Module 7 (Maintenance Practices) Sub Module 7.15 (Welding, Brazing, Soldering and Bonding) PDF

PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC)
Module 7 - MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
Category A/B1
Sub Module 7.15 - Welding, Brazing, Soldering and Bonding
MODULE 7
Sub Module 7.15
WELDING, BRAZING, SOLDERING AND BONDING
ISO 9001:2008 Certified

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M7/03
7.15
For Training Purpose Only

Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category A/B1

Contents
(A)
SOLDERING ------------------------------------------------------- 1
SOLDERING METHODS ------------------------------------------------ 5

INSPECTION AND TESTING OF SOLDERED JOINTS --------10
(B)
WELDING ---------------------------------------------------------12
BRAZING -------------------------------------------------------------------14
INSPECTION OF WELDED AND BRAZED JOINTS ------------16
BONDING ------------------------------------------------------------------16
BONDING METHODS ---------------------------------------------------17
INSPECTION OF BONDED JOINTS --------------------------------18

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(A) SOLDERING
Soldering irons
Soldering differs from welding in that it is done at considerably
lower temperatures so that the parent metals do not melt and
fuse together.
The word solder does, in fact, come from the same stem as the
word solid (as does the American term, which is pronounced
sodder, for the same process).
A soldering iron consists essentially of a copper bit secured to

a holder, to which is fitted a heat-resistant handle. The bit varies
in weight, according to the nature of the work for which the iron
is intended. Normally for general workshop, bits of 4 ounce are
used and adequate for most purposes, but very small bits may
needed for ultra-light soldering in very confined positions. The
bit is the heat reservoir of the tool, and it must be large enough
to heat the job adequately never try to do sizeable job with a
small iron, the result is always disappointing, if not actually
unsatisfactory. The following types of solder iron are available.
General
Common
Soldering is a process of joining metals by flowing a low melting

point alloy termed solder, between the surfaces that are to be
joined. It is essentially an alloying process in which certain
elements in the solder combine with the metals of the joint, and
this is only possible if clean metal and clean molten solder are
brought into effective contact. A flux material which removes
oxide from the metal faces and facilitates the flow and adhesion
of the solder is therefore, and essential requirement for soft
soldering. The basic equipment required for normal soldering
operations is a soldering iron of suitable type and a source of
heat (these may be combined, as in the electric soldering iron),
solder of the correct composition for the job in hand and suitable
flux-more elaborate equipment is needed for such special
applications of the process as sweating and dip soldering, but
these types of soldering are not usually encountered in the
general workshop.
Two typical forms of common soldering iron are the hatchet type
and straight type. The bits, which are renewable, are heated in
a fire or the flame of a brazing lamp.
Instead, a fusible and, usually, non-ferrous alloy (with a lower

melting point) is applied between the heated metals of the joint,
such that the fusible alloy forms a metallic bond with the parent
metals and, on cooling, creates a solid joint.

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Electric
These tools are available in various sizes and shape with
heating elements suitable for most supply voltages. There are
two typical examples of electric soldering irons; one is intended
for worth work such as soldering small electrical connections,
while the other is suitable for general workshop use. The light
type may weight only a few ounces and have a pointed
cylindrical bit of 1/8 inch or 3/16 inch diameter, with a heater
element rated at as little as 20 watts for use on a 6-volt supply
other heaters are suitable for use on normal main-supply
voltages (200-250 volts). The larger types are effective
instruments for general soldering, work, with substantial bits and
heaters rated at up to 250 watts. These irons are, as a rule, only
available for use on normal main supply. Temperature control of
electric soldering irons is made possible by the incorporation of
heater switches. These are usually fitted in the flexible cable of
the tool, but many of the light types, which attain soldering heat
very rapidly, have thumb-type switches in the handles to ensure
that the iron is automatically switched off when not actually in
use MOX.
Tinning
Before an iron can be used for soldering, the contact surfaces
must be given a coating of tin or solder this process is called
tinning the iron, and is called out as follows:
The faces on the end of the copper bit are cleaned with a file to
remove all dirt, oxide and roughness.
The bit is heated to a temperature where it will just melt solder.
Flux is applied to the hot bit, and solder is rubbed against it: the
tin or solder will adhere to and leave a smooth coating over the
faces forming the point of the bit.
This type of iron was originally introduced for outside use

