Council for Research in Music Education

Utilizing Elements of the Historic Jazz Culture in a High School Setting

Author(s): Andrew Goodrich
Source: Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, No. 175 (Winter, 2008), pp. 1130
Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of the Council for Research in Music
Education
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40319410
Accessed: 11-05-2015 08:12 UTC
REFERENCES
Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/40319410?seq=1&cid=pdf-reference#references_tab_contents
You may need to log in to JSTOR to access the linked references.

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/
info/about/policies/terms.jsp
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content
in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship.
For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

University of Illinois Press and Council for Research in Music Education are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize,
preserve and extend access to Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.29 on Mon, 11 May 2015 08:12:56 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Goodrich

Jazz Culture

UtilizingElementsoftheHistoric
JazzCulturein a High School
Setting
Andrew Goodrich
NorthwesternState University
Natchitoches, Louisiana

ABSTRACT

Thisqualitativestudyis an examination
ofthehistoric
oftheincorporation
ofelements
jazz
wereusedduringonesemester
culturein a highschool
of
techniques
jazz band.Ethnographic
in learning
theroleofa director
and students
to explore
instruction
jazz musicvia traditional
thatelements
Data analysisrevealed
methods.
ofthehistoric
jazz culturecan occurin a high
which
In
this
underthesupervision
schoolsetting
emerged
studythreethemes
ofthedirector.
the
director
this
ensemble:
culture
utilized
as thefiltered
elements
served
of
by
ofthehistoric
jazz
thelingo.
and (c) learning
(b) improvisation,
(a) listening
forstyle,
Jazz,createdin Americathroughthe blendingof the music of manyother
culturesand hailedby Europeansas theone "trulyAmerican"giftto music,
has progressedfromthe bars and bordellosof New Orleans, throughthe
speakeasiesof the twenties,acrossthedance floorsof theGlenn Millerera,
into the nightclubsof today(Murphy& Sullivan,1968, p. 17).

contextof jazz music

For the firsthalfof the twentiethcenturythe performance
residedprimarilyin dance halls, clubs, brothels,and via the radio and phonograph
recordings(Gottleib,1996). The informallearningenvironmentforjazz most often
occurredin theselocales and media late at nightand providedthe primaryaural contextsforjazz consumption.Historically,mentoringin the jazz cultureservedas the
primarymediumforlearningthismusic. Musician Sam Pricerecalledhis experiences
withjam sessionsin Kansas City,one of the cradlesof earlyjazz:
I rememberonce at the SubwayClub, on 18thStreet,I came by a sessionat
about 10 o'clock and thenwenthome to clean up and changemyclothes.
I came back a littleafterone o'clock and theywerestillplayingthe same
song (Shapiro& Hentoff,1955, p. 288).
in theselocaleswithpatronsof questionablecharacterformeda keycomPerforming
MaryLou Williamsreminiscedabout lifeas a jazz musician
ponentof thejazz lifestyle.
in Kansas City in the 1920s:

11

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.29 on Mon, 11 May 2015 08:12:56 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Bulletinof the Council forResearch in Music Education

Winter2008

No. 175

Now,at thistime,whichwas stillProhibition. . . mostof thenightspotswere

run by politiciansand hoodlums,and the townwas wide open fordrinking, gambling,and prettymuch everyformof vice. Naturally,work was
plentifulformusicians,thoughsome of the employerswere toughpeople
(Shapiro& Hentoff,1955, p. 288).
With jazz performancecame a lifestyleof livingon the road, playingin clubs,
and learninga whole new languageof phrases.As jazz musicevolved,verballingoalso
formedan integralcomponentof the jazz experience.In addition,jazz "unlikesome
formsof Westernmusic . . . has been based primarilyon a traditionof listeningand
(Horowtizand Nanry,1975, p. 25).
performing"
into
music,
Jazz
spawnedin theseless thandesirablevenues,quicklytransformed
the popular music of its day.Writers,includingF. Scott Fitzgerald,helped to sum up
thislifestyle
in the 1920s as "The JazzAge" (Horowitzand Nanry,1975). How then,
could a music forgedin thedepthsof prostitution,
gambling,and alcohol have found
itsway into theschool environment?
The purposeof thisstudywas to examinea successfulhighschooljazz band and to
gaininsightintowhichelementsofthehistoric
jazz cultureoccurredin thisparticular
jazz
ensemble.Duringthecourseof thisstudyit becameevidentthatelementsof thehistoric
jazz culturewerepresentin thisensemble.Questionsthatguidedthisstudyincluded:
1. What elementsof thehistoricjazz cultureoccurredin thishighschool jazz
band?
2. How did thedirectorin thisstudyfilter
and incorporatetheseelementsinto
a highschool setting?
The inclusionof the historicjazz culturewill be discussedin the followingsections
withthefollowingheadings:HistoryofJazzin theSchools,Definitionsof Culture;and
StudiesofJazzCulture.

HistoryofJazz in theSchools

routes(Suber, 1976). Students

Jazz music enteredinto the schools via extracurricular
at historically
black collegesincludingFisk University
and Alabama Stateperformed
in
dance bands at theirschools duringthe 1920s and 1930s (Ferriano,1974; Goodrich,
dance bands,oftenreferred
to as "stagebands"to avoid the
2001). Theseextracurricular
sinfulconnotationsof jazz musicin theSouth,providedan opportunity
forstudentsto
hone theirjazz skillsin an informallearningenvironment
(Suber,1976).
During the post war era jazz ensemblesenteredthe schoolsat a swiftrate,and in
1947 NorthTexas State College became the firstcollege to offera degreeprogramin
of jazz ensemblesparalleledthegrowthof concert
jazz (Scott, 1973). This proliferation
bands in the public schools earlierin the twentiethcentury(Mark, 1987) and can be
attributedto two factors:World War II and the evaporationof the professionalbig
band scene in jazz music.WorldWar II veterans,manyof whichhad jazz experience,
12

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.29 on Mon, 11 May 2015 08:12:56 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Jazz Culture

Goodrich

attendedcollege on the G.I. Bill, graduated,and became music educators(Suber,

thedemiseof thepopularityof thejazz big bands sentmanyjazz
1976). Concurrently,
whichtheyfoundas secondaryand
musicianslookingforothermeansof employment,
in
theirschool musicprograms(Hall,
level
bands
musiceducators,forming
jazz
college
1969).
as an art formwithinthe largercultureto
As jazz music movedfromfunctioning
an educationalmediumwithinthe schools,certainelementsof jazz wereeitherlost or
homogenized.Music educatorswho wereWorld War II veteransretired,and teachers
trainedin theformalproceduralknowledgeof concertbands becamethe newjazz band
directors,
manymusic
possessinglittleor no jazz experience.With thistransformation,
educatorsno longertaughttheirstudentshow to performjazz musicvia the informal
- learningsongsby ear,modelinga favorite
aural methods
traditional
playeror players,
or by listeningto jazz groups.Instead,a greateremphasiswas placed upon learninghow
became
froma printedpage. Improvising
to readmusicand playthecorrectarticulations
an artformrelegatedto readingwrittensolos,or at bestreadingchordsymbols,instead
of relying
solelyon developingones ear.Jazzlingowas replacedwitha new terminology
borrowedfromthe concertband idiom including,"Be sure to releasethisnote on the
thisquarternote."Jazz
thirdbeat,"or "Use the properamountof air when articulating
in
is different
fromschoolculture.Today,jazz ensemblesareprevalent
culturehistorically
Education
for
Association
The
International
and
universities.
Jazz
publicschools,colleges,
of 8,000 teachers,musicians,students,musicindus(IAJE)boastsan activemembership
in thirty-five
countries(www.iaje.org).
and enthusiasts
tryrepresentatives,

ofCulture
Definitions

Beattie (1964) definescultureas "the whole range of human activitieswhich are

fromgenerationto generationthroughvarilearned. . . and which are transmitted
ous learningprocesses"(p. 20). Ortner(1990) describesthe interactionsinvolvedin
culturaltransmission[informallearning]thatcan be structured"withthe sponsoring
person(s)definedas the host(s), [and] the recipient(s)of the largesseas the guest(s)"
who identifies
componentsof a culturein which
(p. 60). Rogoff(2003) citesVygotsky
and centuries,leavinga legacy
decades
across
"Cultural-historical
developmentchanges
for individualsin the formof symbolicand materialtechnologies(such as literacy,
numbersystems,and computers)as well as value systems,scripts,and norms"(p. 65).
Rogoff(2003) explainsthe participants'perspectivein a cultureas "People developas
participantsin culturalcommunities.Their developmentcan be understoodonly in
lightof the culturalpracticesand circumstancesof theircommunities which also
change"(RogofF,2003, p. 3).
of knowlFor thepurposeof thisstudyjazz cultureis definedas the transmission
- privateles- mentoring;and formal
informal
of
historical
(both
jazz practices
edge
betweentheteacherand studentvia guidedlearning.The goal
sons) throughinteraction
13

