Atomic structure

Nuclear atom

protons and neutrons make up the nucleus at the centre of an atom

electrons orbit the nucleus in shells
the nucleus makes up a small percentage of the total volume of an atom
>most of an atom consists of empty space between the tiny nucleus and orbiting electrons
the nucleus is extremely dense
>makes up most of an atoms mass
same number of protons and electrons
>atom is electrically neutral/overall charge=0

Particle
Proton
Neutron
Electron

Relative Charge
1+
0
1-

Relative mass
1.0
1.0
1/2000

Isotope: atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons

same atomic number > same number of protons

electrically neutral > same number of protons as electrons
different mass number > different number of neutrons
react the same > same number of outer shell electrons (involved in chemical reactions); neutrons do
not affect chemical reactivity

Mass number: the number of particles (protons and neutrons) in the nucleus
Atomic number: number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
Ion: positively or negatively charged atom or (covalently bonded) group of atoms (molecular ion)

Atomic masses
12C is used as the standard measurement of relative masses
Relative isotopic mass: the mass of an isotope of an element compared with 1/12 the mass of an atom of
carbon-12

weighted mean mass: mass of element, accounting for relative contribution of each isotope
dependent on: % abundance and relative (isotopic) mass

Relative atomic mass, Ar: the weighted mean mass of an atom of an element compared with 1/12 the mass of
an atom of carbon-12
Relative molecular mass, Mr: the weighted mean mass of a molecule compared with 1/12 the mass of an atom
of carbon-12
Relative formula mass: the weighted mean mass of a formula unit compared with 1/12 the mass of an atom of
carbon-12

Types of formula
Empirical formula: the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element present in a compound
Molecule: small group of atoms held together by covalent bonds
Molecular formula: actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule

Moles/ reactions
Stoichiometry: the molar relationship between the relative quantities of substances taking part in a reaction
Species: any type of particle that takes part in a chemical reaction

Moles/ amount of substance

Amount of substance, n: the quantity whose unit is the mole; chemists use amount of substance as a means of
counting atoms
23

-1

Avogadro constant, NA: number of atoms per mole of the carbon-12 isotope (6.02 x 10 mol )
Mole: amount of any substance containing as many particles as there are carbon atoms in exactly 12g of
carbon-12 isotope
Molar mass, M: the mass per mole of a substance, units gmol

-1

Moles/ volumes
3

-1

Molar volume: the volume per mole of a gas; the units of molar volume are dm mol ; at room temperature
3
-1
and pressure, molar volume is approximately 24.0dm mol

Moles/ solutions
3

Concentration (of a solution): amount of solute, in mol, dissolved per dm (1000cm ) of solution

-3

concentrated: large amount of solute per dm (more than 10moldm )

3
-3
dilute: small amount of solute per dm (1-2moldm )

Standard solution: solution of a known concentration normally used in titrations to determine unknown
information about another substance
3

-3

Mass concentration: mass of solute, in g, dissolved per dm of solution (gdm )

Acids, bases and salts

Acid: a species that is a proton donor

dissociates in aqueous solution/ releases H ions (responsible for all acid reactions) in solution
pH less than 7.0 in water

Base: a species that is a proton acceptor

accepts H ions, neutralises acids

-

Alkali: type of base that dissolves in water forming hydroxide ions, OH (aq) ions
metal oxide
metal hydroxide
ammonia

MgO, CuO
NaOH, KOH
NH3
+

Salts: a chemical compound formed from an acid when a H ion from the acid has been replaced by a metal ion
+
or another positive ion, such as the ammonium ion NH 4 /
Cation: positively charged ion
Anion: negatively charged ion
diprotic acid H2SO4

Na
+
Na

NaHSO4
Na2SO4

sodium hydrogen sulfate

sodium sulfate

Reactions of acids
1.
2.