where neither electric power nor other heating medium is
available. The copper bit incorporates a circular cavity in which
is placed a mox (Magnesium and Aluminium oxide) tablet is lit
by a special match, and in burning it raises the temperatures of
the bit to soldering heat. (The residue of the tablet must be
shaken out of the cavity before using the iron). There irons are
now rarely used.

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Precautions
The following precautions should be observed when using

soldering irons:
The ideal working temperature for the iron is just high

enough to melt the solder easily; overheating causing
chalkiness in solder and responsible for unsatisfactory
joints and it is also encourages the formation of oxide on
the bit, thus necessitating repeated cleaning and retinning.
Systematic use of the heater switch enables an electric
iron to be kept at optimum temperature, while frequent
alight reheating of a common iron is always preferable to
less frequent but more protracted re-heating.
When heating a common iron, always direct the flame of
the brazing lamp at the base of the bit, not at the point.
Avoid excessive use of soldering fluid or flux too much
flux tends to lower the temperature of the iron and also
promotes corrosion of the bit.
Never touch the element or tip of the soldering iron.
They are very hot (about 400C) and will give you a
nasty burn.
Take great care to avoid touching the mains lead with
the tip of the iron.
The iron should have a heatproof lead for extra
protection. An ordinary plastic lead will melt immediately
if touched by a hot iron and there is a serious risk of
burns and electric shock.
Always return the soldering iron to its stand when not in
use.

7.15 - 3
Never put it down on your workbench, even for a

moment!
Work in a well-ventilated area.
The smoke formed as you melt solder is mostly from the
flux and quite irritating. Avoid breathing it by keeping you
head to the side of, not above, your work.
Wash your hands after using solder.
Solder contains lead, which is a poisonous metal.
Solders
Any discussion of soldering techniques should include an
explanation of solder itself. Ordinary soft solder is a fusible alloy
consisting chiefly of tin and lead. It is used to join two or more
metals at temperatures below their melting point. In addition to
tin and lead, soft solders occasionally contain varying amounts
of antimony, bismuth, cadmium, or silver. These are added to
change the melting point or physical properties of the alloy.
Ordinary table salt has to be heated to 1,488F before it melts.
However, when a little water is added, it dissolves easily at
room temperature. The action of molten solder on a metal like
copper may be compared to the action of water on salt.
The solder bonds the connection by dissolving a small amount
of the copper at temperatures quite below its melting point.
Thus, the soldering process involves a metal solvent action
between the solder and the metal being joined. A solder joint is
therefore chemical in nature rather than purely physical. The
bond is formed in part by chemical action and part by a physical
bond.

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The properties of a solder joint are different from those of the

original solder. The solder is converted to a new and different
alloy through the solvent action. Two metals soldered together
behave like one solid metal. It is unlike two metals bolted, wired,
or otherwise physically attached. These types of connections
are still two pieces of metal. They are not even in direct contact
due to an insulating film of oxide on the surfaces of the metals.

Lead/silver
This is an alloy of lead (97.5%) and silver (2.5%), which melts at
304C and solidifies at 183C. It retains its strength to a
considerable higher temperature than will lead/tin solder.
Temperature change does not affect the solder alloy. It

withstands stress and strains without damaging the joint. An
unsoldered connection eventually becomes loosened by small
movements caused by temperature variations and by the
gradual build-up of oxides on the metal surfaces. Solders
available in two forms i.e. stick solder with a separate flux used,
and solder in wire form having a rosin flux core. The standard
grades of soft solder are as follows.
Tinmans
This is a solder composed of 50% lead, 48% tin, and 2%
antimony; it is supplied in stick form. Tinmans solder liquefies at
227C and sets solid at 185C it is used for fine work and higher
grade general work.
Electricians
This solder is composed at 40% lead and 60% tin; it is supplied
in the form of resin-cored wire to eliminate any danger of
corrosive fluxes being used with it. Melting and solidifying points
approximate to those of tinmans solder.