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.29 on Mon, 11 May 2015 08:12:56 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Bulletinof the Council forResearch in Music Education

Winter2008

No. 175

is forthe studentsto become participantsin the jazz culturalcommunitywhich may

includean "accumulatedstoreof symbols,ideas,and materialproductsassociatedwith
a socialsystem"(Johnson,1995, p. 68). Jazzmusicincludessymbols(e.g., notation;historicpersonalities;musicalgestures),ideas (e.g., performance
practices;improvisation;
and materials(e.g., charts,recordings).
cultural,ethnic,genderstereotypes),

StudiesofJazz Culture

Researchershave examined the cultural impact and uniqueness of jazz music in

Americansocietyand argueforitsinclusionin thepublic schools(Arnold,1979; Hall,
1969). Horowitzand Nanry(1975) describejazz as a social phenomenon,a "manifestationof collectivebehavior"thatis not "bounded by individuals"(p. 25).
Jazzmusiciansformtheirown communities(Stebbins,1964) and need to be open
to new identitiesin jazz ifit is to remain"a vitalgroundof social and culturalrenewal"
inJazz, Berliner(1994) interviewed
numer(Ake, 1998, p. 273). In his book, Thinking
ous well-knownjazz musiciansto discovertheiropinions and expertiseon how they
improvisein jazz.
Studentswho performin a schooljazz ensemblelearntheproceduralknowledgeof
theirinstrument
fromtheirparticipationin a concertband. Leavell (1996) reflects
on
thisissue,notingthatstudentshave to accommodatemusicaltechniquesin jazz band
thatare different
fromthoseused in concertband fromboth a cognitiveand physical
standpoint.
Evidenceexiststo supportthenotionthatstudentsemulateprofessional
jazz musicians throughinteractionat clinics,festivals,listeningto recordingsof professionals,
and by performing
theirarrangements
(Ferriano,1974). Researchershave examined
the teachingof improvisation.In his landmarkstudy,Payne (1973) discoveredthat
the most common methodforteachingimprovisationincludedguided listeningand
aids includingplayimprovising
usingchordaland blues approaches.Jazzinstructional
do
a
benefit
for
along recordings provide
learningjazz improvisation(Flack, 2004).
Bash (1983) remindspractitioners
of jazz education"thatjazz performance
is an aural
experience"and that guided listeningis essentialfordevelopingone's ears (p. 110).
Directorsneed to encourageall of theirstudentsin the jazz ensembleto improvise
contributes
to a higherlevel
(Mack, 1993). Developingmusicianshipwhileimprovising
of learningand performance(Di Girolamo, 1974) as does modelingjazz innovators
(Carlson, 1980; Moorman, 1984; Williams & Richards,1988). Teaching improvisation can includejazz theory,how to imitatemelodiesand solos, and listeningto live
jazz performancesand recordings(Madura, 1996), in addition to experimentation
with melodic and rhythmic
developmentand manipulationof expressiveelementsof
improvisation
(May, 2003).

14

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.29 on Mon, 11 May 2015 08:12:56 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Goodrich

Jazz Culture

METHOD
Siteand Participants

The siteselectedforthisstudywas CrescentValleyHigh School in thenorthern

suburbs
of a largemetropolitan
areawithan enrollmentof approximately
1600 studentsforthe
2000-2001 academicyear.Criteriaforselectionofa highschooljazz band forthisstudy
includedthe reputationof the directorand jazz band, honorsand awardsearned by
leveland dedicationfromthe
the ensembleat the statelevel,and a highperformance
studentmembers.The CrescentValleyHigh School JazzBand I has a reputationin the
in
stateas an exemplaryhighschool jazz band. A directorof jazz studiesat a university
the area along withpublic school educatorshelped to confirmthatthisprogramwarrantedstudy.The jazz band has won superiorratingsat a nearbyUniversity
JazzFestival
and also at the districtand statelevel. Participantsin thisstudyincludedthe director
and studentsin the CrescentValleyHigh School JazzBand I.
Ray Hutchinson,the director,has earneda bachelorsdegreein music education
and a mastersdegreein music education. Hutchinsonhas taughtat CrescentValley
High School forsix years.Priorto teachingat CrescentValley,Hutchinsontaughtin
Ontario,Canada forfouryears.Despite ten yearsof teachingexperience,Hutchinson
"I don'treallyconsidermyselfa jazz musician.I'm moreof a jazz experimenremarked,
for
talist."During the yearof thisstudyHutchinsonheld the officeof president-elect
AssociationforJazzEducation (IAJE).
thestatechapterof the International

TheProgram

The jazz programat CrescentValleyHigh School consistsof threejazz ensembles.The

top two ensemblesare big bands comprisedof 21 studentseach, utilizingtraditional
fivetrombones,fivesaxophones(two altos,two tenors,
fivetrumpets,
instrumentation:
sectionconsistingof drums,piano, bass guitar,
one baritone),and a four-piecerhythm
and electricguitar.Two drummersand two piano playersalternateon each song. The
The instrumentathirdjazz ensembleis a lab class forstudentsto practiceimprovising.
tionand size of thisclass varieseach semester.
selectionto allow fora
The rationaleforstudyingJazzI includedcriterion-based
richdata set and thickdescription(Maxwell, 1996). In addition,I utilizedpurposeful
- I sampled
case studyand chain sampling
samplingto help selectan information-rich
peoplewho knewpeoplewho knewwhichjazz band would yielda plethoraof information- to help determinewhichschool jazz ensembleI should study(Patton,2002, p.
in JazzI rangein age from14 to 18 yearsold. The genderand ethnic
243). Participants
compositionof thisensembleincludednineteenmalesand two females;threeHispanic
students,and 18 Caucasian members.The majorityof thestudentsbegan playingtheir
in thefifth
instruments
grade,and manyof thestudentsin thisstudyreportedas having
experiencewitha jazz ensemblein juniorhighschool. All of theJazz
priorperforming
I membersperformin one of the concertbands at CrescentValleyHigh School and
15

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.29 on Mon, 11 May 2015 08:12:56 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Bulletinof the Council forResearch in Music Education

Winter2008

No. 175

are requiredto participatein the marchingband, includingmemberswho do not play

a traditionalmarchingband instrument.
Rhythmsectionmembers(piano, guitar,bass
are
to
the
guitar) encouraged join
percussionsectionif theydo not play otherinstruments.During the timeof thisstudythe pianistsplayedmarchingFrenchhornsand
thebass guitaristplayedthe trumpet.This requirement
does not applyto thelab class,
whichis an improvisation
class open to anystudentin theschool.
All threejazz ensemblesmet forcoursecredit.CrescentValleyHigh School is on
a fourperiodblock schedule.JazzI rehearsesdailyfrom6:30 a.m. to 7:30 a.m. during
"zerohour,"JazzII rehearsesafterschool on Tuesdaysfrom3:00 - 4:00 p.m., and the
lab class meetsduringfourthperiodof theschool day.

