Model paragraph: The term population explosion is usually applied to the rapid
growth of the last centuries. In the 200 years from 1650 to 1850, world
population doubled and reached its first billion. In the next 80 years, it doubled
again; and by 1975, it had doubled once more to a total of 4 billion. At the
beginning of the twenty-first century, it is estimated that it will exceed 6 billion
and possibly approach 8 million unless there is a major increase in death
rates.
Analysis:
Topic sentence:
Fact:
Fact:
Fact:
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Kim Anh

Fact:
In this graph, the pier circle represents 100 percent of a typical average elderly
household budget. Each slice of the pie represents one type of expenditure in
that budget:

Topic sentence: The average elderly household spends over three-fourths of

its budget on the necessities of life.
4. Personal experience:

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Kim Anh

10

METHODS OF DEVELOPMENT
PROCESS
When supporting sentences are arranged in a step- by -step sequence
which tells how something is made or done, this development is called
process. Process development is, in fact, a kind of enumeration, but here we
are usually dealing only with steps or stages( and not, for example, with kinds
or types). If we wanted to give a more visual representation of process
development, our diagram might look something like this:
PROCESS
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
and so forth
Model paragraph
In his will, Alfred Nobel left specific instructions as to how the winners of the
science awards he endowed are to be selected. First, each year the Swedish
of Sciences ( physics and chemistry) and the Caroline Medical Institute
( physiology and medicine) solicit nearly 2,000 recommendations from past
laureates, university professors, and other experts from all over the world. The
second step is the review of recommendations received and the selection of
preliminary candidates by special committees within the two Swedish
institutions. The committee members are specifically instructed that those
chosen " Saab have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind", and that no
consideration be given to the candidates' nationalities. Next, after lengthy
investigation and discussion, the final choices are made for each discipline.
Finally, telegrams informing them of their wards are sent to the new Nobel
laureates about one month prior to the award ceremony.

LISTING SIGNALS
Process paragraphs often use listing signal. Group 1 listing signals can be
used, but the structures which follow them are usually different:
GROUP 1 (PROCESS)
First,
Send out the recommendations.
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Kim Anh

11

(command form of the verb)

Second,
(Next
Then)
Third,
recommendations
(Next,
Then)
Last,

You must send out the recommendations

(should, must, can + verb)
The

committee

Sends

out

the

(simple present form)

The recommendations are sent out by the
committee (Passive form)

(Finally)
Listing signals
Paragraphs

Common sentence structures for Process

GROUP 2 (PROCESS)

The first
The second
(The next)
The third
(the next)
The last
(the final)
Listing signals

STEP
STAGE
PHASE
Process Enumerators

TIME CLUES, REPETITION, AND PRONOUN REFERENCE

In addition to the sequence signals, there are other indicators which a
writer can use to develop a process paragraph. They are:
1. Time clues, which include choice of verb and tense
2. Repetition, which provides links between your sentences, thus helping the
reader following your train of thought.
3. Pronoun reference, which provides still another kind of link between your
sentences.
TIME CLUES:
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12

Study the following paragraph. It illustrates time clues. Later in this chapter it is
used to illustrate repetition and pronoun reference.
Even if you don't know how to cook, you'll never
starve to death if you know how to prepare
scrambled eggs. You begin by melting one tablespoon
of butter in a pan over low heat. While the butter is
melting, break three eggs into a bowl. add 1/4
teaspoon of salt, 1/4 teaspoon of paprika, and 3
teaspoon of milk to the eggs in the bowl and mix
them for about a minute. Pour the mixture into
the pan. As the eggs to thicken in the pan, break
them into shreds with a fork, or stir them with a
spoon until they become solid. When they are
cooked, serve them with lightly buttered toast.
Time phrase
Verb choice
indicate the
first
step

