Samkhya

This article is about a school of philosophy. For the but in dierent proportions. The interplay of these gunas
statistics journal, see Sankhya (journal).
denes the character of someone or something, of nature
and determines the progress of life.[18][19] The Samkhya
Samkhya or Sankhya (Sanskrit: , IAST: skhya) theory of gunas was widely discussed, developed and rened by various schools of Indian philosophies including
is one of the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy.[1]
[20]
Samkhyas philosophical treatises also inIt is described as the rationalist school of Indian philoso- Buddhism.
uenced
the
development
of various theories of Hindu
[2]
phy. It is most related to the Yoga school of Hinduism,
[3]
ethics.
and its rationalism was inuential on other schools of Indian philosophies.[3]
Smkhya is an enumerationist philosophy whose
1 Etymology
epistemology accepted three of six Pramanas as the only
reliable means of gaining knowledge. These included
Pratyaka (perception), Anuma (inference) and Sabda Samkhya (), also referred to as Sankhya, Skhya,
(ptavacana, word/testimony of reliable sources).[4][5][6] or Skhya, is a Sanskrit word that, depending on the context, means to reckon, count, enumerate, calculate, deSamkhya is strongly dualist.[7][8][9] Smkhya philosophy liberate, reason, reasoning by numeric enumeration, reregards the universe as consisting of two realities; Purua lating to number, rational.[21] In the context of ancient
(consciousness) and prakriti (matter). Jiva (a living be- Indian philosophies, Samkhya refers to the philosophical
ing) is that state in which purua is bonded to prakriti school in Hinduism based on systematic enumeration and
in some form.[10] This fusion, state the Samkhya schol- rational examination.[22]
ars, led to the emergence of buddhi (spiritual awareness) and ahankara (individualized ego consciousness,
I-maker). The universe is described by this school
as one created by Purusa-Prakriti entities infused with 2 Historical development
various permutations and combinations of variously enumerated elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind.[10] The word samkhya means empirical or relating to numDuring the state of imbalance, one of more constituents bers.[23] Although the term had been used in the genoverwhelm the others, creating a form of bondage, par- eral sense of metaphysical knowledge before,[24] in techticularly of the mind. The end of this imbalance, bondage nical usage it refers to the Samkhya school of thought that
is called liberation, or moksha by Samkhya school of evolved into a cohesive philosophical system in early cenHinduism.[11]
turies CE.[25] The Samkhya system is called so because
it
'enumerates twenty ve Tattvas or true principles; and
The existence of God or supreme being is not diits
chief object is to eect the nal emancipation of the
rectly asserted, nor considered relevant by the Samkhya
twenty-fth
Tattva, i.e. the Purua or soul.[23]
philosophers. Skhya denies the nal cause of Ishvara
(God).[12] While Samkhya school of Hinduism considers the Vedas as a reliable source of knowledge, it is an
atheistic philosophy according to Paul Deussen and other
scholars.[13][14] A key dierence between Samkhya and
Yoga schools, state scholars,[14][15] is that Yoga school of
Hinduism accepts a personal, yet essentially inactive, deity or personal god.[16]

2.1 Origins

According to Zimmer,[26][note 1] Samkhya has non-Vedic

origins. Ruzsa[28] suggests glimpses of Samkhya systems
origin are seen in Vedic era, but its remarkable independence from Vedas may have aected its mention in early
Samkhya is known for its theory of gunas (qualities, in- ancient literature:
nate tendencies).[17] Guna, it states, are of three types:
Sattva being good, compassionate, illuminating, positive,
Skhya likely grew out of speculations
and constructive; Rajas guna is one of activity, chaotic,
rooted in cosmic dualism and introspective
passion, impulsive, potentially good or bad; and Tamas
meditational practice. The ascetic and medibeing the quality of darkness, ignorance, destructive,
tative yoga practice aimed at overcoming the
lethargic, negative. Everything, all life forms and human
limitations of the natural body and achieving
beings, state Samkhya scholars, have these three gunas,
perfect stillness of the mind. A combination
1

2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
Kapila as an ascetic and the founder of the school, mention Asuri as the inheritor of the teaching, and a much
later scholar named Pancasikha as the scholar who systematized it and then helped widely disseminate its ideas.
Isvarakrsna is identied in these texts as the one who summarized and simplied Samkhya theories of Pancasikha,
many centuries later (roughly 4th or 5th century CE), in
the form that was then translated into Chinese by Paramartha in 6th century CE.[30]

2.2 Emergence as a distinct philosophy

Between 5th and 2nd century BCE,[31] Samkhya thought
from various sources started coalescing into a distinct
philosophy.[31] Philosophical texts from this era such
as the Katha Upanishad, Shvetashvatara Upanishad and
Bhagavad Gita have clear references to Samkhyan terminology and concepts.[32] Katha Upanishad conceives the
purusha as an individual soul which tman (Self) inhabits. Other verses of the Upanishad consider purusha to be
smaller than the thumb.[33]

King Amsuman and the yogic sage Kapila.