Data Collection
Data collectionduringthisstudyadheredto ethnographictechniquesincludingfield
notesin rehearsals
and sectionalsobservations,
audio and video recordings,
formalinterand collectionof artifacts.
In accordancewith Creswell
views,informalconversations,
is a descriptionand interpretation
of a cultural
(1998) who states,"An ethnography
data collectionmethodsutilizedin thisstudyalso aided in helpingme
groupor system,"
to "examinethegroups observableand learnedpatternsof behavior,customs,and ways
of life."(p. 58)
I chose a non-intervention
whichallowedforminimum
protocolforobservations,
distractionon mypartwiththe participantsinvolvedin thisstudyduringrehearsals.I
observedeightrehearsalsof the CrescentValleyHigh School JazzI overa two-and-ahalfmonthperiodduringthefallsemesterof the2000-2001 academicyear.Field notes
werewrittenby hand on a yellowlegal pad duringrehearsalobservationswith times
indicatedin thelefthand marginto indicateeventsin a chronologicalorder.Field notes
wereretypedin word formatforease of readingand coding of data.
I developedan interviewprotocolat thebeginningof thisstudyto aid in myfield
notes takenduringthe interviewsand to organizematerialsincludingheadingsand
Interviewquestionsweredesignedto
concludingthoughtsat theend of each interview.
discoverinformation
relatingto thelearningcultureof thisjazz band and whetherany
elementsof thehistoricjazz culturewerepresent.I interviewedfiveparticipantsbased
on the directorsrecommendations
in addition to my observationsof studentleadership. Interviewswereconductedon a one-to-onebasis, audio-taped,and occurredat
the school. Intervieweesincluded the director,who was Caucasian, and fivestudents
of whichtwowereHispanic and threewereCaucasian. No AfricanAmericansor other
raceswererepresented
in theensemble.
I collecteddata via informalconversations
withthe participants
in thisstudy.The
use of unstructured
interviewsallowed me to remainflexibleand open to individual
differences
and changes throughoutthe study (Patton, 2002). For example,I often
information
fromthedirectoras he walkedaroundtheFineArtscomplexin the
gained
16

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.29 on Mon, 11 May 2015 08:12:56 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Jazz Culture

Goodrich

morningunlockingall of the doors. I also spoke withthe studentsas theyenteredthe

buildingand occasionallyduringa breakin theirwarmup processbeforerehearsals.
In addition to observationsand interviews,the collectionof artifactsprovided
an additionalcontextualdimensionof data collectionforthisstudy(Glesne, 1999).
Artifactsincluded concertprograms,recordingsof the ensemble,and hand written
notes(e.g., ensemblerehearsalscheduleforthe nextweek) fromthedirector.

Data Analysisand Trustworthiness

theentiredurationof thisstudyand contributedto a

Data analysisoccurredthroughout
of thedata collected(Patton,2002). Procedures
and
systematic in-depthinterpretation
and coding the data. Themes and
utilizedfor analyzingdata included transcribing
from
data
in
data
the
the
analysis,and I developedthese
emerged
conceptsgrounded
conceptsin thewritingprocesswhich resultedin a richdata set and allowed forthick
in this studywas
descriptionin the final report(Maxwell, 1996). Trustworthiness
member
of
via
the
checks,
data,
peer review,
conducting
accomplished
triangulation
to
the
of
biases.
in
addition
and externalaudits
reporting my
Field notes fromthe observationand interviewprotocolsrevealedthreetypesof
rehearsalactivities
information
includingthe descriptionsof the site and participants,
Field
and
student
the
director
and materialsused,and interactions
participants.
among
of
the
observation
the
same
transcribed
were
and
interviews
notes
day upon completion
or interview.
for
Once the transcription
processwas completedI thenanalyzedtheinformation
themes
that
revealed
of
a
data
based
emerged
key
upon system coding.Coding
specific
throughouttheanalysisprocess.Themesidentifiedin thisstudyreceiveda two or three

lettercode designation.
thedirectorof thejazz band, and the letThe letter"D," forexample,represented
ters"DT" signifiedthe directorteaching.I notatedcodes by hand in the leftmargin
of observations,rehearsals,and interviewsforease of readingand
of the transcripts
I then grouped the coded data in a computerfileusing separatetheidentification.
maticheadings(e.g., "JC" forJazzCulture).I reviewedeach themefileto discoversub
categories(e.g., includinglisteningforstyle,learningthe lingo, and improvisation.),
thenfurther
analyzedeach subcategoryand wrotedraftsof each section.Sectionswere
graduallyrevisedand mergedinto thisdocument.
At the timeof thisstudyI had severalyearsof experienceas a junior highschool
and highschool band directorof whichdirectinga jazz band, coachinga combo, and
comprisedpartof myteachingduties.I also had begunmy
teachingjazz improvisation
second yearof a teachingassistantshipin jazz at [name suppressed]State University.
thelearningcultureof this
The non-intervention
protocolaided me in not influencing
withresearchmemos
ensemble,and threatsto validityin termsof bias wereidentified
in
to
aid
each
observation
and
after
writtenduring
reportingmybias.
17

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.29 on Mon, 11 May 2015 08:12:56 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Bulletinof the Council forResearch in Music Education

Winter2008

No. 175

The audiotapesof rehearsalsand interviewsensuredtrustworthiness

of the field
notes. Data fromobservations,interviews,and artifactswere triangulatedto ensure
further
validity.I analyzedeach data recordforevidenceof elementsof thehistoricjazz
culture,thenpresentedmy findingswith a local directorof jazz studiesto determine
whetherI was, in fact,observingelementsfromthehistoricaljazz culture.Researchcolleaguesaided withpeer reviewof fieldnotesof observationsand interviews.I utilized
an externalaudit by a qualitativeresearcher
in which "an outsidepersonexaminesthe
researchprocessand productthrough'auditing'yourfieldnotes,researchjournal,analyticcodingscheme,etc." (Glesne, 1999, p. 32). Memberchecksin thisstudyoccurred
in the formof studentparticipantsand the directoroffering
theircommentsand perof
review
the
spectivesupon
findings.
In thefollowingsectionsI will portraya typicalrehearsalwhichI have includedto
forthe reader(Creswell,1998),
help offera descriptionand sense of the environment
followedbythepresentation
of threethemeswhichemergedthroughoutthedata analysis process:(a) listeningforstyle,(b) learningthelingo,and (c) improvisation.

A TYPICAL REHEARSAL
At 6:20 a.m. only two studentsmatriculatein the band room.A studentwitha glazed
look on his facestaresat the northwall in a rathertrance-like
state.The otherstudent
unlockshis saxophonecase in a lethargicmanner,puts his neck strapon, and begins
to soak a reed.
The morningeventsappearto unfoldinslowmotionas thedirector,
RayHutchinson,
unlocksthedoors to all of the roomsin the FineArtscomplex.Hutchinsonmovesin a
to what I just witnessedwiththestudents.With a plethoraof keys
speed contradictory
from
his
Hutchinsonmovesat a briskpace, consideringthe timeof day.
belt,
dangling
"That'sone of theproblemswithbeingthefirstteacherhere.I have to unlockall of the
doors,"he explainsto me as he unlocksa percussioncabinetnearto whereI am sitting.
Upon completinghis rounds,Hutchinsongoes into his officeto check his answering
machine.The bagsunderhiseyelidsbecomeapparentas he furiously
scribblesdown meson
a
of
scratch
while
on
left
the
machine
sages
piece
paper
takingmessages
overnight.
It is now 6:25 a.m. and two morestudentsfilterinto the band room.A couple of
trumpetplayersnow sit in theirchairsbuzzingon theirmouthpieces.More students
arrive;no one says much. They walk like pre-programmed
zombies as theyput their
instrument
cases down, take out theirmusic,grab theirinstruments,
and sit in their
chairs.A trombonistplaysthroughsome of thecurrentrepertoire
of thejazz band.
Hutchinsonfinishescheckinghis messagesand playsa CD forthestudentsto listento. The song is "88 Basie Street"fromtheCD by thesame name of theCount Basie
Band. This particularsong is in the band's repertoire
fortheirupcomingconcert.
More studentshave arrived.I am amazed thatwithinten minutesthejazz band is
nearlycomplete.A couple of band membersassemblethe drumset while anothersets
18