Time clause
indicate
either
simutaneous
or sequential
actions

Verb choice: In the model paragraph, the choice of the verb begin indicates
the first step or stage. another appropriate verb choice would be start. There
are other verbs which can be used to indicate the various parts of the process.
Some of them are:
STEP (STAGE)
VERBS
First
begin, start
intermediate
continue, become, develop
final
end, finish
Time clauses: time clauses and phrases also help show the continuity of
development in a process. In the model paragraph, the time clauses explain
the time relationship between events just as sequence signals do.
While the butter is melting,
As the eggs begin to thicken
When they are cooked
The most common time words used to introduce time clause are before, after,
when, while, as and until. Study the following box:
Simultaneous action ( while, as)
While

. . . . . . . . eggs
. . . . .into a bowl
Kim Anh As

the butter is melting, break

13

Sequential action:
When
the eggs thicken
serve
them with toast
After
have thickened
( fisrt action)
( second
The
eggs
must
be
thickened
(
before) you
action)
serve them
( Fisrt action)
( Second action)
Do not serve eggs until they thicken
have thickened
( Second action)
( Fisrt action)

Participial
phrase:
Sometimes
clauses may be reduced to participle phrases. Study the following box: note
that the structure of the (participle) time phrases.
Stimunious actions (while)
Clause: while you are melting the butter, break three eggs into a bowl.
Phrases: While melting the butter,. . . .
Sequential actions: (when, after, before)
Clause: When/ after you have beaten the eggs, pour them into the pan
Phrase: Having beaten the eggs. .. .
after having beaten the eggs,. . . . .
Clause: You must beta the eggs before you pour them into the pan.
Phrase: . .. . . . . . . before pour them into the pan.
Sentence connectors of time: Sometimes, instead of making one of the
sentences into a time clause, we can join the two sentences by a sentence
connector of time. This can be either a word or a phrase. Study the following
box. Notice the use of the semicolon. A semicolon is used to punctuate the two
sentences which are being joined by the sentence connectors in each of the
examples. That is, the semicolon combines two grammatically distinct
sentences into one. This is done because of the strong meaning link between
them, expressed by the sentence connectors. The semicolon is commonly
used to punctuate the sentence when the sentence connectors are used.
Sentence connectors of time:
A. Melt the outer in the pan; during this period
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Kim Anh

beat the eggs.

14

at the same time

meanwhile
B. Beat the eggs well; after wards
after that
then
following that
at that point

pour them into the pan.

Exercise: All time clues have been removed from the following paragraph.
Add a few time clues to make it read more smoothly. Remember the four kinds
of time clues:
1. Verb choice which indicates process.
2. Time clause.
3. Participle phrase of time
4. Sentence connector of time
In order to find a suitable apartment, you must follow a very systematic
approach. You must decide which neighborhood would be most convenient for
you. You must determine how much rent your budget will allow. You must
check the classified ads in the newspapers. Be sure to check these ads
regularly, since new listing appears each day. Telephone the apartments which
seem likely choices. Begin your long journey to inspect each one of them.
2. The following two groups of sentences constitute paragraphs on the
process known as the scientific method. However, the sentences have been
given a disordered sequence- that is, they have been scrambled. Place them
in their correct order
1. Following this method, the researcher first observes some aspects of nature
and then poses a specific question about what has been observed.
2. Experiments based on this hypothesis are designed and conducted to test
each contingency.
3. In order to answer this question, pertinent data are collected.
4. After through experimentation, the research validates, modifies, or rejects
the original hypothesis.
5. Originating from the branch of philosophy called epistemology, what we
know as the scientific method provides guidelines for the systematic
acquisition of knowledge.
6. On the basis of these data, a hypothesis is exposed to explain them.