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SOLDERING METHODS
Soldering can be divided into two basic methods, one of which
uses higher temperature ranges than the other, but both of
which are conducted at temperatures below the melting points
of the parent metals of the intended joint.
The two basic methods of soldering are:
Hard Soldering: done at temperatures in excess of 500C and
which include the processes of Brazing and Silver Soldering
Soft Soldering: done at temperatures within the range of 180C
to 330C, which, consequently, create joints of lower strength
(but less expense) than those achieved by the hard soldering
methods.
Note: The hard soldering processes are, normally, beyond the
remit of the aircraft servicing technician, so only brief
consideration is given to them here, with more attention being
given to the soft soldering method.
Hard Soldering (Brazing and Silver Soldering)
Brazing, as the name implies, uses a Copper/Zinc (Brass) alloy,
as the filler metal (spelter) between the parent metals of the
joint. The degree of alloying will dictate the temperature at
which the process is done but the melting point of the brazing
alloys can be as high as 880C.
Brazing is a process of joining in which, during, or after heating,
the molten filler metal is drawn into, or retained in, the space
between closely adjacent surfaces of the parts to be joined, by
capillary attraction.

7.15 - 5
In general applications, workshops and small factories, a flame,

directed onto the joint area, is the source of heat. However, in
the more sophisticated applications, used in industry, heating
for hard soldering may be provided by a:
Gas, oil or electrically heated, closed furnace

High-frequency (HF) induction coil.
As with welding, it is necessary to employ the use of a flux

material to assist the fusion of the filler with the parent metals
and to prevent oxidation of the joint.
The flux mostly used for brazing processes is borax, which is
based on Sodium Borate powder, mixed with water, to a thin
paste before being applied, by brush or swab, to the site of the
joint. Other fluxes are also available where required.
Silver Soldering entails the use of a Copper/Zinc/Silver or
Nickel/Silver alloy as the joining metal and (again depending on
the alloy employed), can be done at temperatures of between
650C to 700C. Brass, copper, monel metal and stainless steel
are typical metals on which silver soldering processes can be
used.
Soft soldering
Soft Soldering involves the use of a Lead/Tin alloy (with traces
of Bismuth and Antimony added when required) as the filler
metal, which melts at temperatures between approximately
180C to 330C, depending on the composition of the alloy. The
lower temperature requirement, of the soft soldering process,
allows the use of indirect heat.

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In earlier times, the heat was provided by the application of an

implement with a wooden handle and a smooth, flat, base or
bit (originally made of iron). The iron was directly heated in a
flame, then quickly cleaned, before being applied to the solder
joint, where the transference of its heat would facilitate the
melting of the filler metal. This process possibly needed
repeating several times (as the iron tended to lose its heat fairly
quickly) before a large task could be completed.
It was found that copper is a better heat conductor than iron, is
less prone to corrosion and is, therefore, easier to keep clean.
Copper, consequently, became the metal most preferred for use
as the soldering bit, though the implement retained its name of
the soldering iron. While needing re-heating less frequently, it
remains necessary to regularly reheat the copper bit of the
directly heated soldering irons.
The advent of electrically heated (and thermostatically
controlled) soldering irons has overcome the re-heating
problem, associated with directly heated irons, and
consideration is given here only to the method of soft soldering
with the use of electrically (or indirectly) heated soldering irons.
While the method described is the most commonly used in
small workshops (or in DIY applications), there are, however,
three further methods which are used in industrial applications.
Those methods involve:
Applying a naked flame to the joint

Dip soldering
Heating by non-contact techniques

7.15 - 6
Using indirectly heated (electric) soldering irons

Electric soldering irons are available in a variety of sizes and
weights with bits shaped to suit the particular application.
Typically, the 25 watt, electric soldering iron (refer to Fig. 1), is
widely used for making joints in electric circuitry. The heating
element contained in the barrel of the iron is supplied directly
from the mains electrical supply.
Rubber Grip
Protective
Shroud
Electric
Power
Lead
Soldering Iron
Body
Copper Bit
Typical 25 Watt Electric Soldering Iron