of these views may have resulted in the concept of the Purua, the unchanging immaterial
conscious essence, contrasted with Prakti, the
material principle that produces not only the
external world and the body but also the changing and externally determined aspects of the
human mind (such as the intellect, ego, internal and external perceptual organs). Classical
Skhya is remarkably independent of orthodox Brahmanic traditions, including the Vedas.
All our early sources for the history of Skhya
belong to the Vedic tradition, and it is thus reasonable to suppose that we do not see in them
the full development of the Skhya system,
but rather occasional glimpses of its development as it gained gradual acceptance in the
Brahmanic fold.[28]
Sage Kapila is traditionally credited as a founder of the
Samkhya school.[29] However, it is unclear in which century of 1st millennium BCE Kapila lived.[30] Kapila appears in Rigveda, but context suggests that the word
means reddish brown color. Both Kapila as a seer
and the term Samkhya appear in hymns of section 5.2
in Shvetashvatara Upanishad (~300 BCE), suggesting
Kapilas and Samkhya philosophys origins may predate
it. Numerous other ancient Indian texts mention Kapila;
for example, Baudhayana Grhyasutra in chapter IV.16.1
describes a system of rules for ascetic life credited to
Kapila, called Kapila Sannyasa Vidha.[30] A 6th century
CE Chinese translation and other texts consistently state

Samkhya and Yoga are mentioned together for rst time

in the Shvetashvatra Upanishad.[32] Bhagavad Gita identies Samkhya with understanding or knowledge.[34] The
three gunas are also mentioned in the Gita, though they
are not used in the same sense as in classical Samkhya.[35]
The Gita integrates Samkhya thought with the devotion
(bhakti) of theistic schools and the impersonal Brahman
of Vedanta.[36]
According to Ruzsa, about 2,000 years ago Skhya became the representative philosophy of Hindu thought in
Hindu circles,[28] inuencing all strands of the Hindu tradition and Hindu texts.[28]

2.3 Vedic inuences

In the beginning this (world) was only the self, in the
shape of a person. Looking around he saw nothing else
than the self. He rst said, 'I am' (aham asmi).
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.1[37]
The ideas that were developed and assimilated into the
classical Samkhya text, Samkhyakarika, are visible in
earlier Hindu scriptures such as Vedas, Upanishads and
Bhagavad Gita.[31][38] Earliest mention of dualism in the
Rig Veda, a text that was compiled in second millennium
BCE,[39] is in the IndraVritra myth. In this myth, Indra, leader of the gods, slays Vritra, a serpent demon, to
unleash the creative forces held captive by him. Gerald
James Larson, a scholar of religions and philosophies of
India, believes that this myth contains twofold dualism.
He writes
On one hand there is dualism of order and
chaos. On the other hand, there is dualism of

3
Indras power over against both the chaos and
the order.[40]
The emphasis of duality between existence (sat) and nonexistence (asat) in the Nasadiya sukta of the Rig Veda is
similar to the vyaktaavyakta (manifestunmanifest) polarity in Samkhya. The hymn of Purusha sukta may also
have inuenced Samkhya. It contains the earliest conception of Purusha, a cosmic being from whom the manifestation arises.[41] Purusha also nds numerous mentions in the hymns of the Atharvaveda.[42] The Samkhya
notion of buddhi or mahat is similar to the notion of
hiranyagarbha which appears in both the Rig Veda and
the Shvetashvatara Upanishad.[43]

2.4

Upanishadic inuences

He is the eternal amongst the eternals, the intelligent

among the intelligences, the one among many, who grants
desires. That cause which is to be apprehended by discrimination and discipline (samkhayogadhigamyam) which God, one is freed from all fetters.
Svetashvatara Upanishad VI.13[44]
The oldest of the major Upanishads (c. 900600 BCE)
also contain speculations along the lines of classical
Samkhya philosophy.[31] The concept of ahamkara in
Samkhya can be traced back to the notion of ahamkara
in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and Chhandogya Upanishad. Satkaryavada, the theory of causation in Samkhya,
can be traced to the verses in sixth chapter which emphasize the primacy of sat (being) and describe creation
from it. The idea that the three gunas or attributes inuence creation is found in both Chandogya and Svetashvatara Upanishads.[45] Upanishadic sages Yajnavalkya
and Uddalaka Aruni developed the idea that pure consciousness was the innermost essence of a human being. The purusha of Samkhya could have evolved from
this idea. The enumeration of tattvas in Samkhya is
also found in Taittiriya Upanishad, Aitareya Upanishad
and YajnavalkyaMaitri dialogue in the Brihadaranyaka
Upanishad.[46]

Buddhism and Samkhya is the greater emphasis on suffering (dukkha) as the foundation for their respective soteriological theories, than other Indian philosophies.[48]
However, suering appears central to Samkhya in its
later literature, which suggests a likely Buddhism inuence. Elaide, however, presents the alternate theory
that Samkhya and Buddhism developed their soteriological theories over time, benetting from their mutual
inuence.[48]
Likewise, the Jain doctrine of plurality of individual souls
(jiva) could have inuenced the concept of multiple purushas in Samkhya. However Hermann Jacobi, an Indologist, thinks that there is little reason to assume that
Samkhya notion of Purushas was solely dependent on the
notion of jiva in Jainism. It is more likely, that Samkhya
was moulded by many ancient theories of soul in various
Vedic and non-Vedic schools.[48]