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Kim Anh

15

CAUSE AND EFFECT

In a cause and effect development, there is always a casual relationship
between the topic sentence and supporting sentences, or even between major
supporting sentences and minor ones. This means that your supporting
sentences become a list of either effects or causes ( what a certain situation
has led to or has resulted in ) or causes ( reasons or explanations why
something is the way it is, or why it happened the way it did)
FOCUS ON CAUSE
FOCUS ON EFFECT
Cause # 1
Cause #1
Cause#2

Situation

Situation

Cause# 2

Cause# 3
Cause#3
Cause and effect development:
Focus on effect
Model paragraph
Some scientists warn that the gradual warming of the earth's atmosphere,
known as the Greenhouse effect, will cause dramatic changes in the world as
we know it. First of all, because of the increase in temperature of up to 10
degrees F by the end of the next century, which some believe has already
begun, there will be changes in existing patterns of agriculture. Such fertile
areas as the US. Great plains may become deserts, while the now arid lands
in Saudi Arabia may become grain producing farmland. Secondly, since rainfall
patterns will change, water supplies in some areas will diminish. Experts
predict, for instance, that the rice fields in south east Asia will someday require
irrigation to sustain crops. Changes in water levels will also be responsible for
altered living patterns. Coastal areas such a dramatic rise in water levels that
they will fall below sea level and become uninhabitable. In other areas, like the
Great Lakes, water levels will fall consequently, they will no longer be able to
support industry with energy supplies and a ready means of transportation.
Since most experts on the Green House are convinced that it is irreversible,
they advise us to plan now for how best to cope with a changing world.
Analyzing a cause and effect paragraph (focus on effect)
Directions: Fill in the following chart, which is based on the preceding model
paragraph:
T.S: Some scientists warn that the gradual warming
of the earth atmostphere, known as the Greenhouse
Effect, will cause dramatic changes in the world as
. . . . we
. . . know
. . . . . it
.
Kim Anh

16

CAUSE

EFFECT
AGRICULTURE
temparat
ure
increase

changes in
Agriculture
Patterns

Examples
( Great plains
Saudi Arabia)
WATER SUPPLIES
Greenhou
se
Effect

Examples
LIVING PATTERNS

Examples

CAUSE AND EFFECT STRUCTURAL SIGNALS

Group I: Sentence connectors: These are words and phrases used to join
two complete grammatical sentences. A semicolon (;) is often used before a
sentence connector. However, since each of the sentences can stand a lone
and be considered grammatically correct, a period (.) can also be used after
the first sentence. In either case, a comma (,) is used after the sentence
connector:
In some areas, water levels will fall; as a result,
these areas will no
consequently.,
longer be able to
support
therefore,
industry
because of this,
hence,
( Cause)
( effect)

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Kim Anh

17

Group II. Conjunctions: Unlike Group 1 signals, conjunctions of cause and

effect are always preceded by commas. Because the sentences generally do
stand alone, a period is not used between them.
A. In some areas, water levels will fall, so these areas will no longer be able to
support industry.
B. Some areas will no longer be able to support industry for water levels will
have fallen in these areas.
Group III: Clause structures: Box A of this group consists of signals whose
parts are separated: so.. . . that, such. . . .that, and such a. . . that
A. The rise in temperature will be so great that
agriculture
happen so fast that
patterns
will
dry out so much land that
change
destroy so many crops that
cause such terrible damage that
B. Since
Because
rainfall patterns will change, water supplies will
diminish.
because of the fact that
Due to the fact that
Group IV: Phase structures: Because a phrase ( a group of words ) is not a
complete sentence, it must be connected to the main sentence
Because of
Due to
the increase heat, the agricultural patterns will
change.
As a result of
In view of
Group V: Predicate structures: The predicate of a sentence includes
everything from the verb to the end. In this group of structures, the cause
effect relationship is indicated by the verb or the word following it.
A. Changes in water levels will cause
result in
be a reason for
changes in living patterns
be responsible for
contribute to
lead to
B. Drastic changes in living
patterns will
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Kim Anh