Fig. 1

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Larger, 40 watt (or as large as 125 watt) irons, with

proportionately larger bits, may be used when it is required to
create overlapping joints (lap joints) of sheet metals (though this
is a task, not normally done by aircraft maintenance
technicians).
Before any soldering operation is attempted, the joint surfaces
(and the soldering iron) must be properly prepared. It is of
paramount importance that the joint surfaces be absolutely free
of dirt and grease (and surface oxides), so that the solder will be
able to satisfactorily form intermetallic compounds and, thus,
bond completely with the parent metals.
To ensure this, the approved cleaning methods must be used
for the relevant metals (abrasives, etchants de-greasants etc.)
and, finally, an appropriate flux is applied to the cleaned
surfaces, to prevent oxidation at the joint and to assist in the
flow and fusion of the solder.
Note: Some solders have a flux included in their hollow core,
while others, require the application of a separate flux material.
After the surfaces have been carefully prepared, the electric
soldering iron can be switched on and allowed to reach its
operating temperature. This is, usually, indicated by a small,
integral warning lamp but may be deduced by applying a piece
of solder to the bit and seeing the solder melt when the
temperature is adequate.

7.15 - 7

The heated bit of the soldering iron must, next, be tinned. This
is achieved by, firstly, ensuring that the bit is thoroughly cleaned
then dipping the bit in flux (if a separate flux is being used) and
applying solder to the bit until a thin film of solder completely
covers the working area of the soldering bit. It is important that
the tinning of the bit is done correctly, otherwise problems will
be experienced with the soldering operation.
Each surface of the prepared joint must also be carefully tinned
(refer to Fig. 2) in a similar manner, so that a thin film of solder
covers the total area of the joint surfaces.
Care must be taken, when applying solder to the joint surfaces,
to ensure that it is as thin and as smooth as possible and that
the heat is maintained, to allow the inter-metallic compound
between the parent metal and the layer of solder to form.
This compound is an important factor and contributes greatly to
the strength of the joint, as it is, actually, stronger than the
solder.
When the two surfaces of the joint are correctly tinned, they are
placed together and the hot iron is applied to an outer surface of
the joint. The heat is transmitted through the metal and melts
the solder interfaces so that they fuse together and a typical
soldered lap joint (refer to Fig. 3) of the metals is completed.
Note: Even when making electrical connections, using soft
solder, a type of lap joint must be made, since an end-to-end
joint in wire would be impracticable.

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Active and Passive Fluxes
Direction of Soldering
Metal surfaces become more reactive to oxygen when they are

heated and, as previously discussed, to prevent this oxidation,
during the soldering process, a suitable flux is applied to the
surfaces being joined.
Solder Stick
The flux should possess certain characteristics in that it:

Copper Bit
Forms a liquid film over the joint and excludes

the gases in the atmosphere
Prevents any further oxidation during the heating

cycle
Assists in dissolving the oxide film on the metal

surface and the solder
Is displaced from the joint by liquid filler metal.
Parent Metal
oxide film on parent metal
flux solution above oxidised metal surface
boiling flux solution removing oxide film
bare metal in contact with fused flux
liquid solder
tin reacting with base metal to form
Inter-metallic compound
solidifying solder
Tinning the Joint Surface

Fig. 2

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Fluxes for soft soldering are often classified into two groups,
which are the:
Active group: which are corrosive or acid fluxes
Passive group: which are non-corrosive fluxes.
The flux can be applied separately, or as a constituent withm, in
the solder. Fluxes may take the form of a liquid, paste or solid,
and the application, for which they are being used, will govern
the type selected.
Phosphoric Acid: used, primarily, on stainless steels.