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.29 on Mon, 11 May 2015 08:12:56 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Goodrich

Jazz Culture

up an ancientFenderRhodes piano. Electricaltape and duct tape adorn the electric

Threestudentspractice
piano hintingat yearsof transportto and fromperformances.
"88 Basie Street"whileothersplaylip slursand pedal tonesto warmup. It is 6:30 a.m.
and Hutchinsonwalksaroundthe roomtalkingto students,answeringtheirquestions,
and findingout how theyare doing. "What are we doing in marchingband today?"
asks a trombonist."We are chartingpages six throughten on the fieldtoday,"replies
Hutchinson.A studentwith an alto saxophoneasks Hutchinson"Which fieldare we
on? Can we be in the stadiumtoday?Please?" Hutchinsonresponds,"What'swrong
withour practicefield?You can relax,we are at thestadiumtoday."
At 6:32 a.m. Hutchinsonbeginsthe rehearsalwith a blues in b-flat.Hutchinson
sectionand theyplaya couple ofchoruseswhileHutchinsontells
countsofftherhythm
theband to play"head number2" out ofan Aebersoldplay-alongbook. The band starts
sectiongetsto thethirdchorus.After
thehead,or melodyof thesong,whentherhythm
the arpeggiosof the chordsin the
the
band
the
head
twice
outlining
begins
playing
blues.AfterthreemeasuresHutchinsonstopsthejazz band and says,"You guysneed to
learnyourmixolydianscales better.It's like a majorscale, but witha loweredseventh.
Let's run it slowly."He has the band run throughan F mixolydianscale a fewtimes,
firstwithwhole note values,thenquarternotes,and finallyeighthnotes. Hutchinson
counts offthe jazz band again, and theycontinueoutliningthe arpeggios.This time
withan
thejazz band sounds muchbetter.Hutchinsonacknowledgestheimprovement
emphatic"Yes!"as theymake it througha choruswithoutany mistakes.
The jazz band playsthe arpeggiosfortwo chorusesand they"nail it" the second
time.The rhythmsectioncontinuesto playas Hutchinsonmotionsforthe restof the
solo. The stuband to quit playing.He pointsat thelead alto player,who takesthefirst
and
thenvenfirst
several
dentstayswiththe notesof theblues scale forthe
measures,
turesoutsideof the chord changes.Hutchinsonimmediatelystops the band and tells
him to play the same changesas the rhythmsection.Hutchinsontellsthe studentto
Hutchinson
playthecorrectscalesbyhimself.Afterthestudentplaysthescalescorrectly
replies,"Now, doesn'tthatsound much better?Use thosescaleswhen you improvise."
He then counts offthe rhythmsection,and now the studentplaysa solo that lines
up with the same harmonyas the rhythmsection.The lead alto finisheshis solo and
Hutchinsonpointsto thelead tenor,who playsnext.This processcontinueswithapparsolo order.Afterfourstudentsplay solos Hutchinsonyellsto
entlyno predetermined
thejazz band to "Barnhouse." I am momentarily
puzzled by thistermuntiltheentire
Hutchinson's
band improvisesat thesame time.I quicklyrealizethatI mis-interpreted
Canadian accent. He told the band to "burn house," indicatingthateveryonein the
band willsolo at thesame time.Afterthejazz band "burnshouse" fortwochorusesthe
theneveryoneplaysat the
barisax playertakesa solo. Four studentssolo individually,
same time.This processrepeatsuntileveryonehas an opportunityto improvisea solo.
The jazz band playsthrough"head number2" and finishesthe song. "Well,what do
you think?"Hutchinsonasks theband. "Improvisationis whereit'sat. Keep practicing
19

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.29 on Mon, 11 May 2015 08:12:56 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Bulletinof the Council forResearch in Music Education

Winter2008

No. 175

thosescales and arpeggios,okay?"he tellsthejazz band. Hutchinsoncontinues,"Get

out '88 Basie Street.'I am going to play the recordingforyou. We'regoing to listen
to the Basie band play thisagain. Listenforwheretheyplace theireighthnotesin the
groove.Theyswingbetterthananyoneelse. Listento thestyleof theeighthnote."The
studentsquicklypull thesong out of theirfoldersand listento therecording.
While the
musicpipes throughthesound systemthedrummer"airdrums"to thesong.Withina
fewmeasurestheentireband is fingering
along,mimickingthe Basie band.
Afterthe studentslistento the recordingHutchinsontellsthem to play the last
fourmeasuresof the song. The jazz band plays the fourmeasures.Hutchinsontells
them,"We'renot swingingour partsliketheBasie band does. This timesingyourparts
while the rhythmsectionplays."Hutchinsoncontinues,"This time,exaggerateto the
point whereyou thinkyou will falloffof the beat." They play the fourmeasuresfor
a second time. Next, Hutchinsonasks the lead trumpetplayer,lead tromboneplayer,
and thebass trombonist
to playthelastphrasesof thesong.Theyplaythroughit twice,
and Hutchinsonis displeasedwiththeintonation."Guys,findtheshelf,"he tellsthem.
The entireband now rehearsesthelast phrase.Hutchinsonsays,"You guysare starting
to playit in tune,but now you'renot releasingtogether."
Hutchinsonjokes withthem,
"Now let'splayit fromthetop and here'sthedeal. You willget$500.00 forplayingthis
The band
song. Therewill be a $20.00 bonus everytime the band releasestogether."
the
and
the
releases
are
much
better.
playsthrough song
Accordingto theclock in theband room it is now 7:00 a.m. Hutchinsonasks the
band to pull out "A Nightin Tunisia"fromtheirfolders.As the band takesthe music
out of theirfoldersthedrummerimmediately
startsplayingan Afro-Cubanrhythm
that
is predominantin thischart.Hutchinsontellstheband, "Beforewe playthroughthisas
a groupwe need to clean up some of the rhythms
and articulations.
Go intosectionals
fora fewminutes.All of the roomsare unlocked."The rhythmsectionremainsin the
band roomwhiletheothersectionsquicklyscatterthroughouttheFineArtscomplexto
workon theirparts.Soon a myriadof soundscan be heardflowingout ofseveralrooms
as thesectionleadersdrilltheirsectionson "A Nightin Tunisia."Approximately
fifteen
minutespass beforeHutchinsonwalks around the complexand tellseveryonein the
jazz band to returnto the band room so theycan run throughtheentirechart.
At 7:15 a.m. the band filtersinto the band room and they"noodle" on their
instruments
forapproximately
secondsbeforeHutchinsoncuts themoff.He
forty-five
explainsto thestudentsthatDizzy Gillespiewrote"A Nightin Tunisia"on thebottom
of a garbagecan as he points to a pictureof Dizzy Gillespieon the wall of the band
room.Hutchinsoncountsofftherhythm
sectionand theyplaybythemselves
to getthe
groovegoingfirst.Hutchinsonletsthemplayforclose to a minutebeforehe countsoff
the restof the band. He is immediatelydispleasedand stops. He looks at the sax and
brasssectionsand says,"Guys,what are you doing?You are not playingthesame time
as the rhythmsection.You need to internalizethe groove."Hutchinsonasks the horn
playersto sing theirpartswhile the rhythmsectionis playing.Aftera fewrepetitions,
20

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.29 on Mon, 11 May 2015 08:12:56 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Jazz Culture

Goodrich

he startstheband again. Hutchinsonsmilesthistime,indicatinghe is happierwiththe

time-feel.
The band playsthroughtheensemblesectionsup to wherethe trumpetsolo
The
trumpetsoloistplaysa couple of noteswhen Hutchinsoncutshim offand
begins.
You need to be on the
tellstheband "We'reout of time.We'll getto thesolo tomorrow.
fieldin halfan hour."It is 7:31 a.m. and the rehearsalis over.As the studentsget up
and musicaway,the trumpeter
to put theirinstruments
improviseshis solo a cappella.
finishespracticinghis solo Hutchinsontellshim,"TomorrowI will
Afterthetrumpeter
bringin ten CDs with 'A Nightin Tunisia'on themand I will let you borrowthem."
"Awesome,"repliesthestudentwho quicklyputshis trumpetaway.The jazz band scattersas theyall prepareformarchingband.