result from
be a result of

18

be a consequent of

changes

in

water

levels
be due to
follow from
Group VI. Participal phrases:
Notice that the participal phrases in the following box (1) have no subjects, and
(2) contain verbs which are in the ing form. Since a participal phrase has no
subject, it must be connected to the main sentence. Some of the structures in
group 4 can be used to create such phrase.
A. Water levels will change,
causing
leading to
changes in living patterns.
contributing to
resulting in
B. Living patterns will change, resulting from
changes in water levels.
following from
CAUSE AND EFFECT: FOCUS ON CAUSE
Model paragraph:
Why is that American working women complain about job discrimination?
Statistics suggest that there is a basis for their grievances. According to recent
Census Bureau statistic, nearly 45 5 of all women of working age are in the
labor force. Although they have made progress in recent years, women are still
underrepresented in traditionally male professions. For example, women
constitute only 9.4% of electrical engineers, 17.4 % of doctors, and 15.2
percent of lawyers. A second area of complaint is women' median weekly and
yearly earnings in comparison with men's. The average made factory worker
earns $ 3336 per week, while a female worker earns only $ 225. Further, the
story gap is even more pronounced among women with higher educations.
The average woman college graduate makes $ 21,889 annually, but the
average male college graduate makes $ 33, 934, a difference of 55 %.
ANALYZING CAUSE AND EFFECT PARAGRAPH
T.S Why is it that American working women complain about job
crimination? Statistics suggest that there is a basis for their
grievances.

CAUSES

EFFECT

traditional male professions

Median weakly/ Yearly
Women's
. earnings
............
complaints of
1. The
Kim
Anhaverage factory
job
worker
Discriminatio
Male
Choosea.on
e of the following topic to write:
b. female
1. Overpopulation has been causing a lot of troubles
2.
2. There
a. are several reason why Ichose to study in this

university

19

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

COMPARISON
Model paragraph:
Are you aware of the striking similarities between two of the most popular U.S.
presidents, Abraham Lincoln and John F. Kennedy? A minor point is that the
names Lincoln and Kennedy both have seven letters. Both men had their
selections legally challenged. Lincoln and Kennedy are both remembered for
their interest in civil rights. Lincoln became president in 1860; and Kennedy in
1960. Lincoln's secretary was Mrs. Kennedy; Kennedy's secretary was Mrs.
Lincoln. Nether men took the advice of the secretary not to make public
appearance on the day on which he was assassinated. Lincoln and Kennedy
were both killed on a Friday in the appearance of their wives. Both assassins,
John Wilkes Booth and Lee Harvey Oswald, have fifteen letters in their names,
and both were murdered before they could be brought to trial. Just as Lincoln
was succeeded by a Southern Democrat named Johnson, so was Kennedy.
Andrew Johnson ( Lincoln' successor was born in 1908. And finally, the same
caisson carried the bodies of both men in their funeral processions.
Structures of comparison
Group I: Adjective/ preposition
Kennedy was killed on exactly
almost
Lincoln.
.............
Kim Anh

the same day of the week as

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Kennedy's death was

particularly
somewhat
rather
similar

to Lincoln's in that they both

died..
very
quite
( degree of similarity)
Kennedy's death was
in the. .

Adj

Prep ( Basis comparison)

somewhat like Lincoln's in that they both died

rather

preposition
Like Lincoln, Kennedy refused to heed his secretary's warming.
Preposition
Basis of comparison
Group II.: Attached statement
Kennedy was succeeded by Southern Democrat, and Lincoln was, too.
and so was Lincoln.
Kennedy's assassin was not brought to trial, and Lincoln's wasn't either.
and neither was Lincoln's.
Group III: Correlative conjunctions.
A. Both Kennedy and Lincoln had their selections legally challenged.
Neither Kennedy's wife nor his children were expecting anything unusual to
happen that day.
Just as Lincoln died in the office, so Kennedy was still president when he was
just assassinated.
Group V. : Sentence connectors:
Lincoln was succeeded by a Southern Democrat named Johnson; similarly,
correspondingly,
likewise,
in the same way,
by the same
token,
Lyndy Johnson , a democrat from the South, succeeded Kennedy.
Group VI: Punctuation only
A. Andrew Johnson was born in 1808; Lyndon Johnson was born in 1908.
CONTRAST:
Model paragraph:
.............
Kim Anh