3.

acid + carbonate salt + carbon dioxide + water

soluble salt: carbonate disappears into solution, effervescence
acid + base(alkali) salt + water
neutralisation reaction
insoluble base: exothermic reaction, solid disappears as it reacts
alkali: exothermic reaction
acid + metal salt + hydrogen
metal disappears into solution, effervescence

Water of crystallisation
Hydrated: a crystalline compound containing water molecules
Anhydrous: a substance that contains no water molecules
Water of crystallisation: water molecules that form an essential part of the crystalline structure of a compound

Oxidation number
Oxidation number: measure of the number of electrons that an atom uses to bond with atoms of another
element; derived from a set of rule
Oxidation: loss of electrons/ increase in oxidation number
Reduction: gain of electrons/ decrease in oxidation number
Redox reaction: reaction in which both reduction and oxidation take place
Reducing agent: reagent that reduces (adds electrons to) another species
Oxidising agent: reagent that oxidises (takes electrons from) another species
free element/compound
ion
group 1 metal
group 2 metal
H
F
O
(with metal) group 7
(with metal) group 6

0
charge on ion
+1
+2
+1
-1
-2
-1
-2

Evidence for shells

First ionisation energy: the energy required to remove one electron from each atom in one mole of gaseous
atoms to form one mole of gaseous 1+ ions
Electron shielding: the repulsion between electrons in different inner shells, shielding reduces net attractive
force from the positive nucleus on the outer electron shells
1.
2.
3.

nuclear charge: larger nuclear charge, stronger nuclear attraction on outer shell electrons
atomic radius: larger atom, increase distance, less nuclear attraction on outer shell electrons
electron shielding: more inner shells, larger shielding effect, smaller nuclear attraction

- decrease down group (atomic radius and electron shielding increase; outweigh nuclear charge increase)
- increase across period (nuclear charge increase, same electron shell = same electron shielding, atomic radius
decrease)

Electron configurations
Successive ionisation energy: measure of energy required to remove each electron in turn
- small ionisation energy = outer shell electrons
- large increase in ionisation energy, removed electron from n=2 shell, takes much more energy as inner shell,
smaller atomic radius (closer to nucleus), less electron shielding; stronger nuclear attraction, harder to remove
- similar increase = same shell
group 1 = 1 low i.e.
group 2 = 2 low i.e.
group 3 = 3 low i.e.

Shells and orbitals

Shell/main energy level: group of atomic orbitals with the same principal quantum number, n
Principal quantum number, n: number representing the relative overall energy of each orbital, which increases
with distance from the nucleus; sets of orbitals with the same n-value are referred to as electron shells or
energy levels
Sub-shell: group of the same type of atomic orbitals (s, p, d or f) within a shell
Atomic orbital: region within an atom that can hold up to two electrons with opposite spins
2

2n electrons in each shell

Sub-shell (no. atomic orbitals) s:1 p:3 d:5
Electron configuration: the number arrangement of electrons in an atom
1s,2s,2p,3s,3p,4s,3d,4p (sub-shell, empty orbitals first, then fill up with opposite spins)
s-orbital: spherical
p-orbital: three at right angles to each other, lobed shape

s block

p block
d block

Chemical bonding
Compound: a substance formed from two or more chemically bonded elements in a fixed ratio, usually shown
by chemical formula
Ionic bond: electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions

metal (group 1-2) + non-metal (group 5-7)

electron transferred from metal atom to non-metal atom, forming ions with full outer shell

Covalent bond: bond formed by a shared pair of electrons

non-metals (group 4-7)

one electron from each atom; negatively charged electrons attracted to positive charges of both
nuclei; attraction overcomes repulsion between positively charged nuclei; directional
possible to share more than one pair of electrons (double, triple bonds)

Lone pair: outer shell pair of electrons that is not involved in chemical bonding

concentrated region of negative charge around atom

Dative covalent bond/coordinate bond: shared pair of electrons which has been provided by one of the
bonding atoms only

