Solid State Ionics 174 (2004) 253 260

www.elsevier.com/locate/ssi

Oxygen transfer across composite oxygen transport membranes

Bart A. van Hassel*
Praxair, Inc., 175 East Park Drive, Tonawanda, NY 14150, USA
Received 30 March 2004; accepted 3 July 2004

Abstract
The transfer of oxygen across an oxygen transport membrane (OTM) is limited by a number of processes, such as mass transfer
across a boundary layer on the airside, surface exchange, ambipolar diffusion through the mixed-conducting gas separation layer, and
viscous flow of oxygen through the porous support. Each of these processes was incorporated into a comprehensive oxygen transfer
model. This model describes oxygen flux as a function of temperature, pressure, and oxygen recovery across composite OTMs. The
model predicts an optimum thickness for porous mixed-conducting layers to improve oxygen surface exchange. Layer thickness
depends on a number of parameters, such as pore size distribution, porosity, and tortuosity in each layer, and basic material
parameters, such as surface exchange rate and ambipolar conductivity. The transfer model shows the importance of optimizing these
parameters and a reactor design that enables a high mass transfer coefficient on the airside of the OTM element for optimum
performance.
D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
PACS: 66.30; 81.05; 81.20; 82.20; 82.65
Keywords: Air separation; Oxygen permeation; Mixed ionic electron conductor; Surface exchange; Ambipolar conductivity; Diffusion; Ionic conduction;
Porous materials; Computational modeling; Membrane processes; Mass transfer

1. Introduction
The energy-related materials research group, led by
Masayuki Dokiya, conducted basic research on thermodynamic and transport properties of complex oxides at the
former National Chemical Laboratory for Industry in
Tsukuba, Japan. The first oxide they evaluated,
La1
y Cay CrO3
d , was considered a candidate material
for interconnects in a solid oxide fuel cell. Oxygen
transport through that mixed conductor was undesirable
because it could result in oxidizing part of the fuel
without generating electrical power. The application of
irreversible thermodynamics [1,2] and point defect chemistry [3,4,5] resulted in an analytical solution for the

* Tel.: +1 716 897 2389; fax: +1 716 879 7931.

E-mail address: bart_vanhassel@praxair.com.
0167-2738/$ - see front matter D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ssi.2004.07.034

oxygen flux and oxygen chemical potential gradient [6,7].

This analytical solution was used to evaluate experimental
results [8].
Teraoka et al. [9,10] combined one of the basic
functions of interconnects (separating air from fuel) with
materials that were engineered for high ambipolar conductivity. Their work started a new field of research:
mixed-conducting oxide membranes for air separation
[11]. This paper describes oxygen transport processes
through a mixed-conducting oxide membrane to achieve
air separation that produces oxygen as a product. The
model has been used in Praxair to determine some
preferred membrane architectures [12]. Praxair is developing the oxygen transport membrane (OTM) in partnership
with the U.S. Department of Energys National Energy
Technology Laboratory (NETL). The aim of this project is
to reduce costs and improve the efficiency of integrated
oxygen-fired coal gasification in combined cycle power
plants [1316].

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B.A. van Hassel / Solid State Ionics 174 (2004) 253260

2. Theory
2.1. Model outline
Fig. 1a and b shows a cross-section photograph and a
schematic drawing of an OTM that was used for model
development. The membrane consists of a dense gas
separation layer of a mixed-conducting oxide on a porous
support. Porous mixed-conducting oxide layers can be
applied on either the airside, oxygen product side, or both,
to improve the rate of oxygen transfer. Each porous layer
has its own thickness, pore size, porosity, and tortuosity.

Compressed air is supplied to the side of the membrane with

the thin gas separation layer, while a low-pressure, highpurity oxygen product is collected from the porous support
side.
2.2. Oxygen transport
The simultaneous transport of oxygen molecules inside
the pores and oxygen vacancies in the mixed-conducting
oxide phase of the membrane is described using an effective
medium approximation. Kenjo et al. [17], Murygin [18], and
Maggio et al. [19] first related this common approximation
to fuel cells, and Thorogood et al. [20] and Deng et al.
[21,22] applied it to the modeling of OTMs. The difference
between this study and previous works is shown in the
expressions used to describe oxygen transfer, and how the
boundary conditions are applied.
When modeling oxygen transfer across membranes with
a commercially viable oxygen flux, it is important to
account for the mass transfer resistance in the boundary
layer on the airside of the membrane. The following
expression was used to compute the oxygen flux across
the airside boundary layer around the OTM tube in axial
flow:



ShDO2 ;N2
Pair
1
xO2 ;e
JO2
ln
1
IDShroud
ODOTM Rg T
1
xO2 ;s
where J O2=oxygen flux [mol/m2/s]; T=absolute temperature
[K]; Sh=Sherwood number []; D O2N2=binary diffusion coefficient for oxygen and nitrogen [m2/s]; ODOTM=outside
diameter of OTM tube [m]; IDShroud=inside diameter of
shroud around OTM tube [m]; P air=airside absolute pressure
[Pa]; R g=molar gas constant [J/(mol K)]; x O2,s=O2 mole
fraction outside the boundary layer []; x O2,e=O2 mole
fraction at the OTM wall [].
The Sherwood number was computed using well-known
correlations [23]. A positive oxygen flux indicates the
transport of oxygen from the airside of the membrane to the
oxygen product side.
The dusty gas model [24] was used to explain the
diffusion of oxygen gas against stagnant nitrogen on the
airside of the OTM, which resulted in the following
expression for the oxygen flux:
JO2

e
s

1
1
DKn;O2

Fig. 1. (a) A cross-section of an OTM using scanning electron microscopy.

(b) A schematic diagram of the OTM used in model development.

1
xO 2

Dmol;O2 ;N2

Pair 1
Rg T tpa

dxO2
dx


2

where x O2=oxygen mole fraction []; D mol,O2,N2=molecular

diffusion coefficient of oxygen in an O2/N2 mixture [m2/s];
D Kn,O2=Knudsen diffusion coefficient of oxygen [m2/s];
P air=airside absolute pressure [Pa]; e=porosity []; s=
tortuosity []; x=dimensionless coordinate (0bxb1) [];
t pa=thickness of porous layer on the airside [m].

B.A. van Hassel / Solid State Ionics 174 (2004) 253260

The molecular diffusion coefficient was calculated from

[25]:
3

Dmol;O2 ;N2

0:00266  105 T 2


 12

3 MwO2 MwN2
Pair 10
rO2 ;N2 XD
MwO2 MwN2

where MwN2=molar weight of nitrogen [g/mol]; MwO2=

molar weight of oxygen [g/mol]; r O2,N2=characteristic
length [2]; X D=diffusion collision integral [].
The Knudsen diffusion coefficient is given by:
s
8Rg T
2
DKn;O2 r
4
3
pMO2
where D Kn,O2=Knudsen diffusion coefficient of oxygen [m2/
s]; R g=molar gas constant [J/mol K]; T=absolute temperature [K]; P=pressure [Pa]; r=pore radius [m]; M O2=
molecular weight of oxygen [kg/mol].
The ambipolar diffusion of oxygen ions through the
dense mixed-conducting oxide film results in the following
relation between oxygen flux and driving force:



ramb Dl
JO 2

5
42 F 2 t g
where r amb=ambipolar conductivity [V
1m
1]; F=Faraday
constant [C/mol]; Dl=oxygen chemical potential drop
across dense gas separation layer [J/mol]; t g=thickness of
the dense gas separation layer [m].r amb stands for the
average ambipolar conductivity (t elt ionr tot, with t el=electronic transport number, t ion=ionic transport number, and
r tot=total conductivity) in the oxygen chemical potential
gradient. The ambipolar conductivity was assumed to have
an Arrhenius dependence on temperature:
ramb

r0amb e

Eamb
R

1
T1
1273:15

with r 0amb as the preexponential factor and E amb as the

activation energy for the ambipolar conductivity.
The viscous flow of oxygen on the oxygen product
side of the OTM results in the following relationship
between the oxygen flux and the oxygen pressure
gradient:




e
1 1 dP
e r2
1 dP
JO2
DKn;O2
P


s
Rg T tpp dx
s 8Rg Tg tpp dx
7
where P l=pressure at the low-pressure side of the inert
support [Pa]; P h=pressure at the high-pressure side of the
inert support [Pa]; t pp=thickness of the active porous layer
on oxygen side [m]; g=gas viscosity [N s/m2].
The same equation is used to describe the oxygen flow
through the inert porous support layers, but with the
appropriate thickness, porosity, and tortuosity.