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According to the Swiss psychiatrist Carl Gustay Jung, every person's

personality can be somewhere on a scale running from extreme extroversion
( an outgoing personality) to extreme introversion ( a withdraw personality).
The typical extrovert is particularly fond of people and people oriented
activities: he or she sociable, likes parties, has many friends, needs to have
people to talk to, and does not like reading or studying alone. The typical
introvert, on the other hand, is a quiet, retiring sort of person, introspective,
fond of books rather than people. Unlike the extrovert, who craves excitement,
take chances, and is generally impulsive, the introvert shuns excitement, takes
matters of everyday life with proper seriousness, and likes a well-ordered
mode of life. Whereas the extrovert tends to be aggressive and loses his or
her temper easily, the introvert tends to keep his or her feelings under close
control, seldom behaves in an aggressive manner, and does not lose his or
her temper easily. The introvert may often be subject to criminal psychopathic
behavior, in contrast to the introvert, who may be exhibit neurotic tendencies. A
further difference between the two involves the ability to remember. Studies
have tended to show that the extrovert learns faster than the introvert but, in
the end remember less.
STRUCTURES OF CONTRAST:
Group I: -ER . . .. THAN; MORE . .. . THAN; LESS. . . . THAN; AS. . . AS
A. The introvert
is quitter than
the introvert
is more reliable than
is less optimistic than
learns more slowly than
B. The extrovert

isn't as quiet as
the introvert.
isn't as reliable as
doesn't learn as slowly as

Group II: Prepositions

Unlike

the extrovert, who craves excitement, the introvert likes a

well-

Contrary to
As opposed to,

ordered mode of life.

Group III: Adverbial clauses

Whereas
the extrovert oses his or her temper quickly, the introvert seldom
While
does.
Group IV: Verbal structures
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Kim Anh

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The introvert
or her temper.

contrasts with
differs from

the introvert

is different from

in respect to

METHODS OF CONTRAST
Method I:

SOCIABILITY

The Extrovert
The Introvert
RISKTAKING
The Extrovert
The Introvert
( AND SO FORTH)

Method II:
THE EXTROVERT

THE INTROVERT

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Kim Anh

Sociality
Risk Taking
Feelings, Aggression
Reliability, optimism.
Abnormal tendencies
Ability to Remember
Sociality
Risk Taking
Feelings, Aggression
Reliability, optimism.
Abnormal tendencies
Ability to Remember

in regard to his

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CLASSIFICATION
Model paragraph:
Christmas gifts can be divided into three groups according to their after
-Christmas fate. For example, There's the Christmas gift that's welcomed and
used. Whether it's an expensive cashmere sweater, a dishwasher, an
interesting book, or a jogging suit, this gift is a perfect present. It's put into use
as soon as possible, and it's everyone's idea of what a Christmas gift should
be. Then, there's the second type of gift, the one that falls halfway between
being hated and loved. This is the tie that's not quite your style, the blouse
that's a little bit too bit, the swollen socks that make your feet itch, the box of
chocolates that ruin your diet. These gifts go into a post- Christmas limbo. The
tie or the blouse hangs limply in the back of the closet. The socks disappear
into the depths of the dresser drawer, and the chocolates sit on the shelf until
they turn into rocky lumps. Finally, there's the gift that you banish as soon as
possible. On December 26th, you rush to the department store to get rid of the
shiny purple pants Aunt Elsie and Uncle Ernie gave you. The lamp shaped like
an apple is carted up to the attic. The monogrammed toilet paper keeps the
fire place fueled for ten minutes. The crystal punch bowl is given to your
sister, who doesn't already have two crystal punch bowls. By New Year's Day,
you have either used, stored or disposed each of your Christmas gifts.
Exercise: Write a one hundred- word paragraph on the following topic
sentence:
Students can be divided into two groups according to their way of studying.

.............
Kim Anh