3 Texts
The earliest surviving authoritative text on classical
Samkhya philosophy is the Samkhya Karika (c. 200
CE[49] or 350450 CE[36] ) of Ivaraka.[36] There were
probably other texts in early centuries CE, however none
of them are available today.[50] Ivaraka in his Krik
describes a succession of the disciples from Kapila,
through suri and Pacaikha to himself. The text also
refers to an earlier work of Samkhya philosophy called
aitantra (science of sixty topics) which is now lost.[36]
The most popular commentary on the Samkhyakarikia
was the Gauapda Bhya attributed to Gauapda,
the proponent of Advaita Vedanta school of philosophy. Richard King, Professor of Religious Studies, thinks
it is unlikely that Gauapda could have authored both
texts, given the dierences between the two philosophies.
Other important commentaries on the karika were Yuktidpka (c. 6th century CE) and Vcaspatis Skhyatattvakaumud (c. 10th century CE).[51]

The Skhyapravacana Stra (c. 14th century CE) renewed interest in Samkhya in the medieval era. It is considered the second most important work of Samkhya after the karika.[52] Commentaries on this text were written by Anirruddha (Skhyastravtti, c. 15th cen2.5 Buddhist and Jainist inuences
tury CE), Vijnabhiku (Skhyapravacanabhya, c.
16th century CE), Mahdeva (vttisra, c. 17th century
This declared to you is the Yoga of the wisdom of CE) and Ngea (Laghuskhyastravtti).[53] AccordSamkhya. Hear, now, of the integrated wisdom with ing Surendranath Dasgupta, scholar of Indian philosophy,
which, Partha, you will cast o the bonds of karma.
Charaka Samhita, an ancient Indian medical treatise, also
[47]
contains thoughts from an early Samkhya school.[54]
Bhagavad Gita 2.39
Buddhism and Jainism had developed in Northeastern
India by the 5th century BCE. It is probable that these
schools of thought and the earliest schools of Samkhya
inuenced each other. A prominent similarity between

4 Philosophy

4.1

Epistemology

Samkhya considered Pratyaka or Dam (direct sense

perception), Anumna (inference), and abda or ptavacana (verbal testimony of the sages or shstras) to be the
only valid means of knowledge or Pramana.[4] Unlike few
other schools of Hinduism, Samkhya did not consider the
following three Pramanas as epistemically proper: Upama (comparison and analogy), Arthpatti (postulation, deriving from circumstances) or Anupalabdi (nonperception, negative/cognitive proof) .[5]
Pratyaka () means perception. It is
of two types in Hindu texts: external and internal. External perception is described as that arising from the interaction of ve senses and worldly
objects, while internal perception is described by
this school as that of inner sense, the mind.[55][56]
The ancient and medieval Indian texts identify
four requirements for correct perception:[57] Indriyarthasannikarsa (direct experience by ones sensory organ(s) with the object, whatever is being
studied), Avyapadesya (non-verbal; correct perception is not through hearsay, according to ancient Indian scholars, where ones sensory organ relies on
accepting or rejecting someone elses perception),
Avyabhicara (does not wander; correct perception
does not change, nor is it the result of deception because ones sensory organ or means of observation
is drifting, defective, suspect) and Vyavasayatmaka
(denite; correct perception excludes judgments of
doubt, either because of ones failure to observe all
the details, or because one is mixing inference with
observation and observing what one wants to observe, or not observing what one does not want to
observe).[57] Some ancient scholars proposed unusual perception as pramana and called it internal perception, a proposal contested by other Indian
scholars. The internal perception concepts included
pratibha (intuition), samanyalaksanapratyaksa (a
form of induction from perceived specics to a universal), and jnanalaksanapratyaksa (a form of perception of prior processes and previous states of a
'topic of study' by observing its current state).[58]
Further, some schools of Hinduism considered and
rened rules of accepting uncertain knowledge from
Pratyaka-pranama, so as to contrast nirnaya (definite judgment, conclusion) from anadhyavasaya
(indenite judgment).[59]
Anuma () means inference. It is described as reaching a new conclusion and truth from
one or more observations and previous truths by
applying reason.[60] Observing smoke and inferring
re is an example of Anumana.[55] In all except
one Hindu philosophies,[61] this is a valid and useful
means to knowledge. The method of inference is explained by Indian texts as consisting of three parts:

PHILOSOPHY

pratijna (hypothesis), hetu (a reason), and drshtanta

(examples).[62] The hypothesis must further be broken down into two parts, state the ancient Indian
scholars: sadhya (that idea which needs to proven
or disproven) and paksha (the object on which the
sadhya is predicated). The inference is conditionally true if sapaksha (positive examples as evidence)
are present, and if vipaksha (negative examples as
counter-evidence) are absent. For rigor, the Indian
philosophies also state further epistemic steps. For
example, they demand Vyapti - the requirement that
the hetu (reason) must necessarily and separately account for the inference in all cases, in both sapaksha and vipaksha.[62][63] A conditionally proven hypothesis is called a nigamana (conclusion).[64]
abda () means relying on word, testimony of
past or present reliable experts.[5][65] Hiriyanna explains Sabda-pramana as a concept which means
reliable expert testimony. The schools of Hinduism which consider it epistemically valid suggest
that a human being needs to know numerous facts,
and with the limited time and energy available, he
can learn only a fraction of those facts and truths
directly.[66] He must cooperate with others to rapidly
acquire and share knowledge and thereby enrich
each others lives. This means of gaining proper
knowledge is either spoken or written, but through
Sabda (words).[66] The reliability of the source is
important, and legitimate knowledge can only come
from the Sabda of reliable sources.[5][66] The disagreement between the schools of Hinduism has
been on how to establish reliability. Some schools,
such as Carvaka, state that this is never possible,
and therefore Sabda is not a proper pramana. Other
schools debate means to establish reliability.[67]

4.2 Dualism
While Western philosophical traditions, as exemplied
by Descartes, equate mind with the conscious self and
theorize on consciousness on the basis of mind/body dualism; Samkhya provides an alternate viewpoint, intimately related to substance dualism, by drawing a metaphysical line between consciousness and matter where
matter includes both body and mind.[68][69]
The Samkhya system espouses dualism between consciousness and matter by postulating two irreducible,
innate and independent realities: Purusha and Prakriti.
While the Prakriti is a single entity, the Samkhya admits
a plurality of the Puruas in this world. Unintelligent, unmanifest, uncaused, ever-active, imperceptible and eternal Prakriti is alone the nal source of the world of objects which is implicitly and potentially contained in its
bosom. The Purua is considered as the conscious principle, a passive enjoyer (bhokta) and the Prakriti is the enjoyed (bhogya). Samkhya believes that the Purua cannot

4.2

Dualism

be regarded as the source of inanimate world, because an

intelligent principle cannot transform itself into the unconscious world. It is a pluralistic spiritualism, atheistic
realism and uncompromising dualism.[70]
4.2.1

Purua

Purua is the transcendental self or pure consciousness.

It is absolute, independent, free, imperceptible, unknowable through other agencies, above any experience by
mind or senses and beyond any words or explanations.
It remains pure, nonattributive consciousness. Purua
is neither produced nor does it produce. It is held that unlike Advaita Vedanta and like Purva-Mimamsa, Samkhya
believes in plurality of the Puruas.[71]
4.2.2

Prakriti

Prakriti is the rst cause of the manifest material universe of everything except the Purua. Prakriti accounts for whatever is physical, both mind and mattercum-energy or force. Since it is the rst principle (tattva)
of the universe, it is called the Pradhna, but, as it is the
unconscious and unintelligent principle, it is also called
the jaDa. It is composed of three essential characteristics (trigunas). These are:
Sattva poise, neness, lightness, illumination, and
joy;
Rajas dynamism, activity, excitation, and pain;
Tamas inertia, coarseness, heaviness, obstruction,
and sloth.[70][72][73]
All physical events are considered to be manifestations of
the evolution of Prakriti, or primal nature (from which all
physical bodies are derived). Each sentient being or Jiva
is a fusion of Purua and Prakriti, whose soul/Purua is
limitless and unrestricted by its physical body. Samsra
or bondage arises when the Purua does not have the dis- Elements in Samkhya philosophy
criminate knowledge and so is misled as to its own identity, confusing itself with the Ego/ahamkra, which is
actually an attribute of Prakriti. The spirit is liberated
when the discriminate knowledge of the dierence between conscious Purua and unconscious Prakriti is realconscious.[75] Ahamkara, the ego or the phenomenal self,
ized by the Purua.
The unconscious primordial materiality, Prakriti, con- appropriates all mental experiences to itself and thus,
mind and inteltains 23 components including intellect (buddhi,mahat), personalizes the objective activities of
[76]
lect
by
assuming
possession
of
them.
But consciousego (ahamkara) and mind (manas); the intellect, mind
ness
is
itself
independent
of
the
thought
structures it
[74]
and ego are all seen as forms of unconscious matter.
[75]
illuminates.
Thought processes and mental events are conscious only
to the extent they receive illumination from Purusha. In
Samkhya, consciousness is compared to light which illuminates the material congurations or 'shapes assumed
by the mind. So intellect, after receiving cognitive structures form the mind and illumination from pure consciousness, creates thought structures that appear to be

By including mind in the realm of matter, Samkhya

avoids one of the most serious pitfalls of Cartesian dualism, the violation of physical conservation laws. Because
mind is an evolute of matter, mental events are granted
causal ecacy and are therefore able to initiate bodily
motions.[77]

4.3

Evolution

The idea of evolution in Samkhya revolves around the

interaction of Prakriti and Purusha. Prakriti remains
unmanifested as long as the three gunas are in equilibrium. This equilibrium of the gunas is disturbed when
Prakriti comes into proximity with consciousness or Purusha. The disequilibrium of the gunas triggers an evolution that leads to the manifestation of the world from an
unmanifested Prakriti.[78] The metaphor of movement of
iron in the proximity of a magnet is used to describe this
process.[79]
Some evolutes of Prakriti can cause further evolution and
are labelled evolvents. For example, intellect while itself created out of Prakriti causes the evolution of egosense or ahamkara and is therefore an evolvent. While,
other evolutes like the ve elements do not cause further
evolution.[80] It is important to note that an evolvent is dened as a principle which behaves as the material cause
for the evolution of another principle. So, in denition,
while the ve elements are the material cause of all living
beings, they cannot be called evolvents because living beings are not separate from the ve elements in essence.[81]

PHILOSOPHY

Purua, the eternal pure consciousness, due to ignorance,

identies itself with products of Prakriti such as intellect (buddhi) and ego (ahamkara). This results in endless
transmigration and suering. However, once the realization arises that Purua is distinct from Prakriti, the Self is
no longer subject to transmigration and absolute freedom
(kaivalya) arises.[86]
Other forms of Samkhya teach that Moka is attained by
ones own development of the higher faculties of discrimination achieved by meditation and other yogic practices.
Moksha is described by Samkhya scholars as a state of
liberation, where Sattva guna predominates.[11]

4.5 Causality
The Samkhya system is based on Sat-krya-vda or the
theory of causation. According to Satkryavda, the effect is pre-existent in the cause. There is only an apparent
or illusory change in the makeup of the cause and not a
material one, when it becomes eect. Since, eects cannot come from nothing, the original cause or ground of
everything is seen as Prakriti.[87]

More specically, Samkhya system follows the PrakritiParinma Vda. Parinma denotes that the eect is a
real transformation of the cause. The cause under consideration here is Prakriti or more precisely Moola-Prakriti
(Primordial Matter). The Samkhya system is therefore an
exponent of an evolutionary theory of matter beginning
with primordial matter. In evolution, Prakriti is transformed and dierentiated into multiplicity of objects.
Evolution is followed by dissolution. In dissolution the
physical existence, all the worldly objects mingle back
into Prakriti, which now remains as the undierentiated,
primordial substance. This is how the cycles of evolution
and dissolution follow each other. But this theory is very
dierent from the modern theories of science in the sense
that Prakriti evolves for each Jeeva separately, giving inEvolution in Samkhya is thought to be purposeful. The dividual bodies and minds to each and after liberation
two primary purposes of evolution of Prakriti are the en- these elements of Prakriti merges into the Moola Prakriti.
joyment and the liberation of Purusha.[83] The 23 evo- Another uniqueness of Smkhya is that not only physilutes of prakriti are categorized as follows:[84]
cal entities but even mind, ego and intelligence are regarded as forms of Unconsciousness, quite distinct from
pure consciousness.
The intellect is the rst evolute of prakriti and is called
mahat or the great one. It causes the evolution of
ego-sense or self-consciousness. Evolution from selfconsciousness is aected by the dominance of gunas. So
dominance of sattva causes the evolution of the ve organs of perception, ve organs of action and the mind.
Dominance of tamas triggers the evolution of ve subtle elements sound, touch, sight, taste, smell from selfconsciousness. These ve subtle elements are themselves
evolvents and cause the creation of the ve gross elements
space, air, re, water and earth. Rajas is cause of action in
the evolutes.[82] Purusha is pure consciousness absolute,
eternal and subject to no change. It is neither a product
of evolution, nor the cause of any evolute.[81]

4.4

Liberation or moka

The Supreme Good is moka which consists in the permanent impossibility of the incidence of pain... in the
realisation of the Self as Self pure and simple.
Samkhyakarika I.3[85]

Samkhya theorizes that Prakriti is the source of the perceived world of becoming. It is pure potentiality that
evolves itself successively into twenty four tattvas or principles. The evolution itself is possible because Prakriti is
always in a state of tension among its constituent strands
or gunas Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. In a state of equilibrium of three gunas, when the three together are one,
unmanifest Prakriti which is unknowable. A guna is an
entity that can change, either increase or decrease, therefore, pure consciousness is called nirguna or without any
modication.

Samkhya considers ignorance (avidy) is regarded as

the root cause of this suering and bondage (Samsara).
Samkhya oers a way out of this suering by means of
discriminative knowledge (viveka). Such knowledge, that
leads to moka (liberation), involves the discrimination The evolution obeys causality relationships, with primal
Nature itself being the material cause of all physical crebetween Prakriti (avyakta-vyakta) and Purua (ja).[4]

5.2

Textual references

ation. The cause and eect theory of Samkhya is called

Satkrya-vda (theory of existent causes), and holds that
nothing can really be created from or destroyed into nothingness all evolution is simply the transformation of primal Nature from one form to another.

Despite arguments to the contrary, if God is still

assumed to contain unfullled desires, this would
cause him to suer pain and other similar human
experiences. Such a worldly God would be no better than Samkhyas notion of higher self.

Samkhya cosmology describes how life emerges in the

universe; the relationship between Purusha and Prakriti
is crucial to Patanjali's yoga system. The strands of
Samkhya thought can be traced back to the Vedic speculation of creation. It is also frequently mentioned in the
Mahabharata and Yogavasishta.

Furthermore, there is no proof of the existence of

God. He is not the object of perception, there exists no general proposition that can prove him by
inference and the testimony of the Vedas speak of
prakriti as the origin of the world, not God.

Atheism

Samkhya accepts the notion of higher selves or perfected

beings but rejects the notion of God. Classical Samkhya
argues against the existence of God on metaphysical
grounds. Samkhya theorists argue that an unchanging
God cannot be the source of an ever changing world and
that God was only a necessary metaphysical assumption
demanded by circumstances.[88] The Sutras of Samkhya
have no explicit role for a separate God distinct from the
Purua. Such a distinct God is inconceivable and selfcontradictory and some commentaries speak plainly on
this subject.

5.1

Arguments against Ishvaras existence

Therefore, Samkhya maintained that the various cosmological, ontological and teleological arguments could not
prove God.

5.2 Textual references

The Sankhya-tattva-kaumudi commenting on Karika 57
argues that a perfect God can have no need to create a
world (for Himself) and if Gods motive is kindness (for
others), Samkhya questions whether it is reasonable to
call into existence beings who while non-existent had no
suering.
The Skhyapravacana Stra in verse no. 1.92 directly
states that existence of Ishvara (God) is unproved.
Hence there is no philosophical place for a creationist
God in this system. It is also argued by commentators
of this text that the existence of Ishvara cannot be proved
and hence cannot be admitted to exist.[89]

According to Sinha, the following arguments were given

These commentaries of Samkhya postulate that a benevby the Samkhya philosophers against the idea of an eterolent deity ought to create only happy creatures, not a
nal, self-caused, creator God:[89]
mixed world like the real world. A majority of modern
academic scholars are of view that the concept of Ishvara
If the existence of karma is assumed, the proposi- was incorporated into the nirishvara (atheistic) Samkhya
tion of God as a moral governor of the universe is viewpoint only after it became associated with the Yoga,
unnecessary. For, if God enforces the consequences the Pasupata and the Bhagavata schools of philosophy.
of actions then he can do so without karma. If how- This theistic Samkhya philosophy is described in the
ever, he is assumed to be within the law of karma, Mahabharata, the Puranas and the Bhagavad Gita[90]
then karma itself would be the giver of consequences
and there would be no need of a God.
Even if karma is denied, God still cannot be the enforcer of consequences. Because the motives of an
enforcer God would be either egoistic or altruistic.
Now, Gods motives cannot be assumed to be altruistic because an altruistic God would not create a
world so full of suering. If his motives are assumed
to be egoistic, then God must be thought to have desire, as agency or authority cannot be established in
the absence of desire. However, assuming that God
has desire would contradict Gods eternal freedom
which necessitates no compulsion in actions. Moreover, desire, according to Samkhya, is an attribute
of prakriti and cannot be thought to grow in God.
The testimony of the Vedas, according to Samkhya,
also conrms this notion.

6 Inuence on other schools

6.1 On Yoga
The Yoga school derives its ontology and epistemology
from Samkhya and adds to it the concept of Isvara.[91]
However, scholarly opinion on the actual relationship between Yoga and Samkhya is divided. While, Jakob Wilhelm Hauer and Georg Feuerstein believe that Yoga was
tradition common to many Indian schools and its association with Samkhya was articially foisted upon by commentators such as Vyasa. Johannes Bronkhorst and Eric
Frauwallner think that Yoga never had a philosophical
system separate from Samkhya. Bronkhorst further adds
that the rst mention of Yoga as a separate school of

REFERENCES

Hinduism
Linga sarira
Ratha Kalpana
Khyativada

8 Notes
[1] Zimmer: "[Jainism] does not derive from Brahman-Aryan
sources, but reects the cosmology and anthropology of a
much older pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India being rooted in the same subsoil of archaic metaphysical
speculation as Yoga, Sankhya, and Buddhism, the other
non-Vedic Indian systems.[27]

Yoga is closely related to Samkhya in its philosophical foundations.

thought is no earlier than ankara's (c. 788820 CE)

Brahmastrabhaya.[93]

6.2

[92]

On Tantra

The dualistic metaphysics of various Tantric traditions

illustrates the strong inuence of Samkhya on Tantra.
Shaiva Siddhanta was identical to Samkhya in its philosophical approach, barring the addition of a transcendent theistic reality.[94] Knut A. Jacobsen, Professor of
Religious Studies, notes the inuence of Samkhya on
Srivaishnavism. According to him, this Tantric system
borrows the abstract dualism of Samkhya and modies
it into a personied malefemale dualism of Vishnu and
Sri Lakshmi.[95] Dasgupta speculates that the Tantric image of a wild Kali standing on a slumbering Shiva was
inspired from the Samkhyan conception of Prakriti as a
dynamic agent and Purusha as a passive witness. However, Samkhya and Tantra diered in their view on liberation. While Tantra sought to unite the male and female
ontological realities, Samkhya held a withdrawal of consciousness from matter as the ultimate goal.[96]
According to Bagchi, the Samkhya Karika (in karika 70)
identies Smkhya as a Tantra,[97] and its philosophy was
one of the main inuences both on the rise of the Tantras
as a body of literature, as well as Tantra sadhana.[98]

See also

9 References
[1] Knut Jacobsen, Theory and Practice of Yoga, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120832329, pages 100-101
[2] Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An
Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 9780415648875, pages 43-46
[3] Roy Perrett, Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges, Volume 1 (Editor: P Bilimoria et
al), Ashgate, ISBN 978-0754633013, pages 149-158
[4] Larson 1998, p. 9
[5]

Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion

: Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett),
Routledge, ISBN 978-0815336112, pages 245248;
John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian
Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Dened in English,
State University of New York Press, ISBN 9780791430675, page 238

[6] John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Dened in English, State University
of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791430675, page 238
[7] Michaels 2004, p. 264
[8] Sen Gupta 1986, p. 6
[9] Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957, p. 89
[10] Samkhya - Hinduism Encyclopedia Britannica (2014)
[11] Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Skhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 36-47

Advaita Vedanta of Adi Shankara

[12] Dasgupta 1922, p. 258

Darshanas

[13] Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An

Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 9780415648875, page 39

Dualism

[14] Lloyd Pueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in

Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen),
Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120832329, pages 3839
[15] Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An
Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 9780415648875, page 39, 41
[16] Kovoor T. Behanan (2002), Yoga: Its Scientic Basis,
Dover, ISBN 978-0486417929, pages 56-58

[40] Larson 1998, p. 79.

[41] Larson 1998, pp. 7981
[42] Larson 1998, p. 85
[43] Larson 1998, p. 82
[44] P. 101 Classical Skhya: An Interpretation of Its History
and Meaning By G. J. Larson
[45] Larson 1998, pp. 8284

[17] Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Skhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 154-206

[46] Larson 1998, pp. 8890

[18] James G. Lochtefeld, Guna, in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, Vol. 1, Rosen Publishing, ISBN
9780823931798, page 265

[48] Larson 1998, pp. 9193

[19] T Bernard (1999), Hindu Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass,

ISBN 978-81-208-1373-1, pages 7476

[50] Larson 1999, p. 4

[20] Alex Wayman (1962), Buddhist Dependent Origination

and the Samkhya gunas, Ethnos, Volume 27, Issue 1-4,
pages 14-22, doi:10.1080/00141844.1962.9980914

[52] Eliade, Trask & White 2009, p. 370

[21] saMkhya Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary,

Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany

[54] Dasgupta 1922, pp. 2137

[22] Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An

Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 9780415648875, pages 47-48
[23] Apte 1957-59, p. 1664
[24] Bhattacharyya 1975, pp. 41920
[25] Larson 1998, pp. 4, 38, 288
[26] Zimmer 1951, p. 217, 314.
[27] Zimmer 1951, p. 217.

[47] Fowler 2012, p. 39

[49] Bagchi 1989.

[51] King 1999, p. 64

[53] Radhakrishnan 1923, pp. 25356

[55] MM Kamal (1998), The Epistemology of the Carvaka

Philosophy, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies,
46(2): 13-16
[56] B Matilal (1992), Perception: An Essay in Indian Theories of Knowledge, Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780198239765
[57] Karl Potter (1977), Meaning and Truth, in Encyclopedia
of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2, Princeton University
Press, Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN
81-208-0309-4, pages 160-168

[29] Sharma 1997, p. 149

[58] Karl Potter (1977), Meaning and Truth, in Encyclopedia

of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2, Princeton University
Press, Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN
81-208-0309-4, pages 168-169

[30] Gerald James Larson and Ram Shankar Bhattacharya,

The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4,
Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691604411,
pages 107-109

[59] Karl Potter (1977), Meaning and Truth, in Encyclopedia

of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2, Princeton University
Press, Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN
81-208-0309-4, pages 170-172

[31] Burley 2006, pp. 1516

[32] Burley 2006, p. 17

[60] W Halbfass (1991), Tradition and Reection, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-7914-0362-9, page
26-27

[33] Larson 1998, p. 96

[61] Carvaka school is the exception

[34] Fowler 2012, p. 34

[62] James Lochtefeld, Anumana in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A-M, Rosen Publishing.
ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, page 46-47

[28] Ruzsa 2006.

[35] Fowler 2012, p. 37

[36] King 1999, p. 63
[37] Radhakrishnan 1953, p. 163
[38] Larson 1998, p. 75
[39] Singh 2008, p. 185

[63] Karl Potter (2002), Presuppositions of Indias Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0779-0
[64] Monier Williams (1893), Indian Wisdom - Religious,
Philosophical and Ethical Doctrines of the Hindus, Luzac
& Co, London, page 61

10

[65] DPS Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Indian Psychology

(Editor: Anthony Marsella), Springer, ISBN 978-1-44198109-7, page 172
[66] M. Hiriyanna (2000), The Essentials of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120813304, page
43
[67] P. Billimoria (1988), abdaprama: Word and Knowledge, Studies of Classical India Volume 10, Springer,
ISBN 978-94-010-7810-8, pages 1-30
[68] Haney 2002, p. 17
[69] Isaac & Dangwal 1997, p. 339
[70] Sharma 1997, pp. 14968
[71] Sharma 1997, pp. 1557
[72] Hiriyanna 1993, pp. 2702
[73] Chattopadhyaya 1986, pp. 109110
[74] Haney 2002, p. 42
[75] Isaac & Dangwal 1997, p. 342
[76] Leaman 2000, p. 68
[77] Leaman 2000, p. 248
[78] Larson 1998, p. 11
[79] Cowell & Gough 1882, p. 229
[80] Cowell & Gough 1882, p. 221
[81] Cowell & Gough 1882, pp. 223
[82] Cowell & Gough 1882, pp. 222
[83] Larson 1998, p. 12
[84] Larson 1998, p. 8
[85] Sinha 2012, p. App. VI,1
[86] Larson 1998, p. 13
[87] Larson 1998, p. 10
[88] Rajadhyaksha 1959, p. 95
[89] Sinha 2012, pp. xiii-iv
[90] Karmarkar 1962, pp. 901
[91] Larson 2008, p. 33
[92] Isayeva 1993, p. 84
[93] Larson 2008, pp. 3032
[94] Flood 2006, p. 69
[95] Jacobsen 2008, pp. 129130
[96] Kripal 1998, pp. 148149
[97] Bagchi 1989, p. 6
[98] Bagchi 1989, p. 10

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Institute of Culture, ISBN 81-85843-36-8
Bhattacharyya, Haridas (ed) (1975). The cultural
heritage of India: Vol III: The philosophies. Calcutta:
The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.
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The Metaphysics Of Experience, Taylor & Francis,
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Haney, William S. (2002), Culture and Consciousness: Literature Regained, New Jersey: Bucknell
University Press, ISBN 1611481724
Hiriyanna, C. (1993), Outlines of Indian Philosophy, New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ, ISBN
81-208-1099-6
Isaac, J. R.; Dangwal, Ritu (1997), Proceedings.
International conference on cognitive systems, New
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Jacobsen, Knut A. (2008), Theory and Practice of
Yoga : 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson,
Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-3232-9

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Karmarkar, A.P. (1962), Religion and Philosophy of
Epics in S. Radhakrishnan ed. The Cultural Heritage
of India, Vol.II, Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission
Institute of Culture, ISBN 81-85843-03-1
King, Richard (1999), Indian Philosophy: An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Thought, Edinburgh
University Press, ISBN 978-0-7486-0954-3
Kripal, Jerey J. (1998), Kalis Child: The Mystical and the Erotic in the Life and Teachings of Ramakrishna, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 9780-226-45377-4
Larson, Gerald James (1998), Classical Skhya:
An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, London: Motilal Banarasidass, ISBN 81-208-0503-8
Larson, Gerald James (2008), The Encyclopedia of
Indian Philosophies: Yoga: Indias philosophy of
meditation, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-2083349-4
Leaman, Oliver (2000), Eastern Philosophy: Key
Readings, New Delhi: Routledge, ISBN 0-41517357-4

Sinha, Nandlal (2012), The Samkhya Philosophy,

New Delhi: Hard Press, ISBN 1407698915
Zimmer, Heinrich (1951), Philosophies of India
(reprint 1989), Princeton University Press

11 Further reading
Hulin, Michel (1978). Skhya Literature. Otto
Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3447018999.
Chatterjee, Satischandra; Datta, Dhirendramohan (1984), An Introduction to Indian Philosophy
(Eighth Reprint Edition ed.), Calcutta: University
of Calcutta, ISBN 81-291-1195-0
Eliade, Mircea (1969), Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, Bollingen Series LVI (second ed.), New York:
Bollingen Foundation, Inc, ISBN 0-691-01764-6
Meller, Max (1899), Six Systems of Indian Philosophy; Samkhya and Yoga, Naya and Vaiseshika, Calcutta: Susil Gupta (India) Ltd, ISBN 0-7661-4296-5

Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism: Past and Present,

Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press,
ISBN 0-691-08953-1

Zimmer, Heinrich (1951), Joseph, Cambell, ed.,

Philosophies of India, Bollingen Series XXVI, New
York: Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-69101758-1

Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; Moore, C. A. (1957), A

Source Book in Indian Philosophy, Princeton, New
Jersey: Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-69101958-4

Weerasinghe, S.G (1993), The Sankhya Philosophy;

A Critical Evaluation of Its Origins and Development,
New Delhi: South Asia Books, ISBN 81-703-03613

Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli (1953), The principal

Upaniads, Amhert, New York: Prometheus Books,
ISBN 978-1-57392-548-8

Kambhampati, Parvathi Kumar (1993), Sankya

The Sacred Doctrine (First Edition ed.), Visakhapatnam: Dhanishta, ISBN 81-900-3323-9

Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli (1923), Indian Philosophy, Vol. II, New Delhi: Oxford University Press,
ISBN 0-19-563820-4
Rajadhyaksha, N. D. (1959), The six systems
of Indian philosophy, Bombay (Mumbai), OCLC
11323515
Ruzsa, Ferenc (2006), Skhya (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

12 External links
Samkhya entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Origin and Development of the Samkhya System of
Thought by Pulinbihari Chakravarti M.A., Curator
of Manuscripts, The Asiatic Society, Calcutta.

Sen Gupta, Anima (1986), The Evolution of the

Samkhya School of Thought, New Delhi: South Asia
Books, ISBN 81-215-0019-2

Sankhya philosophy (archive)

Sharma, C. (1997), A Critical Survey of Indian

Philosophy, New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ,
ISBN 81-208-0365-5

PDF le of Ishwarkrishnas sankhyakarikaa

200BC (in Sanskrit) available for research purposes
only

Singh, Upinder (2008), A History of Ancient and

Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the
12th Century, Pearson Education India, ISBN 97881-317-1120-0

Complete Lectures on Sankya Shastra of Kapila maharishi at ShastraNethralaya

Kak, Subhash (2003) Greek and Indian Cosmology:

Review of Early History

12

13

13
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Samkhya Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya?oldid=665028632 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Arvindn, Edward,
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