Shapes of molecules

2
3
4

shape determined by number of electron pairs in shell surrounding central atom

negatively charged electron pairs repel each other so they are as far apart as possible
bonded region (double/triple bonds) and dative covalent same as bonding pairs
lone pairs, extra repulsive effect, reduce bond angle 2.5

linear
trigonal planar
tetrahedral

180
120
109.5

pyramidal
non-linear

107
104.5

octahedral

90

CO2
BF3
CH4
+
NH4
NH3
H2O
NH2
SF6

Electronegativity and polarity

Electronegativity: measure of the attraction of a bonded atom for the pair of electrons in a covalent bond
Permanent dipole: small charge difference across a bond that results in a difference in electronegativities of
bonded atoms
Polar covalent bond: has a permanent dipole
Polar molecule: has an overall dipole, when you take into account any dipoles across bonds

electrons not evenly distributed, more concentrated on side with greater electronegativity
bond polarisation: different electronegativity, larger dipole, covalent ionic (range)

Intermolecular forces
Intermolecular force: attractive force between neighbouring molecules
Permanent dipole-dipole force: weak attractive force between permanent dipoles in neighbouring polar
molecules
van der Waals forces: attractive forces between induced dipoles in neighbouring molecules

caused by unbalanced distribution of charge from movement of electrons in shells; instantaneous

dipole across molecule; induces dipoles in neighbouring molecules; induced dipoles attract each other
(only significant with lots of electrons, stronger for long molecules)
+

Hydrogen bond: strong permanent dipole-dipole attraction between an electron deficient hydrogen atom ( H)
on one molecule and a lone pair of electrons on a highly electronegative atom ( N, O, F) on a different
molecule

relatively high boiling point compared with other hydrides in Group 6; hydrogen bonds have to be
broken before water can evaporate
high surface tension, forms meniscus; hydrogen bonds pull water surface downwards
ice less dense than water; water freezes, network of hydrogen bonds forms, hydrogen bonds and
covalent O-H bonds arranged in tetrahedral shape around O atom, H 2O molecules held apart to form
lattice, lots of space in structure

Structures
Giant ionic lattice: three-dimensional structure of oppositely charged ions, held together by strong ionic bonds
Simple molecular lattice: three-dimensional structure of molecules bonded together by weak intermolecular
forces
Giant covalent lattice: three-dimensional structure of atoms bonded together by strong covalent bonds
Giant metallic lattice: three dimensional structure of positive ions and delocalised electrons, bonded together
by strong metallic bonds
Metallic bonding: electrostatic attraction between positive metal ions and delocalised electrons
Delocalised electrons: shared between two or more atoms (outermost electron shells overlap,
electrons in outer shells can travel from atom to atom, positive ions are left in lattice position)

Physical properties
Giant ionic
High melting point: ionic bonds
No electrical conductivity when solid: ions fixed in lattice, cannot carry current
Good electrical conductivity when molten/aqueous: solid lattice breaks down, ions free to move
Polar substances: polar solvent molecules attract ions out of lattice into solution
Simple molecular
Low melting point: weak intermolecular forces (van der Waals)
No electrical conductivity: no free electrons/ions
Non-polar substances (hexane): van der Waals forces form, weaken lattice structure
Giant covalent
Very high melting point: strong covalent bonds
No electrical conductivity: electrons fixed in covalent bonds, cannot move to carry current
Insoluble: strong covalent bonds
Giant metallic
High melting point: metallic bonding is strong, free electrons but positive ions in fixed rigid position in lattice
Good electrical conductivity: delocalised electrons mobile, free to carry current anywhere within lattice

diamond
tetrahedral structure, strong covalent bonds
throughout lattice
poor conductivity: no delocalised electrons, all outer
shell electrons used for covalent bonds
hard: tetrahedral, external forces spread throughout
lattice

graphite
hexagonal structure, weak van der Waals between
layers
good conductivity: delocalised electrons between
layers, free to move parallel to layers when voltage
applied
soft: bonding within layers strong but weak forces
between layers allow layers to slide easily

Periodic Table
Group: vertical column in the Periodic Table, elements in the same group have similar chemical properties and
their atoms have the same number of outer shell electrons
Period: horizontal row in the Periodic Table, elements show trends in properties across a period
Periodicity: regular periodic variation of properties of elements with atomic number and position in the
Periodic Table
Trends across period
Atomic radius decrease: nuclear charge increase (gain extra positively charge proton) pull electrons closer,
similar shielding from nucleus (electrons added to same outer shell)
Ionisation energy increase: nuclear charge increase, same electron shell = same electron shielding, decrease
nuclear radius
Melting point: giant metallic (outer electrons increase, positive charge of cations increase; stronger
electrostatic attraction/metallic bonding) giant covalent (covalent bonds very strong); simple molecules (weak
intermolecular bonds, easily broken, much lower melting point)
Group 2
Electrical conductivity: metallic bonding, all good conductors, positive ions surrounded by mobile delocalised
electrons, move when potential difference applied
Atomic radii: same number of outer shell electrons, increase shells down group, atomic radii increase
ns2: oxidised, increase oxidation number; lose 2 outer shell electrons, form cations with +2 charge; reactivity
increases down group, decrease first and second ionisation energies easier to lose in reaction
Oxygen
Mg
Ca
Sr
Ba

Water
Mg

Ca
Sr
Ba

tarnish in air, burn when

heated, vigorous
reaction (Mg burns with
bright white light)

2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)

slow reaction with water, bubbles of

hydrogen form slowly over several hours,
forms weak alkali, pH 9
speed of reaction increase down group
react with cold water, form hydrogen gas
and alkaline solution pH 12 upwards

Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

Thermal decomposition: breaking up of a chemical substance with heat into at least two chemical substances
Carbonates: MgCO3 (s) MgO (s) + CO2 (g); decrease ease of decomposition down group
Hydroxides: increase solubility, OH- concentration and alkalinity down group
Magnesium hydroxide: used in antacids/indigestion remedies, weak alkali neutralises stomach acid
Solid calcium hydroxide: slaked lime, spread on acidic soil, basic, reduces acidity of soil, increases crop yields

Group 7
Halogens, diatomic, non-metal, very reactive
Boiling point: electrons in molecules increase down group, increase strength of van der Waals between
molecules, less volatile down group, Cl gas (green-yellow), Br liquid (dark-red liquid/vapour), I solid (shiny,
grey-black crystalline; sublimes, purple vapour)
ns2 np5: gain 1 electron for full orbital, halide ions, reduced, decrease oxidation number, anions -1 charge;
reactivity decreases down group, increase first ionisation energies (increase atomic radius, increase electron
shielding, decrease nuclear attraction) harder to gain electron; chlorine best reducing agent
Displacement reaction: reaction in which a more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from an
aqueous solution of the latters ions

Cl2 (aq) + 2Br (aq) Br2 (aq) + 2Cl (aq)

-

Cl2 + 2I I2 + 2Cl

Br2 + 2I I2 + 2Br
water (faint)
pale-green
orange
brown

Cl
Br
I

cyclohexane (more soluble)

violet

Disproportionation: the oxidation and reduction of the same element in a redox reaction
Cl2 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + NaOCl (aq) + H2O (l)
Chlorine + dilute aqueous sodium hydroxide at room temperature = bleach NaClO sodium chlorate(I)
Salt splits up in water = free sodium ions and chlorate(I) ions (ClO bleach: oxidise stains, make them colourless)
domestic = mixture of NaCl and NaOCl; stronger HClO hypochlorous [chloric(I) acid]
Cl2 (aq) + H2O (l) HCl (aq) + HClO (aq)
purify water, remove bacteria, safer to drink; solid particles removed from reservoir water, then treated with
chlorine, acids produced kill bacteria; purified water pumped into homes, small amount of chlorine remains to
ensure water remains bacteria-free
Precipitation reaction: formation of a solid from a solution during a chemical reaction, often formed when two
aqueous solutions are mixed together
halide ions colourless in solution
1.
2.

3.

acidify unknown halide ion solution with nitric acid

add silver nitrate solution, precipitate of silver halide formed
+
Ag (aq) + Cl (aq) AgCl (s) white
+
Ag (aq) + Br (aq) AgBr (s) cream
+
Ag (aq) + I (aq) AgI (s) yellow
difficult to decide colour accurately so ammonia solution is added
AgCl dissolves in dilute
AgBr dissolves in concentrated
AgI does not dissolve