Listening
forStyle

Historically,
jazz musicianslearnedhow to playjazz musicthroughaural transmission.
occurred
at CrescentValleyHigh School in two ways:listeningto recordings
Listening
of professional
jazz musiciansand listeningto each other.Hutchinsonadvocatedlistento
ing recordingsbeforeand duringrehearsals.During the courseof myobservations
Hutchinsonalwayshad jazz musicplayingin the backgroundon the sound systemas
studentsenteredthe band room and warmed up on theirinstruments.Hutchinson
of the jazz band in addition to music in a similar
playedmusic of currentrepertoire
style(Figure1).

Figure 1

Recordings played for the Crescent Valley High School Jazz I:

1. 88 Basie Street

by Count
SammyNestico,composer.Originallyperformed
Basie.

I. Hayburner

by Count
SammyNestico,composer.Originallyperformed
Basie.

5. A Nightin Tunisia JohnBirksGillespie,composer;SammyNestico,arranger.

A jazz standardoriginallyperformed
byJohnBirks"Dizzy"
Gillespie.
i. I've Got Rhythm Georgeand Ira Gershwin,composers;Rob McConnell,
by Rob McConnell and the Boss Brass
arranger.Performed
on theCD "Allin Good Time."
>. You'veGot It

Tom Garvin,composer.Performed
byMaynardFergusonand
Big Bop Nouveau on theCD "One MoreTripto Birdland."

to theselisteningexamplesand to jazz artistsduringrehearsals

Hutchinsonreferred
He guided thestudentsthroughthe
to help thestudentswithstyleand improvisation.
listeningprocessand oftenofferedcommentsrangingfrom,"Listento how the Basie
band playsbehindthebeat" to "Listento how thisplayerleavesspace in theirsolo. Less
21

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.29 on Mon, 11 May 2015 08:12:56 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Bulletinof the Council forResearch in Music Education

Winter2008

No. 175

is more.Leave morespace in yoursolos." In additionto guidingthe studentsthrough

thelisteningprocessin rehearsals,
Hutchinsonalso stressedthe importanceof students
to
on
their
own.
listening recordings
Followingone rehearsalhe gave a trumpetsoloist
ten recordingsof "A Night in Tunisia" to help the studentwith his improvisedsolo.
These recordingsincluded versionsby legendarytrumpetplayersArturoSandoval,
Dizzy Gillespie,KennyDorham,and CliffordBrown.Hutchinsonhoped thatbylistenthestudentswill learnand absorbmusicalideas thatwill aid them
ing to professionals
in theirimprovisation
and also help themto playwiththecorrectstyle.
In additionto advocatinglisteningto professional
forstyleand musical
recordings
ideas, Hutchinsonstressedthe importanceof the studentslisteningto each otherin
rehearsal.He frequently
used metaphorsto directstudentlistening.In one rehearsal
he told thejazz band to "... listento the lead trumpetplayer.He's the leaderof the
house." In anotherrehearsalHutchinsoncalled out, "Articulations
fromthe bass bone
are the foundation.The lead trumpetis the roof.If its right,we'll have a mansion
insteadof a bungalow."
Jazzarticulationscomprisea veryimportantcomponentof performing
big band
fromthose used in otherstyles
jazz music in the correctstyleand differsubstantially
and genres.These articulationshave theirown language.When playingan accented
quarternote in jazz, a performer
says "dot" when theyarticulatethe note. An eighth
note is "dit"and successiveeighthnotescan be "doo-ah doo-ah." The languageof jazz
articulations
variesdependingupon thelengthof thenoteand whetherit has an accent
or not. Hutchinsonoftenfounddifferent
waysto explainjazz articulationsto theband
in rehearsals.For example,he told the band. "Insteadof sayingdot, you need to say
d-o-u-g-h-tto make the quarternoteslonger."Studentsadjustedtheirplayingaccordingly.Hutchinsonmaintainedhighexpectationsforendingnotesand phrasestogether.
To aid in this,he oftenhad the jazz band sing theirpartswith the rhythmsection
accompanying.Jason,lead trumpet,commentedthathe thoughtthiswas an excellent
way to rehearse.

LearningtheLingo

Jazzmusiciansoftenuse theirown lingowhenspeakingwitheach other,and Hutchinson

used thislingoas partof his teachingvocabularyto assistthejazz ensemblein playing
theappropriate
correctstyleand to obtaina betterfeelfortheidiom.When Hutchinson
sensedthejazz band could swingharderor playwitha bettertime-feel,
he toldthegroup,
"Let thegroovegetestablished,"
or "Guys,we need to grooveon thischart,"ratherthan
simplysaying"Swing."Hutchinsonwould tellthegroupto "playit greasy,man,"when
the ensembleneeded to lay back on the beat and when he wanted the jazz band to
themto "findtheshelf."Melody is referred
to as
improvetheirintonationhe instructed
"thehead" of a song,a termutilizedby Hutchinsonand thegroupalongwith"chart,"a
commonname forsheetmusicin thejazz world.
22

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.29 on Mon, 11 May 2015 08:12:56 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Jazz Culture

Goodrich

thatthestudents
Althoughit appearedto me duringthecourseof myobservations
iftheyreallycomunderstoodthejazz lingousedby Hutchinson,I was curious,however,
prehendedwhatHutchinsonwas saying.Linda,thelead tromboneplayer,said thelingo
was "... kindof likea visualization.My freshman
as, like,you
yearhe gave us 'greasy,'
shouldplayitlikethegreaserollingoffit.So, okay,layback."Jasoncommented,"I underbut I don'teventhinkabout it now."Ericpointedout
standit.I didn'tquitegetitat first,
man."
thatjazz band "... was all about Basie. It comesdown to playinggreasy,

Improvisation

- theoriginalmode forperforming
thismusicHutchinsonattendedto improvisation
when he rehearsedthejazz band. During the courseof myobservations
everyrehearsal
in
the
to
a
The
band
with
blues,
keyof B flator
improvised
improvisation. jazz
began
bossa
nova, rock).The blues
F, at varioustempiand in variousstyles(e.g., swingfeel,
beganwiththeensembleplayingthehead, or melody,followedby thestudentsoutlining the chordsforeitherone or two choruses.Upon completionof thisregimenthe
studentsbegan soloing. If a studenthad difficulty
improvisingto the chord changes,
or had problemswith musicalideas, Hutchinsonstopped the group immediatelyand
workedwith the student.In one of the rehearsalsthatI observed,the lead alto saxophonist,Alex, had problemshearingthe IV chord. Hutchinsontold the studentto
begin his solo again,and everytimethe IV chordoccurredHutchinsonheld up four
fingersand yelled"four"until it was clear thatAlex had learnedwherethe IV chord
occurs in the structureof the blues. In anotherrehearsal,the second trumpetplayer,
Gottfried,did not play a solo thatwentwiththe chord changes.Hutchinsonquickly
stoppedtheband and explainedtheimportanceof emphasizingthethirdsand sevenths
of thechordsforestablishing
properharmonicrhythm.HutchinsonaskedGottfriedto
sectionaccompaniedhim.
playthe thirdsand seventhsof thechordswhilethe rhythm
Gottfriedplayedthroughthe formthreemore times,followedby anotherattemptat
This timeGottfriedplayeda solo thatfitthechordchangesand bothhe
improvisation.
and Hutchinsonappearedquite pleased.
Hutchinsonalso stressed
In additionto teachingharmonicbasicsof improvisation,
the importanceof motivicdevelopmentin solos. Hutchinsonoftengave the students
An exampleofa practicing
and strategies
duringrehearsals.
specificpracticingdirectives
used in the blues over
to
scales
the
students
how
included
directive
practice
teaching
He explainedthat,"Long notescan createtension.
thefullrangesof theirinstruments.
Now, everyonetryit ... thinkabout developingyoursolo." The studentsquicklytried
his suggestionin theirsolos and theyseemedpleasedwiththe results.
withregardsto developingimprovising
skills,HutchinsonsymAlthoughinsistent
pathizedwithindividuallevelsof abilityamongthestudents.He relatedin an interview
feelingintimidatedwhen firstlearningto improvise,and felthe could
remembering
"put [himself]in theirshoes." He noted thatwhen he saw a wide-eyed"fishlook" on
23