255

The exchange between oxygen in the gas phase, and the

oxygen ions in the mixed-conducting oxide is described
by:



Dl
n
8
JO2
kPO2
Rg T
where k=rate constant for surface oxygen exchange
[mol O2/(m2 s (Pa/105)n )]; P O2=oxygen partial pressure
[Pa]; Dl=oxygen chemical potential drop across interface [J/mol]; n=exponent for oxygen partial pressure
dependence [].
The surface exchange rate constant was assumed to have
an Arrhenius dependence on temperature:
Ek

k k 0 e
R T
1273:15
1

with k 0 as the preexponential factor, and E k as the activation

energy for surface exchange.
In the porous layers, an exchange occurs between the
oxygen gas molecules and the oxide ions, when there is a
difference in the oxygen chemical potential. Such an
exchange is accounted for by the following system of
differential equations:
Airside:


lg
ls 2e
1 dJO2
n

kPO2
RT
tpa dx
r

10



lg
ls 2e
1 dJO2

n
2kPO2
RT
tpa dx
r

11

O2 product side:


lg
ls 2e
1 dJO2
n

kPO2
RT
tpp dx
r

12



lg
ls 2e
1 dJO2

n
2kPO2
RT
tpp dx
r

13

where l g
l s =oxygen chemical potential difference

between the gas phase and the mixed conducting oxide
phase [J/mol].
This results in two second-order differential equations for
each porous active layer. The oxygen flux in the gas phase is
indicated by J O2, and the flux of oxygen ions in the mixedconducting oxide is indicated by J O2
.
The following boundary conditions were used to solve
the system of differential equations and to obtain the oxygen
flux through the membrane.
On the airside, the oxygen partial pressure at the entrance
of the pore is equal to the pressure inside the boundary layer
with P O2,feed=P air x O2,e:


lg RT ln PO2 ;feed

14

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B.A. van Hassel / Solid State Ionics 174 (2004) 253260

There is also some exchange of oxygen in the gas

atmosphere and the oxygen ions in the mixed-conducting
oxide:





lg
ls
1
e ramb 1 dls
n
15


1
ekPO2
RT
ss 42 F 2 tpa dx
where s s=tortuosity of the solid phase in the porous mixed
conducting oxide [].
This boundary condition that is based on a limited rate of
surface exchange is different from previous studies [1722],
in which it was assumed that the chemical potential of
oxygen in the gas phase was equal to the chemical potential
of oxygen in the solid at this interface. Tanner et al. [26]
applied a similar boundary condition in their two-dimensional model of a porous composite electrode structure of a
solid oxide fuel cell.
At the location where the porous mixed-conducting
oxide layer comes into contact with the dense gas separation
layer, it is assumed that both oxygen chemical potentials in
the solid material are equal:
ls ls;dense

16

Some oxygen diffuses all the way through the gas phase
in the pore into the dense gas separation layer interface.
Here oxygen can directly exchange with the oxygen ions in
the dense gas separation layer:





l g
ls
e
1
1 1 dPO2
n


ekPO2
1
XO2 Rg T tpa dx
RT
sg 1

DKn;O2
Dmol;O2 ;He
17
where s g=tortuosity of the gas phase in the porous mixed
conducting oxide [].
Similar boundary conditions are applied on the airside
and on the oxygen product side. The chemical potential of
oxygen in the dense gas separation layer on the oxygen
product side is equal to the chemical potential inside the
dense phase of the mixed-conducting oxide layer on the
oxygen product side:
ls ls;dense

18

On the way out of this layer, there is a continuous

exchange between oxide ions and oxygen molecules, with a
net transfer of oxide ions as oxygen molecules into the gas
phase of the pore:





lg
ls
1
e ramb 1 dls
n
20
1
ekPO2


RT
ss 42 F 2 tpp dx
This boundary condition that is based on a limited rate of
surface exchange is also different from previous studies
[1722], in which it was assumed that the chemical potential
of oxygen in the gas phase was equal to the chemical
potential of oxygen in the solid at this interface.
As it exits the pore, the oxygen pressure is equal at the
interface between the mixed-conducting oxide layer and the
inert support:


lg RT ln PO2 ;inter
21
The oxygen flux through the dense mixed-conducting
layer must match the sum of the oxygen transported through
the dense phase of the porous mixed-conducting layer and
the oxygen directly exchanged with the dense gas separation
layer:


lg
ls
1
e ramb 1 dls
n


ekPO2
ss 42 F 2 tpa dx
RT



rion ls;h
ls;l
2 2
td
4F


l g
ls
1
e ramb 1 dls
n
ekPO2


RT
ss 42 F 2 tpp dx



rion ls;h
ls;l
2 2
td
4F

ekPOn 2

23

A pressure drop across each inert porous support layers

must be accounted for:
ramb
42 F 2

ls;h
ls;l
td

Some oxide ions from the dense gas separation layer will
exchange with oxygen gas molecules, and these oxygen
molecules will diffuse and flow out of the porous mixedconducting oxide layer on the product side of the
membrane:





l g
ls
e DKn;O2 1 1 dPO2 ;g

RT
sg tpp RT tpp
dx



e 1 rp2
1 dPO2 ;g
PO2 ;g


sg tpp 8RT g
tpp
dx

22


dPO2 ;g
dx



2
rsup1
dPO2 ;g
PO2 ;g
8RT g
dx

esup1 DKn;O2 1


sg;sup1 tsup1 RT

esup1 1
sg;sup1 tsup1

24

ramb
42 F 2

ls;h
ls;l
td



esup2 DKn;O2 1
sg;sup2 tsup2 RT

dPO2 ;g
dx

2
esup2 1 rsup2
PO ;g
sg;sup2 tsup2 8RT g 2



dPO2 ;g

dx

19

25

B.A. van Hassel / Solid State Ionics 174 (2004) 253260

Table 1
Operating conditions and oxygen viscosity
Temperature
Airside total pressure
Oxygen mole fraction at airside
Oxygen product pressure
Oxygen viscosity at 1073.15 K

ramb
42 F 2

ls;h
ls;l
td

esup3 DKn;O2 1


sg;sup3 tsup3 RT

257

Table 3
High-performance oxygen ion transport membrane architecture
1073.15 K
106 Pa
0.209
105 Pa
56.83710
6 Pa s

dPO2 ;g
dx

Dense mixed-conducting gas separation layer

Thickness
10 Am

2
esup3 1 rsup3
PO ;g


sg;sup3 tsup3 8RT g 2



dPO2 ;g

dx

Porous mixed-conducting oxide layer on airside

Thickness
0.075 Am1.26 mm
Porosity
0.32
Tortuosity gas phase
2.2
Tortuosity dense phase
2.2
Pore radius
0.00520 Am

26

where e i =porosity of support layer i []; s i =tortuosity of

support layer i []; t i =thickness of support layer i [m].
Eqs. (24) Eqs. (25) Eqs. (26) show that the model allows
for three inert porous support layers below the porous
surface exchange enhancement layer. Those layers are
considered inactive in oxygen transfer, since they are
located too far away from the dense gas separation layer
to have any influence on oxygen flux.
The system of differential equations with boundary
conditions at two points was solved numerically by using
a variable order, variable step-size finite difference method
with deferred corrections, which was implemented in the
bBVPFDQ solver from International Mathematics and
Statistics (IMSL). Tables 13 provide a list of model
parameters that were used to determine preferred membrane
architectures.

3. Results and discussion

The oxygen partial pressure profiles in Fig. 2 were
computed with the model parameters found in Tables 13.
These profiles show an oxygen chemical potential difference between the gas phase and the mixed-conducting oxide
phase of the porous layer that serves as the driving force for
oxygen transfer. The thickness of the oxygen transfer zone
extended over about 8 Am in this example.

Porous mixed-conducting oxide layer on oxygen product side

Thickness
8 Am
Porosity
0.32
Tortuosity gas phase
2.2
Tortuosity dense phase
2.2
Pore radius
0.05 Am
Inert porous support layers
Layer 1
Thickness
Porosity
Tortuosity gas phase
Pore radius
Layer 2
Thickness
Porosity
Tortuosity gas phase
Pore radius
Layer 3
Thickness
Porosity
Tortuosity gas phase
Pore radius

6 Am
0.32
2.2
0.3 Am
60 Am
0.32
2.2
3 Am
1 mm
0.32
2.2
15 Am

Fig. 3 shows the oxygen flux versus the layer

thickness of the porous mixed-conducting oxide on the
airside of the membrane for various pore radii. Little
improvement in oxygen flux is achieved by mixedconducting oxide layers with large pore radii. Significant
improvements in oxygen flux are achieved by mixed-

Table 2
Model parameters of a simulated OTM material
Ambipolar conductivity
at 1273.15K
Activation energy for ionic
conductivity
Surface exchange coefficient
at 1273.15K
Activation energy for surface
exchange coefficient
Power dependence on oxygen
partial pressure

214/V/m
48 kJ/mol
0.26 mol O2/
(m2 s (Pa/105)n )
134 kJ/mol
n=0.5

Fig. 2. Oxygen partial pressure profiles across the mixed-conducting oxide

parts of the oxygen ion transport membrane. The difference in oxygen
partial pressure between the gas phase and the solid phase provides a
driving force for oxygen surface exchange, in which oxygen molecules
exiting the gas phase are incorporated in oxygen vacancies of the mixedconducting oxide layers.

258

B.A. van Hassel / Solid State Ionics 174 (2004) 253260

Fig. 3. Oxygen flux versus layer thickness of the porous mixed-conducting oxide on the airside of the membrane. All other model parameters were kept
constant. The pore radius in the porous layer is indicated in micrometers. The oxygen flux is indicated in standard (273.15 K; 101,325 Pa) cubic centimeters per
minute per square centimeter (cm3/cm2/min).

conducting oxide layers with small pore radii and Fig. 3

shows that there is an optimum layer thickness. Beyond
that thickness, the oxygen flux declines due to a gas
phase diffusion limitation. This optimum thickness shows
a complex relationship with the pore radius. The smaller
the pore radius, the thinner the porous layer must be to
achieve optimum oxygen flux.
Fig. 4 compares the optimum thickness/pore radius ratio
to the pore radius on the airside of the mixed-conducting
oxide layer. Fig. 4 demonstrates that the thickness apparently has a one over square root dependence on the pore
radius. Fig. 4 also shows that a 10-fold change in the surface
exchange rate constant only results in about a factor 3.2
change in the optimum thickness/pore radius ratio, with a
smaller ratio for the material with the faster surface
exchange rate constant. A sensitivity analysis shows that
the following expression holds for the optimum thickness/
pore radius ratio for given values of the pore radius,
porosity, tortuosity, materials parameters (ion conductivity

and surface exchange rate), and operating conditions

(temperature and oxygen partial pressure):
t 
r

optimum

!
p
1
R p
Esigma2R
Ek T1
1273:15
1

p
Te

F 2 2
s
r0amb 1
e 1 1

k 0 POn 2 e s rp

27

When the activation energy for the ionic conductivity is

lower than the activation energy for the surface exchange,
the optimum thickness/pore radius ratio will decrease with
an increase in temperature. The optimum thickness/pore
radius ratio will increase with a decrease in oxygen partial
pressure (assuming nN0), which may occur when a
significant fraction of the oxygen is recovered from the air
stream. A material with a smaller ion conductivity/surface
exchange rate ratio will need a smaller thickness/pore radius
ratio to achieve optimum flux. If the surface exchange rate

Fig. 4. The solid symbols show the optimum ratio of porous mixed-conducting oxide layer thickness and pore radius, and the open symbols show the
corresponding oxygen flux. The oxygen flux is indicated in standard (273.15 K; 101,325 Pa) cubic centimeters per minute per square centimeter (cm3/cm2/
min). The linear relation between the logarithm of that ratio and the logarithm of the pore radius is consistent with Eq. (27).

B.A. van Hassel / Solid State Ionics 174 (2004) 253260

would be infinite, then no porous mixed-conducting oxide

layers would be required.
Fig. 4 shows both the optimum thickness/pore radius
ratios for each pore radius value, and the oxygen flux for
each value. This shows that the highest oxygen flux is
achieved at the smallest pore radius, but only if the porous
layer thickness is adjusted to its optimum value.

4. Conclusions
An oxygen transport model of composite OTMs must
incorporate mass transfer across a boundary layer on the
airside of the membrane, surface exchange, ambipolar
diffusion through the mixed-conducting gas separation
layer, and viscous flow of oxygen through the porous
support. There is an optimum ratio for layer thickness, over
average pore radius for porous mixed-conducting surface
modification layers for OTMs, which depend on the pore
radius and various materials properties, such as surface
exchange rate and ambipolar conductivity. This relationship can be used to engineer membranes with a superior
oxygen flux.

Acknowledgement
I would like to thank the energy-related materials
research group, especially Yukiko and Masayuki Dokiya,
for their hospitality and for letting me perform basic
research while supported by a fellowship from the Science
and Technology Agency (STA) of Japan. Dokiya-Sensei let
me combine theoretical work with practical experimentation
in order to verify the modeling results. I would like to
acknowledge the financial support for OTM development at
Praxair by the Department of Energy under contract no.
DE-FC26-99FT40437. I also would like to acknowledge the
entire Praxair team for their relentless support for OTM
development. This paper was written with support of the
U.S. Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-FC2699FT40437. The Government reserves for itself and others
acting on its behalf a royalty-free, nonexclusive, irrevocable, worldwide license for Governmental purposes to
publish, distribute, translate, duplicate, exhibit and perform
this copyrighted paper.

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