Note: Flux residues of acid fluxes remain active after soldering
and will cause corrosion unless removed by thorough cleansing,
- first in a weak solution of caustic soda - and then in water.
Passive (Non-Corrosive) fluxes are divided into three types,
which are:
Active (corrosive) fluxes are used where conditions require a

rapidly working and highly active flux. The common active fluxes
are listed below.
WARNING: These fluxes can cause burns to flesh and clothing.

Protect the eyes with goggles and wear rubber gloves and
apron when using a corrosive flux.
Natural resin: dissolved in suitable organic solvents, it is

the closest approximation to a non-corrosive flux and is
particularly suitable for use in the electrical industry
Tallow: used by plumbers, for the jointing of lead sheet
and pipes. Similar to resin, it is only slightly active when
heated to the temperature of the soldering process
live Oil: used for soldering pewter items.
Zinc Chloride (ZnCl): commonly called killed spirits. This used

on general sheet-metal work and may be obtained commercially
under its trade name of Bakers Soldering Fluid
Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl): commonly called sal ammoniac.
This used, in block form, for cleaning the face of the soldering
bit before tinning, or in powdered form, with Zinc Chloride, for
tinning cast iron.
Hydrochloric Acid (HCI): used in the raw state for pickling the
surfaces of the metal and rendering them clean. As a flux it is
extremely active and is suitable for soldering zinc and
galvanised mild steel

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Flux Removal
INSPECTION AND TESTING OF SOLDERED JOINTS
It is essential that all flux residues be removed, since they can

present a corrosion hazard. The method of removal will be
determined by the type of flux used, but will entail the use of
one, or a combination of, the following:
The inspection of soldered joints is done mainly by visual

means, though, in some applications, tensile testing is
recommended.
A solution of caustic soda
A solution of sulphuric acid
A supply of warm water
Physical abrasion.

7.15 - 10
Electrical contacts, using soft soldering methods, may be tested

by gently pulling on the wires to confirm the security of the joint.
These joints may also be tested for electrical continuity and
resistance, using appropriate instruments.
Inspection of the completed soldered connections should
include the following:
Joints should be clean, smooth, bright and free from

sharp projections, and the wire easily discernible
through the solder.
As far as can be detected visually, the joint should be

filled with adhering solder.
Insulation should undamaged (i.e. not burned or affected

by solvent).
There should be no pitting, scale or other evidence of

poor workmanship.
Where electrical tests are specified, the results obtained

should be within the prescribe limits.

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Soldering of aluminium
Proprietary brands of cored wire solders are available, which
may be used for soldering aluminium and many aluminium
alloys, and a method of ultrasonic soldering may also be used.
The normal soldering technique is similar to that used with other
materials but, because of the materials high specific heat and
thermal conductivity, a greater heat input is required. An
advantage of these properties is that uneven expansion and
contraction are avoided, and heating of complex structures is
simpler than with the other materials. A soldering temperature of
2800C to 3700C is required, and may be obtained using a hand
iron, gas torch, furnace or induction coil. Solder should be
prepositioned or hand fed to the edge of the joint, and heat
applied adjacent to the joint to bring it quickly to the soldering
temperature, so that the solder melts by indirect heating. As
aluminium expands more than most materials, light jigging,
which will allow the parts to expand and contract, should be
used when necessary. A joint clearance of 0.05 mm to 0.1 mm
(0.002 inch to 0.004 inch) will allow the solder to fit the gap by
capillary action, and give maximum strength.
Caution
Pungent fumes are given off by the flux, and soldering should
be carried out in a well-ventilated working area.

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(B) WELDING
Welding may be defined as the permanent joining, by fusion, of
two pieces of material (usually metals), by the progressive
melting and subsequent solidification of the materials at the site
of the joint.
The oxy-acetylene method can be used for welding ferrous or

non-ferrous metals but, when welding non-ferrous metals, it is
necessary that an additional material (a flux) be used, usually
with a filler metal, to assist in the fusion process.
The basic principle, of fusion welding of metals, is the same for

all processes, in that the surfaces, or edges, of the metal to be
joined, are brought to a molten state and allowed, or caused, to
intermix (with or without the addition of a filler metal), so that the
parent metal and filler metal (if used) form a homogeneous
molten pool which, when cooled, forms the complete weld.
The purpose of the flux is to prevent oxidation of the joint site so

that the molten metals can fuse together more easily and, thus,
eliminate brittleness in the joint.
Methods of Welding
Welds require the application of sufficient heat energy to melt
the metals involved in the joint and the high temperatures are
achieved by various methods.
Oxy-Acetylene Flame
Manual metal arc

