Module 2 | P h a r m a c o g n o s y

PROPONENTS

Babylonians clay models

Egyptians embalming(myrrh)
Galen Father of Pharm.
Compounding ; Galenicals (plant
and animal sources)
Scheele citric acid and O2
Antoine Lavosier acid-former
Paracelcus Opium (stone of
immortality)
Pierre Robiquet Codeine

CA Seydler coined the term

pharmacognosy; Analectica
pharmacognostica
JA Schmidt first to use the term
pharmacognosy; Lehrbuck de
Materia Medica
FA Fluckiger- most comprehensive
scope of pcog; application of various
scientific disciplines
Hippocrates- Father of Med

FACTORS AFFECTING PLANT BIOSYNTHESIS

SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY
Biologic
Economic
Biochemical
o Pharmaceutically active

Georg Ebers Papyrus Ebers

Dioscorides- De Materia Medica;
Father of Pcol
Carolus Linnaeus- binomial system
of naming (scientific name); Father
of Taxonomy
Theoprastus Father of Botany
F. Serturner Morphine
Pelletier & Caventou - Quinine

Ontogeny or Stage of Development

o
o

Pharmacologically active

Young leaves of marijuana : Cannabidiol

Mature leaves of marijuana: THC (hallucinogenic)

Heredity
Environment

PREPARATION OF CRUDE DRUGS

COLLECTION

- to ensure the TRUE NATURAL

SOURCE of the drug
- COLLECTION T IME: to isolate
the RIGHT TYPE & RIGHT
AMOUNT of constituents

HARVESTING

DRYING

- may be MANUAL or
MECHANICAL
- POTENT drug- HAND-PICKING

GARBLING

PACKAGING

- FINAL STEP
- removal of extraneous
matter such as dirt &
adulterants (FILTH)

STORAGE PRESERVATION

- SIMPLEST METHOD: 65C

- FUMIGATION w/ methyl bromide
- Add a d rop of CHLOROFORM or
CARBON TETRACHLORIDE

METHODS OF EXTRACTION

PERCOLATION
MENSTRUUM (solvent); MARC (undissolved portion); PERCOLATE (extract;
extractive)
MACERATION
48- 72 hours in a warm place w/ frequent agitation

INFUSION

Maceration in HOT or COLD water; e.g. Tea

DECOCTION
Boiling for 5 minutes; cooling, straining and passing through cold water

SOLVENTS (MENSTRUUM) USED IN PERCOLATION

Fats: HEXANE
Resins: ETHANOL
Chlorophyll: ACETONE

Corticotropin: RAT
Cod liver oil: RACHITIC RAT
Vasopressin: MALE RAT
Chronic gonadotropin: FEMALE RAT
Digitalis (Digoxin): PIGEONS
Glucagon: CAT

Solanine: ACETIC ACID

Chrysarobin: HOT BENZENE

ANIMALS EMPLOYED IN BIOASSAYS

Atropine: CAT
Oxytocin: FEMALE DOMISTICATED CHICKEN
Parathyroid Hormone(PTH): DOG
Heparin & Protamine sulfate: SHEEP BLOOD SERUM
Tubocurarine (Drop Head Assay): RABBIT/MICE
Insulin, Metocurine: RABBIT

FAMILY NAMES
OLD

NEW

EXAMPLES

Compositae
Cruciferae
Graminae
Labiatae
Palmae
Umbelliferae
Guttiferae
Leguminosae

Asteraceae
Brassicaceae
Poaceae
Lamiaceae
Arecaceae
Apiaceae
Clusiaceae
Fabaceae

Daisy
Mustard/ Cabbage
Grass
Mint/ Nettle
Palm
Parsley/ Cellery
St. Johns Wort
Bean

Module 2 | P h a r m a c o g n o s y

CARBOHYDRATES

MONOSACCHARIDES

DISACCHARIDES
(C12H12O4)

Diose

Hydroxyacetaldehyde

Sucrose (Glu-Fru)
Maltose (Glu-Glu)
Lactose (Glu-Gal)

Triose

Glyceraldehyde

Tetrose

Erythrose

Pentose
Hexose

Xylose, Arabinose, Ribose,

Deoxyribose
Glu, Gal, Fru*, Man

Heptose

Heptulose

Octose

D-glycero-D-mannoctulose

OLIGOSACCHARIDES
Raffinose (Gal-Glu-Fru)
Gentianose (Glu-Glu-Fru)
Maltotriose (Glu-Glu-Glu)

POLYSACCAHARIDES
HOMO
HETERO
Starch- Glucosan*
Inulin- Fructosan

Gums Mucilages
Glycosides

Dx aid for renal

dysfunction
Isolated from
Dandelion

Dextran Glucosan

From Leuconostoc
mesenteroides
Plasma expander

Cellulose Glucosan

Preparations:
ADSORBENT COTTON &
FLEXIBLE COLLODION

*STARCH

AMYLOSE (25 %)

Linear starch
250-300 glucose units linked by 1,4 glycosidic bond
Water-soluble
Blue w/ iodine test

AMYLOPECTIN (75 %)

Branched starch

1000 or more glucose units linked by 1,4 & 1,6 glycosidic bonds
Water-insoluble

Violet w/ iodine test

STARCH PREPARATIONS:
PRE-GELATINIZED STARCH- tablet binder
SODIUM STARCH GLYCOLATE- disintegrant
HETASTARCH plasma expander

USES OF STARCH:
Tablet FILLER, BINDER & DISINTEGRANT
Antidote for IODINE POISONING

ENZYMES THAT BREAK DOWN STARCH:
SALIVARY AMYLASE(PTYALIN) initial digestion(mouth)
PANCREATIC AMYLASE complete digestion

*MONOSACCHARIDES
GLUCOSE
Aldohexose
Blood sugar; Physiologic
sugar ; Dextrose;
Grape Sugar

FRUCTOSE

GALACTOSE

Ketohexose
Levulose; Fruit sugar
sweetest sugar
for diabetics

Aldohexose
Most rapidly absorbes
in the small intestine

MANNOSE

XYLOSE

Aldohexose
Readily forms
Osazone crystals

Pentose
Wood sugar
Dx aid for intestinal
malabsorption

GUMS AND MUCILAGES
PLANT EXUDATES
Acacia (Gum Arabic)

Main Const.: Arabin

Incomp. w/ alcohol

Bassorin- swelling agent

Tragacanthin- non-gelling

Tragacanth (BEST MUCILAGE)

Karaya (Sterculia gum)

Movicol (Karaya +
Frangula)
Fetid odor

Substitute for acacia

Ghatti (Indian gum)

SEED GUMS
Psyllium

Seed coat: bulk laxative

Cydonium (Quince Seed)

Guar
St. Johns Bread (Locust
Bean Gum; Carob pulp)

Flour = chocolate substitute

MARINE GUMS
Agar (Japanese Isinglas)

Sodium alginate

from brown seaweeds

Carrageenan (Irish Moss)

from red algae

Kappa- gelling agent
Iota- gelling agent
Lambda- non-gelling

Danish Agar

Const: Agarose,
Agaropectin
Solidifying agent for culture
media

resembles kappa
carrageenan

MICROBIAL GUM
Xanthan gum

pseudoplastic property
(shear thinning)
used in ointments &
toothpastes

Module 2 | P h a r m a c o g n o s y

GLYCOSIDES

ANTHRAQUINONE
Aglycone: ANTHRACENE
Use : Drastic CATHARCTICS
except Chrysarobin

SAPONIN

CYANOGENIC

fish poisons

Soap-like charactaeristics

Steroidal

Sapogenin (aglycone)
*Sapotoxin toxic aglycone

Cascara sagrada (Sacred bark) Glycyrrhiza (Licorice)

Const: Cascarosides

Frangula (Buckthorn bark)

Movicol (Karaya +
Frangula)

Aloe
Tx of burns
Emollient (moisturizer)

Dioscorea (Yam)

SSS

o
Senokot
o
Sennosides
o
Square lots

Black mustard

Final product of hydrolysis:

CYANIDE
Amygdalase + Prunase =
Emulsin

Laetrile or Vitamin B17

Anti-cancer claims (no

effect; toxic)
FDA banned
From seeds/kernels of
Apricot

Const: Sinigrin (Allyl

isothiocyante) --- VOLATILE

White mustard
Const: Sinalbin (Acrinyl
isothiocyante) --- PUNGENT

P. ginseng- Asian ginseng

P. quinquefolius- American
Const: panaxosides,
ginsenosides &
chikusetsusaponins

Const: rhein anthrones

Chrysarobin (Goa)

Amygdalin

local irritant
emetic
rubefacient
vesicant (blister-forming)
condiment

Ginseng

Rhubarb

Uses:

D. floribunda- best source

of steroids
D. spiculiflora contains
DIOSGENIN w/ its
glucocorticoid precursor

Senna

Steroidal
Foaminess of root beer
Tx of Addisons disease
Contraindicated to HTN
patients --- Na & H2O ret.

ISOTHIOCYANATE

Sources:

Almond

Apricot

Wild cherry

Very irritating
Keratolytic

CARDIOACTIVE
Grecian foxglove
Foxglove
Lilly of the Valley
(Convallaria)
Adonis (Peasants Eye)
Strophantus

GLYCOSIDES (continuation)
FLAVONOL
LACTONE
Rutin & Hesperidin
Coumarin

Vit. P (Permeability factors)

Hesperitin & Naringen

Black hellebore (Christmas Rose)

Apocynum (Black Indian Hemp) *treat capillary fragility -
Adelfa (Oleander)
Squill

intake of citrus fruits

*treat symptoms of common colds

Anti-coagulant
From tonka beans

Aphrodisiac
Blistering Fly; Russian Fly;
Spanish Fly

Cantharides

OTHERS
Salicin (alcohol)
Vanillin (aldehyde)

Arbutin (phenol)- ABU

Psoralens

4-hydroxy-3-
methoxybenzaldehyde

Astringent
Bearberry
Uva-ursi

photosensitizing furocoumarins
tx of VITILIGO ( sensitivity of
melanocytes)
Methoxalen & Trioxalen

TANNINS
HYDROLYZABLE

Chemically related to PYROGALLOL

+ HCL = PHENOLIC ACIDS & SUGARS
BLUISH BLACK PPT w/ FeCl
BLOOM LEATHER
USES OF TANINS:

Dyes
Leather
Astringent
Precipitants

NON-HYDROLYZABLE (CONDENSED)

Chemically related to CATECHOL

+ HCL = polymerize forming PHLOBAPHENES (red insol cmpds)

GREENISH BLACK PPT w/ FeCl
TANNERS RED LEATHER
TANNIN-CONTAINING PLANTS:
1. Hammamelis or Witch Hazel leaves HAMMAMELIS
TANNIN
2. Nutgall excrescence (plant and insect sources) --- TANNIC ACID

Module 2 | P h a r m a c o g n o s y

LIPIDS

FATS

FIXED OILS

Esters of GLYCEROL & SATURATED FATTY

ACIDS
SOLID at room temp
From ANIMALS

Theobroma oil

Cottonseed Oil
Corn oil
Peanut oil
Sesame seed oil

Food for the Gods

used as suppository (MP 30-35)
the only fat extracted from plants
that is SOLID

Lanolin

rich source of Vit A & D

SODIUM MORRHUATE sclerosing
agent for varicose veins
the only liquid fat

Spermaceti
Jojoba oil

Teel or Bene Oil

Lauric (50%) & Myristic(20%) acid

the only liquid wax

stiffening agent

polishing agent

Carnauba wax

Diagnostic aid
Iodine product of ethyl ester of opium
poppy

Olive oil (Sweet Oil; Salad Oil)

Beeswax

Esters of HIGH MOLECULAR WEIGHT

ALCOHOLS & LONG CHAIN FATTY ACIDS

Castor oil
Safflower oil
Nutrients
Sunflower oil
Ethiodized oil injection

Cod liver oil (Scotts emulsion)

Official solvents for

IM inj.
CO CO PE SE

Coconut oil

LANOLIN- hydrous; 25% water

WOOLFAT- anhydrous; 0.25% water

WAXES

Esters of GLYCEROL & UNSATURATED

FATTY ACIDS
LIQUID at room temp
From PLANTS

COLD PRESS

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

First Grade Virgin Olive Oil

Second Grade Virgin Olive Oil
Technical Grade- isolated using H OT WATER
Sulfur Grade-isolated using CARBON DISULFIDE
Tournant oil- fallen & decomposing olives

Only PERICARP oil

VOLATILE OIL vs FIXED OIL
V.O.

F.O.
ESTERS of GLYCEROL & FATTY ACIDS
CAN be saponified

made of TERPENES

CANNOT be saponified

NO permanent spot
RESINIFY (brownish discoloration)

PERMANENT SPOT
RANCIDITY

*used by plants as INSECT ATTRACTANT & REPELLANT
**medical uses: CARMINATIVE, ANTISEPTIC, ANTIPRURITIC, COUNTER-IRRITANT

LABIATAE- glandular hairs

PIPERACEAE- modified parenchymal cells

1.

DISTILLATION

SPECIAL STRUCTURES IN PLANTS

UMBELLIFERAE- oil tubes or vittae

RUTACEAE & PINACEAE- lysigenous & schizogenous passages

METHODS OF ISOLATION

FRESH SAMPLE: steam distillation (Ex. Peppermint Oil)

DRIED SAMPLE: water distillation (Ex. Turpentine Oil)

2.

ENZYMATIC ACTION

Ex. Mustard oil are produces in the presence of MYROSIN

3.

EXPRESSION

ECUELLE: for volatile oil from CITRUS FRUITS; (with sharp PROJECTIONS)

ENFLEURAGE: for volatile oils from FLOWER PETALS; using COLD FAT

TOP NOTES

PERFUMERY

BASE NOTES
staying power
isolated from reproductive parts of animals
Ambergris (sperm whale); Musk; Civet

ST

1 scent
very volatile

MIDDLE NOTES
Intermediate volatility & tenacity

TERPENES
MONOTERPENES

***

SESQUITERPENES

Chamomile

Carminative
Ginseng of Europe

DITERPENES

Taxol (Paclitaxel)

Antineoplastic

TRITERPENES

Quassinoids

From Neem tree

Pediculicide


Artemisinin(Quinghaosu) Ginkgo

Module 2 | P h a r m a c o g n o s y
STEREOPTENE: solid HC

Anti-malarial

ELEOPTENE: liquid
portion

Sedative

Memory enhancer
SE: bleeding

Valerian

portion

Feverfew
Antipyretic

*** MONOTERPENES
HYDROCARBON

ALCOHOL

Pinene

ALDEHYDE

Methol

KETONE

Citral

Highest menthol
concentration among
Mentha spp. --- JAPANESE
PEPPERMINT

Carvone
From lemon/ lemongrass
Flavor/scent of lemon

Cinnamaldehyde

(+; dextro) Caraway oil

(-; levo) Spearmint oil

(+; dextro) Natural camphor

0 (Racemic) Synthetic camphor

Camphor - ANTIPRURITIC

*** MONOTERPENES (continuation)
PHENOL

PHENOLIC-ETHER

Eugenol

OXIDE

Myristicin (Safrole)

From Clove oil

Toothache drops, dental
analgesic

Methylsalicylate

Carminative

Oil of Wintergreen
Counterirritant

- Complex substances composed of

ACIDS, ALCOHOLS & TANNINS
- AMORPHOUS; melts when heated

Thymol

ESTER

Eucalyptol or Cineole

Anti-fungal

RESINS
RESINS

OLEORESINS

BALSAMS

OLEOGUMRESINS

(cinnamic acid & benzoic acid derivatives)

Rosin (Colophony)

Turpentine
Myrrh
Capsicum (Cayenne Pepper) Astringent

Stiffening agent for plastics

Podophyllum (Mayapple/ Mandrake) White Pine

Anti-mitotic agent
Ginger
Eriodictyon (Yerba Santa)
Balsam of Copaiba

Mask the bitter taste of quinine

NOT A TRUE BALSAM
Jalap - CATHARTIC

Ingredient of Astring-O-sol

Asafetida

Devils Dung
fetid odor

- bitter, basic, NITROGENOUS substances that are physiologically ACTIVE

- from the word alkaline--- BASIC (amines)
- ends in -ine

Mastic DENTAL VARNISH

Kava (Kava-kava)

-all are solids EXCEPT CNS--- Coniine, Nicotine, Sparteine

- FREE ALKALOIDS are sparingly soluble in water
-form salts w/ HEAVY METALS except CAFFEINE ( Mayers, Wagners,
Dragendorffs & Valsers reagent)

Muscle relaxant

Storax (Styrax)
Peru
Tolu
Benzoin - ANTIFUNGAL

Hashish

ALKALOIDS
PYRIDINE-PIPERIDINE

Nicotine
Patch, gum, spray
Smoking deterrent

Arecoline
Areca tannin-
esophageal cancer
Taenicide

Lobeline

Smoking deterrent

TROPANE
SOLANACEOUS
Belladona
Atropine
Hysocyamus (Henbane) Mydriatic

Anti-diarrheal
Stramonium

Local counterpart:
TALUMPUNAY (Datura
metel)- aka Angels
Trumpet
o
o

Use: Anti-asthma
AE: Hallucination

European Mandrake

Antisialogogue
+ intropic agent
antidote of OP
poisoning

ISOQUINOLINE

Ipecac

Sanguinarine (Bloodroot)

Opium

Dried milky
Exudate of poppy

Curare

Scopolamine

Trans-Scop
Tx of motion
sickness

Emetic

South American
Qrrow Poison
Tubocurarine- non-
depolarizing
neuromuscular blocker

OPIUM

Morphine

Most abundant & most

important
Narcotic analgesic

Codeine

Methylated morphine
Most widely used
antitussive

Hallucinogen
Diacetyl morphine

No narcotic properties
antitussive

Heroin
Noscapine

Module 2 | P h a r m a c o g n o s y

QUINOLINE

INDOLE

ALKALOIDS (continuation)
STEROIDAL

Catharantus

Quinine

Antimalarial

Anti-arrhythmic

Quinidine

Antineoplastic

(Vincristine & Vinblastine)

Reserpine (Serpasil )
Physostigmine (Eserin)

Tx of glaucoma

Ergotamine- migraine
Ergonovine- oxytocic
LSD - hallucinogen

Green Hellebore
White Hellebore
Black Hellebore

Ephedrine (Mao Huang) Caffeine

Phenylephrine (nasal
decongestant)

Colchicine

1,3,7- triMX
CNS stimulant

Theophylline

Tx of acute gout

From a cactus
(Lopophora williamsii)

Mescaline (Peyote)

Ergot (from a fungi)

1,3- diMX
Bronchodilator

Theobromine

3,7- diMX
Diuretic

IMIDAZOLE ALAKALOID

Pilocarpine tx of glaucoma

Nux vomica

PURINES/
METHYLXANTINES

ALKALOIDAL

Strychnine lock jaw

Brucine alcohol
denaturant

Papain
Bromelain
Streptokinase
Urokinase

1. Accelerate tissue repair

2. Anti-inflammatory
3. Meat tenderizer

Thrombolytic

ENZYME PREPARATIONS

Collagenase
Wound debridement
Sutilains
L-Asparaginase anti-neoplastic

IDENTIFICATION TESTS

SELIWANNOFFS TEST: Fructose

MUCIC ACID TEST: Galactose
OSAZONE TEST: Mannose
BORNTRAGER TEST: Anthraquinone glycosides
GUIGNARDS TEST: Cyanogenic Glycosides

FROTH TEST
HEMOLYSIS TEST Saponin glycosides
KELLER-KILLIANI TEST
KELLER-KILLIANI TEST: Cardioactive glycosides

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
SUGAR ALCOHOLS

Manitol(D-mannose)
Sorbitol(D-glucitol)

SUGAR ALCOHOLS

Citric acid
Tartaric acid
Malic acid
Fumaric acid

CHEMICAL EVALUATION- best method

to determine official potency

NATURAL CAMPHOR- dextro

SYNTHETIC CAMPHOR racemic

CARBOHYDRATES

BIOASSAY- pharmacologic evaluation

CnH2nOn
Cn(H2O)n
(CH2O)n

TEA TREE OIL adulterant in virgin olive oil

FLEXIBILE COLLODION

Camphor(2 %)- waterproofing

Castor oil(3 %)- flexibility
Camel hair- applicator

GLUTHATHIONE- natural antioxidant

CORTISONE- natural anti-inflammatory
ENDORPHIN natural painkiller
PROPIONIC ACID- natural antifungal

UNDECYLENIC ACID
anti-fungal
from the pyrolysis of castor oil
HEXOSES- most important
monosaccharide
ISOLATION OF LACTOSE (steps)
Let it stand for a while
Fat globules- cream ---
BUTTER
Supernatant liquid---
BUTTERMILK
Treat with RENNIN (enzyme)
Separation of 2 layers

Coagulum - CHEESE
Whey LACTOSE
SKIMMED MILK milk left after the
separation of cream
COCAINE Bromtons cocktail
COCONUT- a DRUPE(thick seed
coat)
APPLE accessory fruit

Hazel (Corylus avellana) new
source of Taxol

CELLULOSE- most abundant org cmpd

on earth
MANNOSE C2 epimer of glucose
GALACTOSE- C4 epimer of glucose
LACTULOSE
ALKALINE REARRANGEMENT of
lactose

TANNINS precipitates GAP

Glycosides
Alkaloids
Proteins
Narkotikus --- sleep
LACTOSE INTOLERANCE

inability to secrete the enzyme

LACTASE

COTTON, SAND & FILTER PAPER

filter aids in percolation

component of of rapeseed oil

BELLADONA beautiful lady

DEMULCENT soothe the
inflamed mucous membrane

PECTIN

Lilac , Duphalac , Movelax

Prevent PORTAL SYSTEMIC
ENCEPHALOPATHY

1 g CARBOHYDRATES = 4 cal
1 g PROTEIN = 4 cal
1 g FAT = 9 cal

ERUCIC ACID antinutritional

MAYERS REAGENT

K Bi iodide

VALSERS REAGENT

I in KI (WIKI)

DRAGENDORFFS REAGENT

Mercuric potassium iodide

WAGNERS REAGENT

Inner rind of CITRUS

FRUITS & APPLE POMACE
Anti-diarrheal
BILIVERDIN- green
coloration in partial
hemolysis ( hemolytic)

Mercuric iodide

GALACTOSEMIA accumulation

of galactose (may lead to blindness

& mental retardation)

MAGNESIUM OXIDE mask the

bitter taste of Cascara sagrada