Why does Man need a circulatory system?

Every organism needs to exchange materials and energy with its

environment. Exchange occurs at a cellular level. In simple organisms,
cells are in direct contact with the environment, thus the exchange of
materials can be carried out directly between the cells and the
environment, via diffusion.
For organisms of a small size, there is a large surface area to volume ratio
for diffusion. Small distance allows for fast diffusion.
Multicellular organisms of greater size and complexity will have a
greater amount of materials moving in and out of the body. The
distance the materials have to travel increases. Thus diffusion
through the skin is inadequate to cope with the increased load of
materials. Direct exchange of materials with environment through
diffusion is impossible for most cells not in contact with the
environment.

What is the difference between an open and closed

circulatory system?
Open
Circulating fluid pumped through
open-ended vessels which flows out
into the cells
Circulating fluid bathes the cells
directly

Many invertebrates

Closed
Consists of transport vessels and a
pump.
Circulating fluid is confined to blood
vessels. It is distinct from interstitial
fluid that surrounds the cells.
Exchange occurs between blood and
interstitial fluid.
Vertebrates
More efficient at transporting
circulatory fluids to tissues and cells

Closed circulatory system in Man

Blood flows in a closed system consisting of blood vessels and a fourchambered heart. Arteries carry blood to capillaries and veins return blood
from capillaries to the heart. At capillaries, chemical exchange takes place
between the blood and interstitial fluid.
Advantages of closed circulatory system over open ? [to be edited]
The exchange of materials take place between blood in the capillaries and
the cells of the body, and the diffusion pathway is very short (epithelium
of capillary is one cell-thick). Diffusion is more efficient.

The pump (the heart) is able to keep the blood at a high pressure as the
blood is always confined within blood vessels. Thus blood can travel at a
greater speed around the body and allow for the exchange of materials
like oxygen and glucose faster.

State the advantages of double circulation.

Double circulation system in Man
Blood passes through the heart twice in a complete circulation.
Consists of pulmonary circulation (heart to lungs) and systemic circulation (heart to
the rest of body)
Right and left sides of the heart are completely separated to prevent the mixing of
oxygenated blood.
Deoxygenated blood from body enters right side of the heart. It leaves the heart and
proceeds to lungs for gaseous exchange. Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters
the left side of the heart, leaves the heart and proceeds to rest of the body.
Advantages [to be edited]
The pressure of blood flowing through a double circulation system is higher than that
flowing through a single circulatory system because in the case of double circulation the blood
is pressurized twice per cycle around the whole blood system. The blood is pumped around
the body after it has returned to the heart from the lungs. This is beneficial because blood
pressure and flow rate is reduced as it passes through the lungs. This increases the rate of
blood flow to the different cells in the body, which allow them to meet their energy needs.

Describe the structure of the heart.

The heart is a muscular organ that pumps through blood vessels through
rhythmic contractions. It is located within the thorax, behind the sternum
and surrounded by the lungs. It is enclosed within a sac known as the
pericardium.
Pericardial fluid reduces friction when the heart contracts and relaxes
and protects the heart from mechanical shock
The heart has four chambers, with two atria or upper chambers and two
ventricles or lower chambers. Both sides of the heart are separated by the
septum to prevent mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
Thickness of walls vs functions
Upper chambers of the heart are known as atria. They are thin-walled
compared to the ventricles, the lower chambers of the heart. They receive
blood returning to the heart which is of lower pressure. On the other hand,

the lower chambers of the heart have to pump blood to the rest of the
body, thus they need to generate high pressure.
The left ventricular wall is thicker than the right ventricular wall in order to
pump blood to our extremities which is a greater distance from the heart
than the lungs.
The heart has atrioventricular valves like the tricuspid valve and the
bicuspid valve (mitral valve). The tricuspid valve is between the chambers
on the right side and the bicuspid valves between the chambers of the left
side, to prevent backflow of blood into the atria during systole. it is held in
place by the chordae tendineae to prevent the inverting of AV valves. The
chordae tendineae is fastened to ventricular walls by papillary muscles.
The heart has semilunar valves present in the arteries leaving the heart:
the pulmonary and arotic valve to prevent backflow of blood into the
ventricles.
Right side of the heart superior and inferior venae cavae [veins
returning blood to the right atrium via systemic circulation] and
pulmonary artery [blood vessels transporting deoxygenated blood
leaving the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs via pulmonary
circulation]
Left side of the heart pulmonary vein [blood vessels transporting
oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart via pulmonary circulation]
and aorta [major artery leaving the left ventricle of the heart transporting
oxygenated blood to the rest of the body via systemic circulation]

Describe the cardiac cycle.

Cardiac cycle
contracting phase of the cycle systole
relaxing phase of the cycle diastole
Valves which
open
Valves which
close
Reason for
valve closure
Reason for
backflow of
blood

Diastole (0.4s)
Same as atrial systole.

Atrial systole (0.1s)

Atrioventricular valves

Ventricular systole (0.3 s)

Semilunar valves

Atrial and ventricular

diastole allows blood to
flow passively into
right/ left ventricle.

Semilunar valves

Atrioventricular valves

Prevent blood from the

aorta/ pulmonary
artery from flowing
back into the ventricle.
As the ventricle is
relaxed, its volume
increases and its
pressure decreases
below blood pressure
in aorta. Blood tends to

Prevent blood in the

ventricles from flowing
back into the atrium
As the ventricles contracts,
it volume decreases and its
pressure increases above
the pressure in the atrium.
Blood will tend to flow back
into the atrium.

Heart sound
produced
Sound caused
by

flow back to the

ventricle.
dub (softer)
Recoil of blood in aorta/
pulmonary artery
against the closed
semilunar valve

lup (louder)
Recoil of blood in the
ventricles against the
closed AV valve

Explain how heart action is initiated and controlled.

A region of the heart is known as the sinoatrial node. It sets the rate and
timing at which all cardiac muscle cells contract. The impulses from the
sinoatrial node travel to the atrioventricular node, which initiates atrial
systole. It is delayed at the AV node to allow time for all the blood in the
atria to fill the ventricles. The impulses then travel to the Bundle of His
and the Purkinje fibres, The impulses that travel during the cardiac cycle
can be recorded.

Blood vessels in the body

Artery
Thick layer of smooth muscle
and elastic fibres
Withstand the high pressure and
speed of blood as it is forced out
of heart

Vein
Endothelium present
Thin layer of smooth muscle
and elastic fibres as it is not
required to withstand high
pressure.

Able to stretch (dilate) and

recoil (constrict) to push blood
along artery
Connective tissue
No valves [except for pulmonary Valves to prevent backflow. As
artery and aorta]
the motive force may be
weaker than gravity due to low
Contraction of the left ventricle
blood pressure, valves
and recoiling of artery ensure
maintain a unidirectional flow
there is motive force to move
of blood.
blood along artery to prevent
bloodflow
Greatest blood flow velocity as
Blood flow velocity smaller
blood leaving the heart has the
than artery, greater than
highest pressure
veins. Blood returning to heart
is of lower pressure as high
pressure generated by heart is
dissipated after passing
through arteries and
capillaries.
Lumen is narrower than veins
Lumen is widest among all 3
blood vessels
Blood pressure must be lower
than capillaries than arteries
so as to create a hydrostatic
pressure gradient for blood to
flow. It also ensures that there
is less resistance to blood flow

Capillary
Only endothelium which is onecell thick for rapid diffusion

No valves

Blood flow velocity is slowest

as total cross-sectional area is
greatest. Allows more time for
the diffusion of materials into
and out of bloodstream.

Lumen the narrowest of all

blood vessels to slow down the
rate of blood flow as blood
cells have ot pass through in a
single file.

from the capillaries.

Veins are located in muscles so
skeletal muscle pumps or the
contraction of skeletal muscles
help to push the blood forward
in vein
In conclusion

Branches repeatedly for high

total cross-sectional area. They
form an expansive blood flow
network, so that no cells are
far from blood supply.

Within Arteries

blood pressure is highest as pressure was generated by left

ventricle and narrow lumen

thick layer of smooth muscle and elastic fibres to withstand high

pressure and also to stretch (dilate) and recoil (constrict) to push
blood

Within Capillaries

wholly adapted as the site of chemical exchange

lumen is narrowest to slow down blood flow and ensure that the
cells line up single-file so there is more time for diffusion

no connective tissue, smooth muscle, elastic fibres for short

diffusion pathway to facilitate rapid diffusion

branches extensively to increase total cross-sectional area (further

slows down speed of blood flow) and reach all cells

Within Veins

Lowest pressure region as the pressure generated by left ventricle

has mostly dissipated after passing through arteries and veins

wide lumen also help to create low pressure which is impt to

create a hydrostatic pressure gradient so that there is less
resistance to blood flow

elastic fibres and smooth muscles are thin as there is no need to

withstand high pressure

valves help to ensure unidirectional flow of blood/ prevent backflow

as the blood pressure is low and the motive force may be less than
gravity.

skeletal muscle pumps the contraction of skeletal muscles during

physical activity help the vein to push blood forward

muscles in vein also stretch and recoil to push blood forward but
effect is less pronounced due to thin smooth muscle layer

respiratory pump during inhalation, thoracic cavity increases in

volume and pressure decreases pressure in atria falls allowing for
blood to return from veins to heart more easily

Describe the exchange of substances between

blood and cells via tissue fluid.
At the arteriole end, plasma is forced out of the capillaries as plasma
proteins are too bulky to pass through the capillary walls. White blood cells
may also change shape and squeeze through the capillary walls.
These make up the interstitial fluid, which bathes all living cells in the
body and contains dissolved food and oxygen from blood to supply to
blood and receives waste products of cells to be returned to blood.
Insterstitial fluid may reenter circulation directly at the venule end of the
capillary beds and indirectly via the lymphatic system. The lymphatic
system returns fluid to the blood from capillary beds and aids in body
defence.
Oxygen/ glucose/ amino acids pass to the cells
Carbon dioxide/ urea/ uric acid pass to the bloodstream

State the components of the blood and their functions.

Plasma (55%) liquid component
Plasma is 90% water and transports many solutes like inorganic salts and
proteins like antibodies. It also removes waste products like CO 2, lactic
acid and urea. It transports hormones.
Red blood cell (erythrocytes) + white blood cell (leukocytes) +
platelets (thrombocytes) : 45%

Red blood cells circular, flattened, flexible, biconcave discs

Do not have nuclei to pack more haemoglobin and also squeeze

through narrow capillaries

Contains 250 million molecules of haemoglobin per RBC

Transports oxygen throughout the body

produced in bone marrow and destroyed in spleen and liver

Platelets involved in clotting

reduce blood loss and prevent entry of microorganisms at the
wound
Fragments of cytoplasm from bone marrow cells
Cut in the skin activates prothrombin to thrombin as damaged cells
release chemical. Thrombin causes fibrinogen, a soluble protein in
plasma, to be converted into fibrin, an insoluble one, which traps
the red blood cells and the platelets. The clot protects the site of
injury and plugs up the wound to stop blood flow.
White blood cells lymphocytes and phagocytes
defend against infectious diseases and foreign materials
irregular in shape ability to change shape to squeeze through
walls of blood materials
Lympocytes produce antibodies and causes the clumping of foreign
particles, killing bacteria
Lympocytes have rounded nucleus and small amount of cytoplasm
Phagocytes has lobed nucleus and protects body by ingesting
foreign particles, bacteria, dead or dying cells through phagocytosis
Explain the role of hemoglobin in oxygen transport.
Haemoglobin made up of four globular protein subunit, each comprising a
protein chain and an iron containing haem group. Each haem group can
bind to an oxygen molecule, forming an oxyhaemoglobin. Oxygen requires
haemoglobin as a transport molecule as it is poorly soluble in water.
Describe how carbon dioxide is transported in the blood.

Dissolved CO2 in plasma

Reverse binding to haemoglobin to form carbaminohaemoglobin

does not compete with oxygen as it binds to the polypeptide chain
rather than the haem group

Bicarbonate ions enter red blood cells and combines with water
to form carbonic acid. Carbonic acid then dissociates to form
bicarbonate ions and hydrogen ions.

It then passes through the capillary wall and alveoli wall into the
alveoli as CO2

Describe the roles of the blood circulation system in man.

Provides an efficient internal transport

Circulating fluid provides a bridge between the aqueous

environment of living cells and the exchange organs that exchange
chemicals with the external environment

Allow for diffusion of materials to all cells

Discuss the links between lifestyle and heart disease.

unhealthy lifestyle consume a lot of saturated fats no C-C double
bond and therefore takes up less space stack together strong
intermolecular forces of attraction solid at room temperature
deposited on the lining of bloodstream form blood clot swept into
coronary arteries disrupt blood flow to the heart
hyptertension promotes astherosclerosis and increases the risk of heart
attack
stroke death of nervous tissue in the brain due to rupture or blockage of
arteries in the head