This welding process uses an electr.ic arc as the heat source.
The arc is established between a flux-coated, filler metal rod
and the workpiece, which are connected to an electrical power
source so that they are the anode and cathode electrodes of the
circuit. When the power is switched on, the heat, generated by
the resulting arc, melts the flux-coated electrode and the edges
of the parent material to form a weld pool. The temperature of
the arc is approximately 4000C to 4500C.
The cutting of steel sections and plate material may be done by

means of a flame torch, using a mixture of oxygen, with one of
the appropriate fuel gases (acetylene, hydrogen, natural gas or
propane).
For welding, however, only an oxygen and acetylene mixture
will provide a sufficiently, high heat input, needed for the
welding process. The temperature of the oxy-acetylene flame is
approximately 3150C.

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Metal arc gas-shielded (mags)
Tungsten arc gas-shielded (tags)
In this semi-automatic welding process the heat source is also

an electric arc, but the electrode is a bare wire, which is
consumable and is supplied, from a reel, to the welding gun, by
a wire feed unit. A shielding gas is employed; in place of a flux
material, to protect the weld pool. The type of shielding gas,
used, will vary with the application. Some of the gases and gas
mixtures used are:
This process also uses an electric arc as the heat source, but
here a tungsten non-consumable electrode is used to form the
arc with the workpiece. An inert shielding gas (argon) is
required to protect both the weld pool and the tungsten
electrode from the oxygen and moisture in the atmosphere.
Argon
Carbon dioxide
Argon/carbon dioxide
Argon/oxygen
Argon/nitrogen
Helium.
Note: This process may also be referred to according to the

type of shielding gas (or mixture of gases) which is being used
and whether those gases are inert or active. The two types of
this process are:
Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding: where the shielding is

provided by a shroud of inert gas.
Metal Active Gas (MAG) welding: where the shielding is

provided by a shroud of active, or non-inert, gas or
mixture of gases.

7.15 - 13
For this reason the process is sometimes called argon arc

welding and, also, Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding.
A filler rod is usually required to give reinforcement to the weld.
Flash butt welding
The components to be joined are set up as opposite poles in an
electric circuit and, when the current is switched on, the
components are moved into and out of contact with one
another. This action causes an arc to be struck and, when
welding temperature is reached, a force is applied to both
components, so that their molten surfaces are fused together.
Spot Welding
A method used to join comparatively thin sheets of metal, spot
welding is a form of resistance welding. The sheets of metal are
sandwiched between two, pointed electrodes on which force is
exerted as the current is applied. The heat is generated at a
local spot where the resistance to the flow of the electricity is at
its highest and the metal fuses at these spots. The pointed
electrodes are made from copper alloy and are usually watercooled.

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Seam welding
The principle of seam welding is similar to that of spot welding
(namely resistance to the flow of electricity). The main
difference is that in place of the pointed electrodes, this method
uses discs or wheels, which are moved along the length of the
weld. The supply of current is intermittent, so causing a spot
weld to overlap its neighbour and, thereby, form a continuous
seam weld.
BRAZING
Brazing is essentially similar to soldering, but it gives a much
stronger joint than soldering. The principal differences are the
use of harder filler materials and heating to higher
temperatures.
Filler alloys
Copper alloyed with other elements like zinc, silver cadmium,
phosphorus may be used as fillers for brazing copper and steel.
Filler alloys of aluminium copper silicon are suitable for
aluminium brazing.
Silver alloys (silvercopper, or silvercopperzinc) are suitable
for brazing high nickel alloys.
Filler alloys are generally available in the form of rod, wire and
strip and in some instances in granular form the form selected
depending on the brazing method used.
Fluxes
The friction of the flux is to dissolve oxides; it also has the
effects of reducing the surface tension of the molten filler alloy
and of assisting the alloy to flow readily between the surfaces of
the joint. The flux used should be compatible to the filler alloy
used. Borax is very widely used as flux in brazing.