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.29 on Mon, 11 May 2015 08:12:56 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Bulletinof the Council forResearch in Music Education

Winter2008

No. 175

a student'sface in a rehearsal,he would have the band "burn house," or play a solo
togetheruntilthestudentgained enoughconfidenceto improvisealone.

DISCUSSION

AND

IMPLICATIONS

Ifa studentparticipates
in a schooljazz ensemble,aretheyreallyperforming
jazz music?
the
culture
fora
contained
nonmusical
elements
not
suitable
Historically, jazz
many
school
and gamhigh
settingincludingdrugabuse, drugdealing,crime,prostitution,
blingin additionto moredesirableelementsincludinglingo,listening,and improvisation which can resultin negativeconnotationstodaywith music educators(Johnson
in Cooke, 2002). Utilizingthehistoricjazz culture,however,allows us to "thinkabout
the presentreflexively.
And with an understandingof the past, the contoursof the
presentsuddenlybecome clearer"(Ohnuki-Tierney,1990, p. 1). Althoughnot all jazz
musicianssubscribedand practicedtheseundesirablecharacteristics,
theseelementsdid
the
fabric
of
the
historic
ofjazz musicinto
culture.
With
the
introduction
comprise
jazz
theschools,jazz lostsome of itsaural traditionsand expressivevocal language.It is the
roleof thedirectorto choose whichelementsof thejazz cultureto introduceto thejazz
ensemble.In thisstudy,the director,Ray Hutchinson,servedthisrole via actingas a
filterfordecidingwhichelementsto includein his teachingof theensemble.
Hutchinsonutilizedthefollowingelementsfromthehistoricjazz culture:listening
forstyle,lingo,and improvisation.
Introducingelementsof thehistoricjazz culturecan
aid in providinga realjazz experienceforthestudents.Ake (1998) statesthatstudents
and directorsneed to be open to new experiencesin jazz. Introducing"old school"
can open up new ways
conceptsincludinglisteningforstyle,lingo,and improvisation
of thinking,listening,and performingfor todays high school studentsand provide
a deeper connectionto this importantera in Americanhistory.If studentsand their
directorsareopen to thesenew experiencesthenstudentswho playin a highschooljazz
band are openingthemselvesup to the possibilityof transcending
the performance
of
merenotesand participating
in thejazz experience.Arnold(1979) statesthat"perhaps
as music educatorswe need to go beyondreadingnotes fromthe page and teachour
studentsvariousculturalelementsofjazz musicso theycan gain a betterunderstanding
of the music"(p. 7).
How did Hutchinsonfilterand incorporatetheseelementsinto a highschooljazz
ensemble?During the courseof thisstudyhe taughtthe studentsto delve deeperinto
the music, to go beyond playingonly the correctnotes, rhythms,
and articulations.
Elliott(1995) maintainsthat:
The kinds of musical knowingrequiredto listencompetently,
proficiently,
or expertlyforthe worksof a givenmusicalpracticeare the same kindsof
knowingrequiredto makethe music of thatpractice:procedural,formal,
and supervisory
musicalknowledge(p. 96).
informal,impressionistic,

24

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.29 on Mon, 11 May 2015 08:12:56 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Goodrich

Jazz Culture

Hutchinsonteachesthestudentsproceduralknowledge(e.g., fingerings),
formallearninformal
articulations),
(e.g.,
rhythms,
ing
learning(e.g., lingo, advocatingstudent
of
sounds
and
style),impressionistic
listening,modeling
(e.g., use of analogies,imagmusical
and
ery),
supervisory
knowledge(e.g., guided listeningin rehearsals).Further,
Elliott(1995) statesthatsolutionsto realisticmusicalproblemsare solved in relation
to standards(musicalnotation,concertband proceduralknowledge);traditions(band
- "This is how the
cultureand jazz culture);history(Hutchinsonteachesjazz history
Basie band playedthis"and the loreof musicalcontext(lingo; analogies;teachingthe
- "Dizzy Gillespiewrotethison the botstudentswherejazz was originallyperformed
tom of a garbagecan") (p. 64).
The studentsin the CrescentValleyHigh School Jazz Band I learnand perform
themusicwithelementssimilarto how jazz musicianslearnedthemusicin thehistoric
jazz culture,withoutthe negativeculturaltraits.Jazz music "constrains,historically,
the behaviorof thosewho would join themselvesto thejazz tradition"(Horowitzand
Nanry,1975, p. 25).
Does a hierarchyexist forfilteredelementsof the historicjazz culture?Is presor the
ervationof lingo reallyas importantas the aural foundationsof improvisation
emphasisplaced on individualmusicianship(as opposed to ensemblealone)? Stebbins
(1964) discoveredthatjazz musiciansformtheirown community,of which lingo is
a crucialcomponent.Marsalis (2000) adds thatthe use of jazz lingo is criticalwhen
teachingthismusic. If lingo is used, however,is therea potentialforit to be disconnectedfromthe jazz culture?Only if it is not firstintroducedwithinthe contextof
the music. Hutchinsontransforms
and performing
lingo into an authentic
rehearsing
enhance
skills
to
focus
and
rehearsal
listening
among the studentsin
jazz
practice
in
with
rehearsals.Further,he utilizeslingo
non-jazz culturalteaching
conjunction
elementsincludingmetaphors,analogy,and imagery,makingit more accessiblefor
his students.For example,when guidingthe studentsto listenforimprovedintonation, Hutchinsonoftentold themto "put the noteson the shelf."For problemswith
in rehearsalshe would remark"It'sgottagroove.Listen.Its gottaget into the
time-feel
groove."In turn,his studentsused the lingowhen theyspoke in interviews(e.g., Eric,
"It was all Basie, man"). By doing so, Hutchinsonplaces himselfand thestudentsinto
therealmofcreatingrealjazz musicand helpsthestudentsconnectto theoral tradition
of jazz music.
Listeningcomprisesa vitalcomponentof the jazz curriculumat CrescentValley
High School. Hutchinsonguidesthestudentsthroughthelisteningprocessto teachthe
studentsto listento each otherand to develop theirlisteningskills.Alperson(1988)
in order"to
recommendsthatone should "listento live and recordedperformances"
learn the 'language'of the style"(p. 46). Hutchinsonexposes the studentsto a vast
ofjazz music
arrayofjazz musicthemomenttheyentertheband roomwithrecordings
fora performance
or jazz musicin a similarstyle.
eitherin theband'scurrentrepertoire
Ferriano(1974) discoveredin his surveyof musiceducatorsthatstudentsemulatedpro25

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.29 on Mon, 11 May 2015 08:12:56 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Bulletinof the Council forReseorch in Music Education

Winter2008

No. 175

of professionals.
fessionaljazz musiciansin partthroughlisteningto recordings
During
"classics"of thejazz
thisstudytheCrescentValleyJazzBand I rehearsedand performed
repertoire
includingCount Basie and his band, a practiceadvocatedby Williamsand
Richards(1988). Hutchinsonpays attentionto rehearsaldetailswhich Elliott(1988)
assertsthat uninhibitedactions,or time-feelin jazz, is based upon structure,
performance,and theexperiencedlistener.Hutchinsonsetsup thejazz band withhighexpectationsforlevelsof performance
and teachingand/orcreatingexperiencedlisteners.
Having the studentsimprovisein the jazz band helps connectthemto the aural
traditionof learningand performing
jazz music. Mack (1993) discoveredthata students abilityto improvisecombined with a directorsencouragementcontributesto
thesuccessof a jazz program.Hutchinsonstressestheimportanceof hearingthechord
helps
changesand playingthecorrectscales/notechoicesoverthechanges.Improvising
the studentsdevelop aural skills. Pressing(1998) notes that improviserslearn from
"workingwitha teacherin a directedsituation"(Pressingin Kenny& Gellrich,2002,
it is a synthesis
of "old school"
p. 126). AlthoughHutchinsondoes teachimprovisation,
a
and modernjazz methods,e.g., the chord/scaleapproach, common method today
forteachingand learningimprovisation.Payne (1973) found thatthe most common
methodforteachingimprovisation
includedguidedlisteningand playingusingchordal
in jazz improvisaand blues approachesand May (2003) recommendsthatinstruction
tion includeteachingof jazz scalesand chords.
Duringthecourseof thisstudyI neverobservedHutchinsonimprovisein rehearsals. Althoughimprovising
is taught,I foundthelevelofimprovising
lowerthantheoverall qualityof theensemble.Teachingimprovisation
to all of thestudentsis an excellent
rehearsaltimedid not seem sufficient
to
way to developtheirears,but thesixty-minute
both rehearsetheband and workwithsoloiststo developtheirplayingto a higherlevel.
The jazz lab emphasizesimprovising,
but also includesstudentswho could not makethe
two
bands.
Hutchinson
Further,
top
reportsthatonly40 to 50 percentof thestudents
in the top bands enrolledin the lab class.The additionof a jazz combo mayallow the
studentswho are seriousabout improvising
to developtheirskillsto a higherlevel.The
smallgroupwould allow everyonemoretimeto workwithindividualstudents.
If connectingto theaural/oral
traditions
ofjazz musicis so important,
whyare not
moredirectorsdoing this?Jazzbands in thepublicschoolsare based out of theconcert
band tradition.
skillsare taughtin theconcertband tradition,
it is still
Althoughlistening
a
visual
based
music
where
is
music.
Johnson
primarily
emphasis placed upon reading
. . . trapsus in
(2002) notesthatwe livein a vision-based
societyand that"ocularcentrism
a particularregime[making]visionhighlyappropriateto thedominantepistemology
of
themodernepoch"(Johnsonin Cooke, p. 101). As a result,arguesJohnson,
Jazzmusic,
"is less comfortablethan conventionalart music to the dominantepisteme"(2002, p.
areoftenuncomfortable
withteaching
100). Music educatorsuntrainedin improvisation
thisformof music.Hutchinsonrecognizesthisdilemmaand has takenit upon himselfto
learnand improvehis improvisation
and listeningskills.
26

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.29 on Mon, 11 May 2015 08:12:56 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Goodrich

Jazz Culture

Expectationsof the listenerare anotherfactor.Elliott (1988) discusseslistener's

are the
expectationsin musicwhereharmonicpatternsare thenormand improvisations
deviations.This helpsto explainwhymanyjazz bands excelat playingthecorrectnotes
- teachersformedin thismoldwithconcertband
but fewhaveoutstandingimprovisers
"jazz experimentalist"
posproceduralknowledge and Hutchinson,a self-proclaimed
classicaltraining.Hutchinsonhas evolved
sessesa musicalbackgroundwithprimarily
whereimprovisation
is the norm.
beyondhis trainingand setsup an environment
understands
the
school
band
a
successful
director,
Hutchinson,
jazz idiom,the
high
skillsnecessaryforsuccess.Althoughthe
and theperformance
lingo,theauraltradition,
at
forty
yearsago recommendedthat"Teachersmustbe
participants Tanglewoodnearly
of music. . . (includand understandthespecificsof a multiplicity
trainedand retrained
the
self-selected
Hutchinson
of
.
.
.
various
mutations
jazz" (Choate, 1968, p. 135),
ing)
experiencesthatenabled him success.His formalmusic trainingdid not includejazz
in his education.
musicas partof therequiredcurriculum
The directorsteachingin thisparticularsituationworked.But what about music
or have not had
educatorsor music educationstudentswho are not jazz performers
What kindsof experiencesdo musicstudentsneed to have in order
similarexperiences?
to be preparedto teachjazz musicin theschools?How do we preparemusiceducation
studentsto directjazz bands in the public schools? Being a jazz performer
certainly
the music. Even secondaryinstrument
helps,as thereis no substituteforperforming
experiencescan be valuable (e.g., flutistor clarinetistdoublingon a saxophone).Jazz
pedagogy,jazz ensemblerehearsaltechniques,jazz methods,or playingin a jazz lab
band can aid studentsin becomingjazz educators.Balfour(1988) conducteda survey
of Californiamusic educatorsand foundthata majorityof respondentsbelievedthat
more attentionneeded to be given to jazz pedagogyand curriculumreformin the
preparationof musiceducators.Fisher(1981) suggeststhefourmostimportantcourses
forthe preparationof music educationmajorsbased upon a surveyhe conductedare
and JazzHistoryand Literature.Studyingjazz
JazzBand Methods,JazzImprovisation,
musiccan also complementacademicclassesin themusiccurriculum(Dobbins, 1988).
will
In the veryleastlisteningto jazz recordingsand attendinglive jazz performances
certainlyhelp.
out the undesirableelementsof the historicjazz
Within the processof filtering
culture,Hutchinsonutilized these filteredelementsin conjunctionwith the music
making,keepingthe musicalexperienceat the core of the students'experience.This
aided Hutchinsonin decidingwhich elementsto filterand utilizewith his ensemble.
AlthoughHutchinsonrelatedthathe was "forcedto playjazz as a classicalmusician"
at age 16, he has discovereda way to teach authenticjazz music in an authenticjazz
learningcontext,withoutthe potentialnegativesocioculturalcontextsof jazz music.
Hutchinsonkeptthe musicalexperienceat thecore of thelearningexperience.
Over the last one hundredyearsjazz has made the transitionfromdance hall to
classroom.The school of jazz was originallyheld in a nightcluband the bell rangfor
27

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.29 on Mon, 11 May 2015 08:12:56 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Bulletinof the Council forResearch in Music Education

Winter2008

No. 175

class to begin at 12:00 a.m. Generationsof jazz musicianscraftedtheirart listening

to theiridols playingin theseclubs. The jazz musicianspenttimewearingout records
as he/shecopied theirfavoriteplayersnote fornote. In the middle of the twentieth
centuryjazz musicinvadedband roomsat a rapidrate.With thisinvasioncame a new
styleof learninghow to play this music. Sheet music became the normand a whole
new jazz languageevolved,a languagespoken by articulations,releases,and actually
havingto read music.
The CrescentValley High School Jazz Band I is a syncretization
of the history
of jazz. Hutchinsonstressedlisteningto recordingsand learninghow this musicwas
playedfromthe masters.He taughtthe studentshow to listento not only themselves
but also to each other.When the bell ringsat CrescentValleyHigh School, theschool
of jazz is definitely
in session.