7.15 - 14

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Preparation of joints
Furnace heating
All scale, grease dirt paint and other foreign matter must be
removed from the area to be brazed. Cleaning may be done by
sand, shot or alumina (Al2O3) blasting or brushing with wire
brush. Aluminium and its alloys may also be cleaned by pickling
process (10% Sulphuric acid).
As the name implies, furnace-brazing method comprises a

furnace maintained at correct temperature. A conveyor may be
used to pass the work through the furnace.
Capillary attraction is the major factor in making a brazed joint

and this is dependent on the dimensions of the joint. The best
results are obtained where the joint gap of 0.002 0.004 inch is
used.
Heat application
The methods of applying heat in brazing can be classified into
four categories induction, resistance, furnace and torch.
Torch heating
Torch heating is done using brazing torches. These are different
combinations of gases commonly used.
Air with coal gas

Oxygen with coal gas
Oxygen and acetylene
Induction heating
Flux removal
Water-cooled coil is placed around the part to braze and high

frequency current is passed through the coil. This induces eddy
currents to flow in the part producing heat.
Flux residue will cause corrosion when exposed to atmospheric

conditions and its complete removal is essential. Where a borax
type flux is used, prolonged boiling in water or a short pickling
(10% sulphuric acid) followed by thorough washing in water will
be necessary. Fluoride type fluxes can be removed by washing
in water and wire brushing. Soaking in hot water or boiling
water, followed by brushing will be more effective.
Resistance heating
Is used where localized heat is required. Two electrodes are
used which make contact with the assembly and connected to a
low voltage, high current supply. The passage of current causes
the electrodes to glow and heat the part.

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Mar 2014
Category A/B1
INSPECTION OF WELDED AND BRAZED JOINTS
BONDING
The wide use of welding in industry has resulted in an

increasing demand for standards relating to welded
constructions in various branches of engineering.
Bonding, by the use of adhesives, is the third method of

achieving permanent joints between surfaces, to be considered
in this part of the course.
These standards generally include requirements for certain

welding tests to be conducted, primarily for the qualification of
welding procedures and operators.
Sophisticated methods of non-destructive testing of welds
include the use of Radiographic, Ultrasonic and Magnetic
Particle testing procedures, all of which are done by specially
trained, and approved, personnel. Specimen welds are also
destructively tested, by fracturing or sectioning, to test the
integrity of a specific welding procedure.
These methods are beyond the scope of unqualified personnel,
so that aircraft maintenance technicians are, usually,
constrained solely to the visual inspection of welds (following
thorough cleaning of the relevant areas).
It may, however, be possible that, after suitable training, some
technicians can be granted approval to conduct limited Dye
Penetrant inspection procedures on certain welds, which will be
specified in the appropriate servicing manual.
Comprehensive coverage of adhesives and sealants is provided

in Module 6 - (Materials and Hardware), along with details of
composite materials, the detection of typical defects and the
methods used in their repair, therefore consideration here will
be limited merely to a summary of:
Bonding terminologies
Methods of bonding
The inspection and testing of bonded joints.
Bonding, in the aerospace industry, is employed to form

permanent joints between materials ranging from composites,
fabrics, metals and metal alloys, to plastics, - all of which are
referred to as adherends.
The surface texture of a particular adherend, the type of joint
required, and the manner in which loads are applied to the joint
will dictate the type of adhesive to be used, and the method to
be employed, in effecting the joint.
Synthetic resins (and some elastomers) are mainly used as
adhesives in the bonding of aircraft structures and associated
components and, while most of them are used at the
manufacturing stages, some may well be used, by aircraft
servicing technicians, during routine maintenance tasks.

7.15 - 16

Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category A/B1
WARNING: CONTROLLED VENTILATION, PROTECTIVE

CLOTHING, AND ANTI-FIRE/EXPLOSION PRACTICES, ARE
ABSOLUTELY ESSENTIAL, WHEN WORKING WITH
ADHESIVES AND SEALANTS.
ALTHOUGH MANY OF THE ADHESIVES IN CURRENT USE
ARE SUPPLIED IN FILM FORM, SOME ARE LIQUIDS OR
PASTES, FROM WHICH, TOXIC AND FLAMMABLE
VAPOURS ARE EMITTED, PRIOR TO CURING.
MANY OF THE NECESSARY, SURFACE PREPARATION
SOLVENTS,
ALSO
GIVE
OFF
TOXIC/FLAMMABLE
VAPOURS.
The warning is reproduced from Module 6 (Materials and
Hardware), where it also states that the two major groups of
adhesives, are:
Flexible adhesives: used where some flexing or slight

relative movement, of the joint is required, and where high
load-carrying properties are not paramount. These
adhesives are, generally, based on flexible plastics or
elastomers
Structural adhesives: used in applications where high loads
must be carried without excessive creep and which are
relatively rigid without being excessively hard or brittle.
These adhesives are based on resins (commonly of the
epoxy or of the polyester types).
Note: Another group of adhesives is the two-polymer type,

which has a reasonably even balance of resin and elastomer.
This results in a flexible, yet fairly strong, adhesive.

7.15 - 17

BONDING METHODS
While the two major groups of adhesives are designated as
flexible or structural, they are further classified as being of the
thermoplastic or of the thermosetting types. Each types
characteristics will influence the method employed in its use as
a bonding agent.
Thermoplastic adhesives
Thermoplastic materials are those which soften on heating and
harden when cooled but will, again soften and harden as often
as the heat/cool cycle is repeated.
Thermoplastic adhesives consist of thermoplastic materials
(which may be either acrylic-, cellulose-, epoxy-, rubber- or
vinyl-based), in solution with a volatile solvent and which may
be applied to the surface of adherends in the form of:
Direct application adhesives
Contact (or impact) adhesives.
Direct application adhesives, are spread over the area of both
surfaces of the joint before the joint is closed and the solvent
continues to evaporate. This method can create problems if the
joint area is large, as all of the solvent may not evaporate and a
weak joint will result.
Contact adhesives are also applied to both surfaces to be joined
but, with these adhesives, the solvent is allowed to evaporate
until the adhesive feels tacky, when the surfaces are, then,
brought into contact and a complete joint is achieved.

Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Category A/B1

Thermosetting adhesives
INSPECTION OF BONDED JOINTS
Thermosetting materials (thermosets), once set, cannot be

reformed by the application of heat and they create permanent
heat-resisting bonds.
The inspection of bonded joints may be done (as discussed in

Module 6) visually, usually in good lighting conditions and,
possibly, with the aid of magnifying glasses or small
microscopes.
Thermosetting adhesives consist of epoxy- and phenolic-based

materials in addition to polyesters, polyurethanes, and silicones.
Thermosets require a curing process (which is achieved by the
application of heat), to cause them to harden.
The heat can be obtained by placing the components being
joined into an oven or into an autoclave (a pressurised oven).
Alternatively, the adhesive in the joint can be heated by the
chemical (exothermic) reaction of a hardening agent, which is
added to the adhesive, prior to the joint being made.
Thermosetting adhesives are the types most widely used in the
aerospace industry.

7.15 - 18
Delamination and de-bonding of aircraft honeycomb panels and

control surfaces may be detected by percussion (ring) testing or
coin tapping, while more sophisticated methods, such as
ultrasonic and radiographic procedures, may be used by
suitably trained and approved personnel.
Where repairs are done to composite structures, then samples
of the adhesives used are kept for testing, while peel tests are
done on adhesives which are used to attach de-icing or antiicing elements to the leading edges of propellers or flying
control surfaces.

Rev. 00
Mar 2014

Module 7 (Maintenance Practices) Sub Module 7.15 (Welding, Brazing, Soldering and Bonding) PDF

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