REFERENCES
and communities.
Dissertation
Abstracts
54
Alce,D.A. (1998). Beingjazz: Identities
International,
(11), 4001. (UMI No. 9912620)
on jazz: Philosophicalreflections
on jazz and jazz education.Bulletinof
Alperson,P. (1988). Aristotle
theCouncilforResearch
in MusicEducation,95, 40-61.
Arnold,R. (1979). Jazz- a purelyAmericanculturalheritage.
JazzEducators
Journal,13 (4), 7-8.
W.H. (1988). An analysisof thestatusofjazz educationin thepreparation
of musiceducaBalfour,
torsin selectedCaliforniauniversities.
Dissertation
Abstracts
49 (12), 3651. (UMI
International,
No. 8901736)
of threeinstructional
methodson theacquisitionofjazz improviBash,L. (1983). The effectiveness
sationskills.Dissertation
Abstracts
International,
44(07), 2079. (UMI No. 8325043)
and achievements
in socialanthropology.
London:
Beanie,J. (1964). Othercultures:
Aims,methods,
Cohen and West.
P. (1994). Thinking
injazz. Chicago,IL: The University
ofChicagoPress.
Berliner,
basedon an analysisof theperCarlson,W.R. (1980). A procedureforteachingjazz improvisation
formance
practiceof threemajorjazz trumpet
players:LouisArmstrong,
Dizzy Gillespie,and
Miles Davis. Dissertation
Abstracts
42 (03), 1042. (UMI No: 81 18663)
International,
Choate,R.A. Ed. (1968). Documentary
D.C., Music
report
oftheTanglewood
symposium.
Washington,
EducatorsNationalConference.
Creswell,J.W.(1998). Qualitativeinquiryand research
design:Choosing
amongfivetraditions.
ThousandOaks, CA. SAGE Publications.
of improvisational
DiGirolamo,O. (1974). A guideforthedevelopment
experience
throughthe
Dissertation
Abstracts
International,
studyofselectedmusicforthehighschoolinstrumentalist.
35 (10), 6749. (UMI No: 7507832).
Dobbins,B. (1988). Jazzand academia:Streetmusicin theivorytower.BulletinoftheCouncilfor
Research
in MusicEducation,96, 30-41.
and feelingin jazz: Rethinking
Elliott,D.J. (1988). Structure
Bulletinof
philosophicalfoundations.
theCouncilforResearch
in MusicEducation,95, 14-39.
A newphilosophy
of musiceducation.New York:Oxford
Elliott,D.J. (1995). Music matters:
Press.
University
28

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.29 on Mon, 11 May 2015 08:12:56 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Goodrich

Jazz Culture

F. (1974). A studyoftheschooljazz ensemblein Americanmusiceducation.Dissertation

Ferriano,
Abstracts
35 (10), 6359. (UMI No. 7507833)
International,
ofjazz coursesforthecollegemusiceducaFisher, L.F. (1981). The rationaleforand development
tioncurriculum.
Dissertation
Abstracts
International,
42(07), 3051. (UMI No. 8129159)
ofAebersoldplay-alongrecordings
forgainingproficiency
in
Flack,M.A. (2004). The effectiveness
Dissertation
Abstracts
55 (06), 2019. (UMI No: Not Available)
International,
jazz improvisation.
Glesne,C. (1999). Becoming
(2nded.). New York:Longman.
qualitativeresearchers
blackcolleges.JazzEducators
34 (3), 54-58.
Goodrich,A. (2001). Jazzin historically
Journal,
A
and criticism
Gottleib,R. (Ed). (1996). Reading
ofautobiography,
from
jazz: gathering
reportage,
1919 tonow.New York:Vintagebooks.
55 (7), 44-48.
Hall, M.E. (1969). How we hope to foster
Journal,
jazz. MusicEducators
Horowitz,L, & Nanry,C. (1975). Ideologiesand theoriesaboutAmericanjazz.JournalofJazz
Studies,
2,24-41.
A user'sguidetosociological
A.G. (1995). TheBlackwell
Johnson,
language.
dictionary
ofsociology:
Cambridge,MA: BlackwellReference.
Johnson,B. (2002). Jazzas culturalpracticein Cooke, M. & Horn,D. (Eds.), TheCambridge
Press.
tojazz (pp. 96-113). Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity
companion
on thelearningof
band
the
Middle
school
students'
B.
Leavell, (1996). Making change:
perspectives
Abstracts
Dissertation
musical-technical skillsin jazz performance.
57 (01), 2931.
International,
(UMI No. 9638480)
in selectedsecondaryschoolsof Indiana.Dissertation
Mack,K.D. (1993). The statusofjazz programs
Abstracts
International,
54(03), 856. (UMI No. 9319884).
achievement,
Madura,P.D. (1996). Relationships
jazz theory
amongvocaljazz improvisation
in
and gender.
musicalexperience,
imitative
JournalofResearch
creativity,
ability,
knowledge,
MusicEducation,44 (03), 252-267.
A modelforinterpretMark,M. (1987). The acceptanceofjazz in themusiceducationcurriculum:
Research
in
Music
the
Council
Bulletin
historical
Education,
92, 15-21.
for
of
process.
ing
Educators
in
millenium.
the
new
W.
education
33,
Marsalis, (2000). Jazz
Journal, No.2, 46-53.
Jazz
Thousand
An
interactive
research
Oaks, CA: Sage
Maxwell,J.A.(1996). Qualitative
approach.
design:
Publications.
in instrumental
achievement
jazz improvisation.
May,L.F. (2003). Factorsand abilitiesinfluencing
in MusicEducation,51 (3), 245-259.
JournalofResearch
withsuggestions
forperformance
Moorman,D.L. (1984). An analyticstudyofjazz improvisation
Abstracts
45 (07), 2023. (UMI No: 8421463)
International,
(theory).Dissertation
D.C.: MusicEducators
J.,& Sullivan,G. (1968). MusicinAmerican
society.
Washington,
Murphy,
NationalConference.
E.
in Ohnuki-Tierney,
ofanthropology
The historicization
E. (1990). Introduction:
Ohnuki-Tierney,
Stanford
time:Anthropological
(Ed.), Culturethrough
University
(pp. 1-25). Stanford:
approaches
Press.
of Sherpareligious
of history:
Culturalschemasin thefoundings
Ortner,S.B. (1990). Patterns
time:Anthropological
E. (Ed.), Culturethrough
in Ohnuki-Tierney,
institutions
approaches
Press.
Stanford
University
(pp. 57-93). Stanford:
& evaluationmethods.ThousandOaks, CA. SAGE
Patton,M.Q. (2002). Qualitativeresearch
Publications.
forteacher
Payne,J.R.(1973). Jazzeducationin thesecondaryschoolsof Louisiana:Implications
Abstracts
education.Dissertation
34-06A,3038.
International,
29

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.29 on Mon, 11 May 2015 08:12:56 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Bulletinof the Council forResearch in Music Education

Winter2008

No. 175

in
Methodsand models.In J.Sloboda (Ed.), Generative
J. (1998). Improvisation:
processes
Pressing,
music: Thepsychology
ofperformance,improvisation,and composition(pp. 129-178). Clarendon:

OxfordPublishing.
B. (2003). Theculturalnatureofhumandevelopment.
Press.
New York:OxfordUniversity
Rogoff,
man.Washington,
Publishers.
Scott,A. (1973). Jazzeducation,
D.C., AmericanInternational

N. (1955). Hear metalkintoya. New York,Dover Publications.

Shapiro,N., & Hentoff,
The
R.A.
The sociologyof a musicalsubculture.
Dissertation
Stebbins,
(1964).
jazz community:
Abstracts
International,
26(10), 6225.
New York,HorizonPress.
Suber,C. (1976). JazzEducation.Theencyclopedia
ofjazz in theseventies.
D. (1988). A historical
for
and critical
Williams,M., & Richards,
surveyofrecentpedagogicalmaterials
the teachingand learningof jazz. Bulletinof the Councilfor Researchin Music Education, 96, 1-6.

30

This content downloaded from 129.78.139.29 on Mon, 11 May 2015 08:12:56 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions