Rr757 Gasses in Tunnels TT

Health and Safety
Executive
Real-time measurement of nitrogen

monoxide in tunnels and its oxidation
rate in diluted diesel exhaust
Prepared by the Health and Safety Laboratory
for the Health and Safety Executive 2009
RR757
Research Report
Health and Safety

Executive

Paul Dowker & Peter Walsh
Health and Safety Laboratory
Harpur Hill
Buxton
Derbyshire
SK17 9JN
Exposure to oxides of nitrogen (NOx which denotes the mixture of nitrogen monoxide, NO, and nitrogen
dioxide, NO2) commonly arises in the tunnelling industry from diesel engine exhaust emissions and from the
use of explosives. The British Tunnelling Society (BTS) guidance levels for NO are 5 ppm for an 8 hour time
weighted average (TWA) and 15 ppm for a 15 minute short term exposure limit (STEL). Real-time monitors
are used by the construction industry as they provide a means of checking that controls are effective.
Previous laboratory work at HSL evaluated various commercial detectors potentially suitable as portable
monitors and studied the conversion rate of NO to NO2 in air using pure gases (ie NO and air). This current
project investigated:
1 the field use of NO and NO2 monitors in a small sewer tunnel under construction to assist the determination
and application of effective controls in order to maintain a safe working environment. Furthermore, a large road
tunnel under construction was visited to study the fixed NO monitoring system installed there.
2
the conversion rate of NO to NO2 using air-diluted diesel exhaust.
This report and the work it describes were funded by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE). Its contents,
including any opinions and/or conclusions expressed, are those of the authors alone and do not necessarily
reflect HSE policy.
HSE Books
Crown copyright 2009

First published 2009
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
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Applications for reproduction should be made in writing to:
Licensing Division, Her Majestys Stationery Office,
St Clements House, 2-16 Colegate, Norwich NR3 1BQ
or by e-mail to hmsolicensing@cabinet-office.x.gsi.gov.uk
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
HSL are very grateful to Mr M Thomas and Mr P Shannon of
Wessex Water; Mr R Stretton and Mr M Slater of Specialist
Engineering Services Ltd; Mr P Hoyland, Mr A Watt and
Mr R Bridge of Balfour Beatty; and Mr K Dawson and
Mr M Rowland of Trolex Ltd. for their assistance and
co-operation.
ii
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................... 1
2 BRISTOL TUNNEL MONITORING............................................................. 2
2.1
The sewer tunnel ..................................................................................... 2
2.2
Monitoring of oxides of nitrogen in diesel fume and after explosions....... 2
2.3
Background monitoring of oxides of nitrogen in the tunnel ...................... 6
3 HINDHEAD ROAD TUNNEL VISIT .......................................................... 30
3.1
Introduction............................................................................................ 30
3.2
The road tunnel .................................................................................... 30
3.3
Gas monitoring ...................................................................................... 32
4 RATE OF REACTION OF NOX IN DIESEL EXHAUST FUME ................. 38
4.1
Laboratory investigation......................................................................... 38
4.2
Effects of other factors on NO conversion ............................................. 51
4.3
Recommendations................................................................................. 52
5 APPENDICES........................................................................................... 53
5.1
Appendix 1: Dust concentrations ........................................................... 53
5.2
Appendix 2: Determination of correction factors .................................... 60
REFERENCES.......................................................................................... 62
iii
iv
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Background
Exposure to oxides of nitrogen (NOx which denotes the mixture of nitrogen monoxide, NO, and
nitrogen dioxide, NO2) commonly arises in the tunnelling industry from diesel engine exhaust
emissions and from the use of explosives. The British Tunnelling Society (BTS) guidance levels
for NO are 5 ppm for an 8 hour time weighted average (TWA) and 15 ppm for a 15 minute
short term exposure limit (STEL). Real-time monitors are used by the construction industry as
they provide a means of checking that controls are effective. Previous laboratory work at HSL
evaluated various commercial detectors potentially suitable as portable monitors and studied the
conversion rate of NO to NO2 in air using pure gases (ie NO and air). This current project
investigated:
1. the field use of NO and NO2 monitors in a small sewer tunnel under construction to
assist the determination and application of effective controls in order to maintain a safe
working environment. Furthermore, a large road tunnel under construction was visited
to study the fixed NO monitoring system installed there.
2. the conversion rate of NO to NO2 using air-diluted diesel exhaust.
Objectives
The objectives were to:
1. evaluate the suitability of previously identified NO (and NO2) personal monitors for the
accurate measurement of worker exposure in typical locations in various tunnels under
construction.
2. investigate the factors influencing the oxidation of NO to NO2 in air-diluted diesel
exhaust under controlled, laboratory conditions.
3. generate knowledge for the development of monitoring and control guidance for HSE
and the construction industry relating to NOx, particularly NO.
Main Findings
Measurement of NO in tunnels
The monitor used (RAE Systems MultiRAE) appears robust enough to cope with the hostile
environment of a tunnel under construction, both as a portable personal monitor and a fixed
background monitor. The resolution of the datalogger in the MultiRAE (0.1 ppm) is effective
for monitoring sub-ppm levels of NOx under such conditions.
The TWA exposure to NO of a tunnel engineer not constantly working in the immediate vicinity
of diesel-powered equipment was just above 1 ppm. The TWA exposure level to NO of a
tunnel engineer working constantly in the immediate vicinity of diesel-powered equipment,
inferred from the data taken from a fixed monitor mounted on the equipment in which the
engineer was working and not from actual personal exposure measurements, would be expected
to be around 5 ppm.
Measurements of NO and dust concentrations were made continuously during a period of a few
weeks using real-time monitors logging at 1 s intervals to allow estimations of the background
concentrations of these species following blasting and from diesel exhaust emissions during
normal working.
Background concentrations, ie concentrations between explosions due principally to diesel
exhaust, adjusted for all of the peaks caused by blasting, ranged between 2 ppm and 8 ppm NO
along the tunnel.
The average peak maximum due to the explosions reduces as distance from the blast face
increases: from approximately 120 ppm ( 100 m from face) to 30 ppm ( 650 m from face).
The average time for which the NO concentration remains above 1 ppm following an explosion
is approximately between 60 min and 90 min. The average time for which the NO
concentration remains above 5 ppm following an explosion is approximately between 30 min
and 50 min.
NO conversion rate in diluted diesel exhaust
The methods examined and compared in this investigation to determine the changes in oxides of
nitrogen (NOx) over a 24 hour duration from initial concentrations of 5 ppm, 10 ppm and 50
ppm NO are:
NO in diesel fume diluted with air.
pure NO in nitrogen mixed with nitrogen and oxygen mixtures.
mathematical modelling based on pure gas mixtures.
Each method showed similar results, allowing for the uncertainties involved in the
measurements. The rate constants determined using the diesel exhaust fume for reactions at each
concentration are similar to those determined from the modelled results over the first 3 hours of
the tests. However, those determined from the tests using pure NO in O2 are not comparable
except for the lowest concentration of 5 ppm NO over a less than 1 hour.
A literature evaluation indicates that:
exposure to UV light reduces the overall rate of conversion of NO to NO2 because of the
reformation of NO from NO2 resulting in higher levels of NO than would occur in the
absence of UV.
changes in temperature, pressure and water vapour (up to 90% humidity) have negligible
effect on the overall rate of conversion of NO to NO2.
Recommendations
1. Instruments with a resolution of 0.1 ppm are preferable for effective monitoring of the
background NO concentrations, particularly around 1 ppm, as found in the tunnels under
construction. They should have adequate immunity from interferences (eg NO2,
temperature) and long-term stability at this level.
2. Developments in NO sensor technology now make more precise 0.1 ppm resolution a
possibility; this should be translated by instrument manufacturers into the next generation of
portable and fixed NO monitors for tunnels.
3. NO in tunnels should be measured directly rather than being inferred from measured NO2
concentrations as it converts into NO2 only slowly, in the absence of ozone.
4. Adequate estimations of the conversion rate of NO to NO2 in air contaminated with diesel
exhaust, in the absence of ozone, can be obtained through the modelled rate equation based
on pure gases.
vi
5. The calculations of NO conversion rates in air-diluted diesel fume (and in pure gases)
require the use of correction factors due in part to the use of electrochemical NO sensors
which consumed a small quantity of gas. The use of a non-destructive analyser such as
Fourier Transform InfraRed (FTIR) for NO would reduce some of the uncertainty in
conversion rate estimation, although correction for adsorption on the reaction chamber walls
would still be necessary.
vii
viii
INTRODUCTION
Exposure to oxides of nitrogen (NOx), which comprise nitrogen monoxide (also known as nitric
oxide - NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), commonly arises in the tunnelling industry from diesel
engine exhaust emissions and from the use of explosives. The British Tunnelling Society (BTS)
guidance levels for NO are currently 5 ppm for an 8 hour time weighted average (TWA) and 15
ppm for a 15 minute short term exposure limit (STEL) (BTS, 2008). Real-time monitors, both
portable and fixed, can provide a means of checking that controls are effective in order to
maintain a safe working environment. Real-time portable NOx monitors and fixed instruments
are commercially available but have not been tested for operating accurately and on a routine
basis at sub-ppm levels in the hostile environment of a tunnel under construction.
The measurement and control strategy for NO and NO2 will depend to an extent on the relative
amounts of each. However, this could be complicated by the environmental fate of NO and
NO2. NO oxidises slowly to NO2 in the presence of oxygen (and absence of ozone). The
kinetics of oxidation of NO to NO2, while understood from laboratory experiments on pure
gases, are not as clear when considered in the field where there are additional factors to
consider, eg the emission source (diesel exhaust and explosives, principally) which is a mixture
of various gases and particulate matter; environmental factors (temperature, humidity, UV light,
other pollutants such as ozone); and dispersion (natural and forced ventilation).
Guidance is therefore required to develop an appropriate monitoring strategy, particularly for
personal exposure, based on (a) the type of gas monitors suitable for the application; and (b) the
environmental fate of NO and NO2 when emitted from the exhaust (and explosives), and its
subsequent dispersion and reaction in the workplace atmosphere.
A previous report (Dowker et al, 2007) focused on a laboratory evaluation of NO monitors in
the field, and measurements of NO oxidation using pure gases (NO and air) in the laboratory.
This report focuses on:
Field evaluation of portable and fixed NO monitors in tunnels under construction, ie a
small sewer tunnel and a large road tunnel.
NO oxidation rate in air-diluted diesel exhaust fume in the laboratory.
BRISTOL TUNNEL MONITORING
2.1
THE SEWER TUNNEL
2.1.1
Background
The information in section 2.1 is taken from the Wessex Water website (Wessex Water, 2008).
The tunnel in which the investigations were undertaken is being excavated by Wessex Water to
alleviate sewer flooding in parts of Bristol city centre. The completed tunnel will be 850 m in
length with an approximate cross section of 3 m by 3.5 m, and a drop of 1.25 mm/m. The
tunnel entrance is around 10 m below ground level and, due to the relief of the area, the deepest
part of the tunnel is 60 m below ground level.
2.1.2
Excavation/Construction Methods
Explosives are used as part of the construction process in a controlled manner to minimise the
effects felt at ground level. Each blast takes up to 10 seconds to complete and involves the
controlled use of explosives in a civil engineering application to break hard rock, which is
conducive to the excavation of approximately 20 m of tunnel per week. The blasting
operations take place 24 hours a day, seven days a week and were expected to continue until
November 2008. The debris from the blast is removed from the tunnel into skips using a diesel
powered excavator known as a scoop tram .
The type of explosive used in the excavation of this tunnel is Peruit 28.
2.1.3
Safety Procedures
A siren is sounded before each detonation and measures are in place ensure the area around the
site has been evacuated before an explosion occurs. Two minutes prior to blasting a red light is
lit at either end of the working compound and an air horn sounds for three seconds. One minute
prior to blasting an air horn emits two three second blasts with three second intervals.
Immediately prior to blasting an air horn emits three second blasts and on completion of
blasting a single five second blast is emitted.
The blast vibrations are monitored by a vibrograph placed in various buildings above the tunnel.
2.2
MONITORING OF OXIDES OF NITROGEN IN DIESEL FUME AND

AFTER EXPLOSIONS
2.2.1
Introduction
This phase of the investigation was to evaluate the suitability of the MultiRAE multigas monitor
as an effective personal NOx monitor when operating in the hostile environment of a tunnel
under construction. The MultiRAE was previously identified as having potential for this
application (Dowker et al, 2007; Lamont et al, 2008).
2.2.2
Instrumentation
Two MultiRAE multigas monitors were selected for use in this part of the investigation due to
their robust build and capability of sub-ppm resolution in the datalog facility (the display,
however, only shows ppm resolution). These monitors were setup identically with NO, NO2
and O2 sensors installed and were calibrated to the relevant gases prior to the start of the
2
investigation and the calibration checked on completion of the investigation. They were
operated with external inline filters fitted to protect them as far as practicably possible from dust
and damp ingress. The instrument serial numbers and colour codings, allocated for easier
identification, are listed in Table 2.1
Table 2.1: Instrument serial numbers and allocated colour codings
Instrument
MultiRAE
MultiRAE
2.2.3
Serial No.
095-106763
095-106772
Colour Coding
blue
brown
Experimental
Two different locations were selected in which to position MultiRAE monitors in order to
observe different effects on the operation of the monitor.
The blue MultiRAE was mounted on a shot firer working at the face of the tunnel, his specific
duties were concerned with mixing and installing the explosive charges in the blast face, and his
general duties involved shoring the tunnel and hanging the ventilation pipe (bagging). This
MultiRAE would experience the general movement and exposure of the tunnel engineer over a
normal working shift.
The brown MultiRAE was mounted on the scoop tram used to clear the rubble created by the
blast at the closed end (face) of the tunnel. This MultiRAE would experience the vibrations of
the engine, sharp movements of the vehicle, would be in constant close proximity to the fume
source and would be expected to be exposed to higher and more consistent levels of NOx than
the blue MultiRAE. Figure 2.1 shows photographs of the scoop tram clearing the tunnel and
the position of the brown MultiRAE.
MultiRAE
MultiRAE
Figure 2.1: Photographs of the scoop tram clearing the tunnel and the position of the brown
MultiRAE
3
The rubble is moved away from the face after the previous blast into specially excavated side
bays along the length of the tunnel. This allows preparation for the next blast to take place
while the rubble is removed the rest of the way out of the tunnel into the awaiting skips. The
excavator therefore travels various distances into the tunnel to collect the rubble, returning to
deposit the rubble into the skip at the tunnel entrance, each round trip taking approximately 15
minutes. The excavator is also used to transport shoring materials to the face as they are
required where it would be in close proximity to the tunnel engineers working at the face.
The MultiRAEs were monitoring the exposure levels in the two positions constantly from
approximately 9:40 to 16:10 (6.5 hrs).
2.2.4
Results
The real time concentrations of NO, NO2 and O2 detected by the two MultiRAEs are shown in
Figures 2.2 and 2.3. The average concentrations of NO and NO2 detected by the MultiRAE
mounted on the scoop tram (brown) are shown for the whole shift, but the average
concentrations of NO and NO2 detected by the MultiRAE on the operative (blue) do not include
the time from approximately 10:15 to 11:15 when the engineer was off site.
22
20
20
Brown RAE NO(ppm)

Brown RAE NO2(ppm)
Ave Brown RAE NO(ppm)
Ave Brown RAE NO2(ppm)
Brown RAE OXY(%)
16
18
NO Ave
5.0 ppm
16
14
12
12
10
10
8
16:08:00
15:53:00
15:38:00
15:23:00
15:08:00
14:53:00
14:38:00
14:23:00
14:08:00
13:53:00
13:38:00
13:23:00
13:08:00
12:53:00
12:38:00
12:23:00
12:08:00
11:53:00
11:38:00
11:23:00
11:08:00
0
10:53:00
0
10:38:00
10:23:00
10:08:00
09:53:00
09:38:00
Detected Concentrations NOx
14
NO2 Ave
0.2 ppm
Detected Concentrations O2
18
Figure 2.2: Concentrations of NO, NO2 & O2 detected by MultiRAE mounted on scoop tram
(brown MultiRAE) during typical working shift in tunnel
Inspection of the NO trace from the MultiRAE mounted on the scoop tram in Figure 2.2 shows
the main minima to be approximately 15 minutes apart, which correspond to the time expected
for each round trip as stated in the previous section. Most of the maxima range between 6 ppm
and 12 ppm with an average concentration over the 6.5 hr shift of 5.0 ppm. The minimum
values of NO concentration rarely reduced below 1 ppm. The vast majority of the NO2 maxima
are less than 1 ppm with an average concentration over the 6.5 hr shift of 0.2 ppm.
14
22
13
11
10
18
16
14
12
7
10
Operative
off site
5
4
NO2 Ave
0.1 ppm
NO Ave
1.1 ppm
Detected Concentrations O2
Detected Concentrations NOx
20
Blue RAE NO(ppm)

Blue RAE NO2(ppm)
Ave Blue RAE NO(ppm)
Ave Blue RAE NO2(ppm)
Blue RAE OXY(%)
12
16:08:00
15:53:00
15:38:00
15:23:00
15:08:00
14:53:00
14:38:00
14:23:00
14:08:00
13:53:00
13:38:00
13:23:00
13:08:00
12:53:00
12:38:00
12:23:00
12:08:00
11:53:00
11:38:00
11:23:00
11:08:00
10:53:00
10:38:00
10:23:00
0
10:08:00
0
09:53:00
2
09:38:00
Figure 2.3: Concentrations of NO, NO2 & O2 detected by MultiRAE mounted on tunnel engineer
(Blue MultiRAE) during typical working shift in tunnel
Inspection of the NO trace from the MultiRAE mounted on the tunnel engineer in Figure 2.3
shows the maxima to be at irregular intervals with no obvious correlation to the movements of
the scoop tram, which can be expected as for most of the time it was operating a considerable
distance away, covering the full 330 m length of the tunnel. The times at which the higher NO
maxima occur may coincide with the times when the excavator was clearing the rubble from
positions closer to the blast face or was at the blast face delivering equipment. The average
concentration of NO over the 6.5 hr shift (not considering the time for which the operative was
off site) is 1.1 ppm. The vast majority of the NO2 maxima are less than 0.6 ppm with an
average concentration over the 6.5 hr shift of 0.1 ppm.
2.2.5
Conclusions
The MultiRAE appears robust enough to cope with the hostile environment of a tunnel under
construction, from the vibrations and jerky movements of the Scooper tram and the associated
constant close proximity of the fume source to the general movement of a tunnel engineer over a
normal working shift. However, this is only over a short time period; the instrument would be
required to function over several months between calibration and maintenance periods
The resolution of the datalogger in the MultiRAE seems also to be effective to monitor sub ppm
levels of NOx under such conditions.
The TWA exposure level to NO of a tunnel engineer not constantly working in the immediate
vicinity of the excavator is just above 1 ppm. The TWA exposure level to NO of a tunnel
engineer working constantly in the immediate vicinity of the excavator, inferred from the data
taken from a monitor mounted on the vehicle in which the engineer was working and not from
actual personal exposure measurements, would be expected to be around 5 ppm. The British
Tunnelling Society (BTS) guidance levels for NO are 5 ppm for an 8 hour time weighted
average (TWA) and 15 ppm for a 15 minute short term exposure limit (STEL) (BTS, 2008).
For NO2 the TWA exposure levels in both cases are well below 0.5 ppm. There are no BTS
guidance levels for NO2 exposure.
5
2.3
BACKGROUND MONITORING OF OXIDES OF NITROGEN IN THE

TUNNEL
2.3.1
Introduction
This phase of the investigation was designed to monitor the NOx concentrations along the length
of the tunnel produced by the controlled explosions and the diesel powered machinery involved
in the excavation of the tunnel. As the temperature and humidity of the air in the tunnel and the
dust caused by the explosion may affect the operation of the instruments monitoring the NOx
levels, these were also monitored at the same positions in the tunnel. Two visits were
undertaken.
2.3.2
Instrumentation
MultiRAE multigas monitors were selected to monitor the NOx concentrations due to their
robust build and capability of sub-ppm resolution. They were operated with external inline
filters fitted to protect them as far as practicably possible from dust and damp ingress. Tiny Tag
temperature and humidity monitors and Thermo Electron Personal DataRAM (PDR) respirable
dust monitors (Thermo, 2008) were used to monitor other conditions at the same positions in the
tunnel which it was thought may affect the operation of the MultiRAEs. These monitors were
setup identically and were calibrated to the relevant gases or conditions prior to the start of the
investigation and the calibration checked on completion of the investigation. It should be noted
that these instruments are only intended to be portable monitors and are not designed for the
more extreme conditions they were subjected to in this study.
The MultiRAEs were calibrated at 5 ppm NO, 5.7 ppm NO2 and 20.9% O2 in order to ensure
greater accuracy at the lower exposure levels which are of prime interest here. The accuracy of
higher values detected in these tests will therefore be subject to greater uncertainty and as such
will be analysed qualitatively rather than quantitatively.
The PDR dust monitors respond essentially (but not exactly) to the respirable fraction of dust.
They were calibrated using 5 mg/m3 respirable silica dust (Arizona road dust) in a dust tunnel at
HSL. The detected reading is therefore the silica equivalent of this dust in the tunnel and not
the actual respirable dust concentration of the tunnel dust.
The instrument serial numbers and colour codings allocated for easier identification are listed in
Table 2.2.
Instrument
MultiRAE
MultiRAE
MultiRAE
MultiRAE
PDR
PDR
PDR
Tiny Tag 1
Tiny Tag 2
Tiny Tag 3
Serial No.
500871
095-106710
095-106778
095-106720
02548
02314
02535
139386
139422
177528
Colour Coding
black
green
pink
purple
blue
orange
red
blue
green
red
The internal memory limitations of the MultiRAEs and the PDRs meant that data recording
periods of 4 minutes and 2 minutes respectively would have to be utilised in order to record the
data for the full duration of each investigation of 20 and 10 days. Also, to allow more temporal
resolution and therefore more accurate analysis of the results, each of the instruments was
connected to an external Antilog datalogger which had the capability to record the data from
that instrument at 1 second data sampling periods for the full duration of each investigation.
The internal memory limitations of the Tiny Tags also meant that data recording periods 2
minutes had to be utilised in order to record the temperature and humidity data for the full
investigation periods, but the changes in these values were not expected to be fast enough to
require better resolution.
The MultiRAEs, PDRs and the Antilog dataloggers were mains-powered to enable them to
operate for the duration of the investigation. The Tiny Tags operated for the duration of the
investigation powered by their own internal batteries.
Six metal mesh cages were produced in which to house the instruments to afford protection
from the hostile environment in which they were to be operating. Each cage had its own mains
lead with dual socket into which the supply to the instruments were connected as required. The
extension lead was connected to the 110 V mains supply of the tunnel. The cages were covered
by a solid metal top which overhung the sides with a longer overhang above the mains socket
position. Figure 2.4 shows photographs of a cage containing a Tiny Tag, a MultiRAE and an
Antilog, the MultiRAE and Antilog being connected to the 110 V powered dual socket via their
dedicated power leads. The PDRs and the associate Antilogs were housed in similar cages. The
cages were located at such a height and position that they would not restrict the work practices
of, and could not easily be damaged by, vehicles or engineers working in the tunnel.
The data from the internal memories of the MultiRAEs and PDRs show the average
concentrations of NOx or dust over the sampling period of 4 minutes and 2 minutes respectively
(1 second data values averaged over that period). Any times stated will therefore have a
minimum temporal uncertainty equal to those sampling periods, and will not show the actual
peak values. The data from the dataloggers, however, will be accurate to 1 second and will
show the actual peak values.
It was possible to load the data stored in the internal memories of the MultiRAEs, PDRs and
Tiny Tags straight into Microsoft Excel for analysis, but the amount of data stored in the
Antilog dataloggers at 1 second intervals (approximately 1,728,000 data points for 20 day
investigation and 864,000 data points for 10 day investigation) was far too much for Microsoft
Excel to cope with. It was therefore necessary to separate this data into datasets smaller than the
32,000 data point limit with which Excel is able to create a chart, to allow analysis of graphical
representations of the MultiRAE or PDR data from each of the dataloggers. This introduced
difficulties when determining values over the full duration of the investigations from this more
accurate data, and in these cases the slightly less accurate but more easily manipulated data from
the internal memory of the instruments was used.
The concentrations of NOx and respirable dust shown in the figures are derived from the data
stored in the internal memories of the MultiRAEs and the PDRs and have the temporal and
quantitative limitations previously stated, however, these single figures give a visual
representation of the concentrations of NOx and dust produced by the explosions and the
machinery over the full duration of the investigations. The figures do allow comparison of the
magnitude and position of these peaks and the background concentrations between them at each
position in the tunnel. It is doubtful whether this can be represented with any greater accuracy
in one figure by the 1 second data from the dataloggers due to the limitations of the available
graphical software and the pixels resolution on the monitor and printer.
7
The average background concentrations at each position along the tunnel are taken over the full
duration of the investigations and are therefore are determined from the averaged data samples
logged in the memories of the MultiRAEs and the PDRs. The averaging of the data should
result in a similar level of accuracy as would be achieved if averages were taken from the less
easily manipulated 1 second data stored on the Antilog dataloggers.
The 1 second data from the datalogger shown in the results allow a more accurate analysis of
the data observed over smaller time scales and is use to determine the detection delays and peak
widths where possible.
Figure 2.4: Cage containing a Tiny Tag, a MultiRAE and an Antilog
2.3.3
Visit 1: 05/06/08 24/06/08 (20 days)
2.3.3.1
Experimental
The approximate tunnel length throughout this part of the investigation ranged from 330 m to
380 m.
Two protective cages were located at each test position in the tunnel, one cage housed a Tiny
Tag temperature and humidity monitor, and a MultiRAE multigas monitor connected to an
Antilog datalogger, while the other housed a PDR dust monitor connected to an Antilog
datalogger. Table 2.3 shows the instruments located at each position along the tunnel.
Test Position
Number
1
2
3
Table 2.3: Instrument location along the tunnel

Distance from
Distance from
Instruments
face (at start of
entrance
in Cage 1
investigation)
100 m
230 m
green MultiRAE
Antilog 1
blue Tiny Tag 1
170 m
160 m
purple MultiRAE
Antilog 2
green Tiny Tag 2
295 m
35 m
black MultiRAE
Antilog 3
red Tiny Tag 3
Instruments
in Cage 2
blue PDR
Antilog 4
orange PDR
Antilog 5
red PDR
Antilog 6
These positions were not altered throughout the duration of the investigation, however, the blast
face moved approximately 50 m over the course of the 20 day investigation. Figure 2.5 shows
photographs of the tunnel and the method of mounting the cages.
Figure 2.5: The tunnel and the instrument cages
The instruments were left in place for 20 days after which time they were recovered and
returned to HSL Buxton for the analysis.
Times at which the explosions were carried out over the 20 day period were provided by
Wessex Water and are listed in Table 2.4 along with the weight of explosive used.
Table 2.4: Explosion times and weight of explosive used

Date
Time
Weight (kg)
Thur 05/06/08
AM
/
/
PM
14:29
102
Fri 06/06/08
AM
06:42
79
PM
/
/
Sat 07/06/08
AM
/
/
PM
/
/
Sun 08/06/08
AM
/
/
PM
13:29
70.6
Mon 09/06/08
PM
12:20
72.2
PM
22:06
66.2
Tue 10/06/08
AM
11:04
65.8
PM
22:37
65.0
Wed 11/06/08
AM
11:50
62.8
PM
23:06
63.8
Thur 12/06/08
AM
10:55
63.4
PM
22:19
63.6
Fri 13/06/08
AM
10:56
63.4
PM
/
/
Sat 14/06/08
AM
/
/
PM
/
/
Sun 15/06/08
AM
/
/
PM
13:00
66.0
Mon 16/06/08
AM
/
/
PM
18:14
83.2
Tue 17/06/08
AM
/
/
PM
14:01
76.6
Wed 18/06/08
AM
07:15
72.4
PM
22:54
76.8
Thur 19/06/08
AM
/
/
PM
15:11
86.4
Fri 20/06/08
AM
09:10
84.0
PM
/
/
Sat 21/06/08
AM
/
/
PM
/
/
Sun 22/06/08
AM
/
/
PM
/
/
Mon 23/06/08
AM
08:22
88.6
PM
/
/
Tue 24/06/08
AM
03:34
63.8
PM
/
/
2.3.3.2
Results
The day after the investigation started a message from the tunnel sub-contractors, Specialist
Engineering Services Ltd (SES), was received stating that the MultiRAE alarms had started
sounding immediately after the first explosion had occurred at around 14:30 the previous day,
and were still sounding 12 hours later. The audible volume of these alarms was intolerable to
the tunnel engineers and may have masked other audible warnings. As the alarms signalled a
pump malfunction, which at that time was expected to stop the instrument working effectively,
instructions were given to SES to turn off the MultiRAEs.
10
On returning to the tunnel 20 days later it was discovered that two of the MultiRAEs had been
turned off but the green MultiRAE positioned 100m from the face was still alarming.
Inspection of the data stored on each of the MultiRAEs and the respective dataloggers showed
that, while the black and the purple MultiRAEs had stopped logging when they had been turned
off and hence contained no useful data, the green MultiRAE positioned 100m from the face had
been logging to its internal memory and the Antilog datalogger for the duration of the
investigation.
The PDRs and the Tiny Tags had been unaffected by the explosions and were also found to
have been logging for the duration of the investigation.
The red PDR positioned 295 m from the face was found to have logged to the Antilog
datalogger intermittently, which, due to the way the datalogger stores data, prevented any
meaningful analysis of this data. Further investigation showed the problem to have been an
intermittent fault in the connecting lead between the two instruments, rather than the effects of
the explosions.
In an attempt to evaluate the data recorded by the green MultiRAE positioned 100 m from the
face, and to allow other MultiRAEs to be used in similar conditions if required, calibration
checks were performed on the green, pink and purple MultiRAEs with the pumps de-activated
and with the alarms sounding (muted by blocking the audio outlet). The detected values when
exposed to various concentrations of NO and NO2 were found to be lower with the pump de
activated. The values were repeatable and had linear relationships to the actual concentrations,
allowing correction factors to be determined for each MultiRAE when operating without the
pump. It should be stated that RAE do not mention the use of MultiRAEs with de-activated
pumps in any of their literature.
Table 2.5 shows the determined correction factors which need to be applied to any NO or NO2
data obtained from the MultiRAEs with the pumps de-activated.
Table 2.5: Correction factors for NO or NO2 data obtained from MultiRAEs with the pumps deactivated
MultiRAE
NO correction factor
NO2 correction factor
Green
1.6
2.4
Pink
1.4
2.8
Purple
1.6
2.1
All of the results from data obtained from the MultiRAEs with the pump de-activated will be
displayed as corrected values after application of the relevant correction factors in Table 2.5
11
Thur 5th Jun 13:01

1:01
Fri 6th Jun
13:01
1:01
Sat 7th Jun
13:01
1:01
Sun 8th Jun
13:01
Mon 9th Jun 1:01
13:01
Tue 10th Jun 1:01
13:01
Wed 11th Jun 1:01
13:01
Thu 12th Jun 1:01
13:01
1:01
Fri 13th Jun
13:01
Sat 14th Jun 1:01
13:01
Sun 15th Jun 1:01
13:01
Mon 16th Jun 1:01
13:01
Tue 17th Jun 1:01
13:01
Wed 18th Jun 1:01
13:01
Thu 19th Jun 1:01
13:01
Fri 20th Jun
1:01
13:01
Sat 21st Jun 1:01
13:01
Sun 22nd Jun 1:01
13:01
Mon 23rd Jun 1:01
13:01
Tue 24th Jun 1:01
Detected Concentration (ppm) .
Thur 5th Jun 13:01

Fri 6th Jun
1:01
13:01
Sat 7th Jun 1:01
13:01
Sun 8th Jun 1:01
13:01
Mon 9th Jun 1:01
13:01
Tue 10th Jun 1:01
13:01
Wed 11th Jun 1:01
13:01
Thu 12th Jun 1:01
13:01
Fri 13th Jun 1:01
13:01
Sat 14th Jun 1:01
13:01
Sun 15th Jun 1:01
13:01
Mon 16th Jun 1:01
13:01
Tue 17th Jun 1:01
13:01
Wed 18th Jun 1:01
13:01
Thu 19th Jun 1:01
13:01
Fri 20th Jun 1:01
13:01
Sat 21st Jun 1:01
13:01
Sun 22nd Jun 1:01
13:01
Mon 23rd Jun 1:01
13:01
Tue 24th Jun 1:01
Detected Concentration (ppm) .
NOx Concentrations
Figures 2.6 and 2.7 show the corrected NO and NO2 concentrations logged at 4 minute datalog
intervals in the internal memory of the green MultiRAE located 100 m from the blast face over
the 20 day period.
350
NO(ppm)
300
250
200
150
100
50
Figure 2.6: Corrected NO concentrations detected over 20 days 100m from face (green MultiRAE)
350
NO2(ppm)
300
250
200
150
100
50
Figure 2.7: Corrected NO2 concentrations detected over 20 days 100m from face (green MultiRAE)
These data were analysed using the parameters defined in Table 2.6
12
Table 2.6: Definition of parameters by which the data obtained in the tunnel were analysed
Parameter
Definition
Detection delay
Time between blast occurrence and time at which the associated NO
and NO2 concentrations rose above 1 ppm at predetermined distances
along the tunnel
Peak width > 1 ppm *
Time for which NO and NO2 concentration is above 1 ppm after each
blast at predetermined distances along the tunnel
Peak width > 5 ppm *
Time for which NO and NO2 concentration is above 5 ppm after each
blast at predetermined distances along the tunnel
Peak Value
The maximum concentration of NO and NO2 after each blast at
predetermined distances along the tunnel
Background Concentration
The concentration of NO and NO2 due to effects other than the
immediate effects of the blasts at predetermined distances along the
tunnel
*The NOx and dust concentrations before the explosions were generally less than 1 ppm or 1 mg/m3 but often did not
reduce to 1 ppm or 1 mg/m3 after the explosions due to other sources (diesel powered equipment etc.) beginning to
operate in the tunnel as the concentration reached acceptable levels. The peak width times were therefore
calculated using values extrapolated from the data in these situations.
Tables 2.7 and 2.8 show the detection times and corrected concentrations of NO and NO2
recorded in Antilog 1 from the green MultiRAE located 100m from the blast face over the 20
day period.
Table 2.7: NO detection times, peak widths and concentrations taken from 1 s data recorded 100m from face
(Antilog 1 from green MultiRAE)
Date
Time
Explosive
Detection
Peak width
Peak width
Peak Value
weight
delay
(> 1ppm)
(> 5ppm)
(ppm)
(kg)
(m:ss)
(h:mm:ss)
(h:mm:ss)
Thur 05/06/08
14:29
102
6:25
0:59:55
0:31:17
568
Fri 06/06/08
06:42
79
7:12
1:25:48
0:50:08
326
Sun 08/06/08
13:29
70.6
5:41
0:55:19
0:34:05
259
Mon 09/06/08
12:20
72.2
6:27
1:03:33
0:39:33
158
22:06
66.2
5:52
1:33:08
0:48:17
113
Tue 10/06/08
11:04
65.8
5:56
1:05:04
0:34:48
65
22:37
65.0
6:07
2:01:53
0:47:48
140
Wed 11/06/08
11:50
62.8
6:35
1:03:25
0:48:16
110
23:06
63.8
6:43
1:47:17
0:48:21
126
Thur 12/06/08
10:55
63.4
6:52
1:28:08
0:43:01
72
22:19
63.6
7:07
1:48:53
0:44:27
87
Fri 13/06/08
10:56
63.4
7:27
1:56:33
0:48:03
125
Sun 15/06/08
13:00
66.0
8:03
1:36:57
0:39:50
64
Mon 16/06/08
18:14
83.2
7:55
2:08:05
0:52:46
66
Tue 17/06/08
14:01
76.6
7:17
1:51:43
0:42:15
89
Wed 18/06/08
07:15
72.4
6:51
1:53:09
0:47:06
146
22:54
76.8
7:19
1:28:41
0:43:19
169
Thur 19/06/08
15:11
86.4
7:38
1:56:22
0:46:59
140
Fri 20/06/08
09:10
84.0
7:57
1:57:03
0:52:57
109
Mon 23/06/08
08:22
88.6
8:25
1:29:35
0:44:23
99
Tue 24/06/08
03:34
63.8
7:37
1:18:23
0:36:54
145
Average Values
73.1
7:01
1:33:45
0:44:02
151.2
= 10.8
= 0:46
= 0:22:43
= 0:06:04
= 114.5
13
Table 2.8: NO2 detection times, peak widths and concentrations taken from 1 s data recorded 100m from
face (Antilog 1 from green MultiRAE)
Date
Time
Explosive
Detection
Peak width
Peak width
Peak Value
weight (kg)
delay (m:ss)
(> 1ppm)
(> 5ppm)
(ppm)
(h:mm:ss)
(h:mm:ss)
Thur 05/06/08
14:29
102
6:25
0:41:35
0:18:04
275 +
Fri 06/06/08
06:42
79
7:18
0:40:42
0:28:22
275 +
Sun 08/06/08
13:29
70.6
5:46
0:45:14
0:26:49
275 +
Mon 09/06/08
12:20
72.2
6:26
0:03:34
0:26:49
219
22:06
66.2
6:07
0:32:53
0:18:43
74
Tue 10/06/08
11:04
65.8
6:13
0:41:47
0:19:33
46
22:37
65.0
6:15
1:07:45
0:14:15
85
Wed 11/06/08
11:50
62.8
6:41
0:26:19
0:15:09
60
23:06
63.8
7:00
0:32:00
0:15:39
88
Thur 12/06/08
10:55
63.4
6:53
0:29:12
0:18:06
42
22:19
63.6
7:19
0:48:41
0:19:52
50
Fri 13/06/08
10:56
63.4
7:57
0:41:03
0:15:10
105
Sun 15/06/08
13:00
66.0
8:24
0:51:36
0:16:47
36
Mon 16/06/08
18:14
83.2
8:10
0:37:50
0:18:40
32
Tue 17/06/08
14:01
76.6
7:32
0:36:28
0:15:20
53
Wed 18/06/08
07:15
72.4
6:51
0:53:09
0:12:30
101
22:54
76.8
7:39
0:28:21
0:12:25
129
Thur 19/06/08
15:11
86.4
7:54
0:41:06
0:16:26
115
Fri 20/06/08
09:10
84.0
8:06
0:49:54
0:17:14
82
Mon 23/06/08
08:22
88.6
8:30
0:44:30
0:17:56
60
Tue 24/06/08
03:34
63.8
7:48
0:33:12
0:10:54
115
Average Values
73.1
7:12
0:39:22
0:17:51
110.3
= 10.8
= 0:49
=0:12:44
= 0:04:38
= 80.4
110
Detected Concentrations (ppm)
100
90
NO (ppm)
NO2 (ppm)
5 ppm NO
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
10
12
14
16
18 20 22
Time (min)
24
26
28
30
32
34
Figure 2.8: Typical NOx peaks detected in tunnel, 100m from blast face
14
36
38
40
Figure 2.8 shows typical NO and NO2 exposure curves after an explosion in the tunnel. The rise
time can be seen to be short reaching a concentration above 5 ppm approximately 15 s after
initial detection.
With two exceptions (13:29 on 08/06/08 and 12:20 on 09/06/08) the peak NO concentrations
created in the explosions were an average of 1.5 times ( = 0.3) greater than the peak NO2
concentrations.
After an explosion the average duration for which the concentration of NO 100 m from the face
was above 1 ppm was 1 hr 34 min ( = 22.5 min), and above 5 ppm was 44 min ( = 6 min),
while the average duration for which the concentration of NO2 was above 1 ppm was 39.5 min
( = 12.5 min), and above 5 ppm was 18 min ( = 4.5 min).
Figure 2.9 shows that the intensities of the NOx peaks 100 m from the face caused by the
explosions showed a slight tendency to increase with the weight of the explosive used, however,
the width of the peaks showed no such tendencies. The spread of results may be due to
inconsistent packing density of the explosive.
400
NO (ppm)
350
Detected Concentration NO (ppm)
Linear (NO (ppm))
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
60
65
70
75
80
85
Explosive Quantity (kg)
90
95
100
105
Figure 2.9: Relationship between explosive quantity and concentration of NOx detected over 20
days in tunnel by green MultiRAE positioned 100m from face
The average time delay between the explosion and the initial detection (> 1 ppm) of the NOx by
the MultiRAE positioned 100 m away was 7 min ( = 0.5 min). For the NOx to travel 100m in
7 mins ( = 0.5 mins) estimating a plug flow it will travel at a velocity of 0.24 m/s ( = 0.03
m/s), which constitutes flow rate of 2.5 m3/s ( = 0.3 m3/s) in the tunnel with a cross sectional
area of 10.5 m2. These values are much less than the values stated by the tunnel engineers of an
extraction air velocity in the tunnel of 0.9 m/s and an air flow rate of 20 m3/s. As no time stamp
was initiated on the MultiRAE data (and therefore the Antilog data) at the end of the
investigation prior to switching off (due to the expectation that the pump alarm would prevent
the instrument from operating) the accuracy of this delay time is uncertain. The tolerances in
the initial measurements, inconsistencies in the tunnel dimensions along the length and the
irregularly timed increase in tunnel length by 30 m over the 20 day duration of the investigation
also add considerable uncertainty to the air velocity and flow rate calculated from the
15
experimental data. The actual delay time, however, is very unlikely to be anywhere near the
time required to travel 100m at 0.9 m/s of 1.9 mins. Therefore the NOx is being carried down
the tunnel by a different mechanism, or the initial concentration of NO reaching the sensor due
to the explosion is less than the background level (which the short rise time evident in Figure
2.8 suggests is unlikely), or the flow rate/velocity of the air in the tunnel is less than stated.
Further investigations into these discrepancies would be necessary before conclusions could be
made regarding the transport mechanism.
20
NO(ppm)
18
NO2(ppm)
Detected Concentration (ppm)
Figure 2.10 shows the expanded scale at lower concentrations of NOx monitoring at 100 m from
the blast face over the 20 day period. This allows the corrected background concentration of
NOx to be observed.
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
Thur 5th Jun 13:01
Fri 6th Jun
1:01
13:01
Sat 7th Jun
1:01
13:01
1:01
Sun 8th Jun
13:01
Mon 9th Jun 1:01
13:01
Tue 10th Jun 1:01
13:01
Wed 11th Jun 1:01
13:01
Thu 12th Jun 1:01
13:01
Fri 13th Jun
1:01
13:01
Sat 14th Jun 1:01
13:01
Sun 15th Jun 1:01
13:01
Mon 16th Jun 1:01
13:01
Tue 17th Jun 1:01
13:01
Wed 18th Jun 1:01
13:01
Thu 19th Jun 1:01
13:01
Fri 20th Jun
1:01
13:01
Sat 21st Jun 1:01
13:01
Sun 22nd Jun 1:01
13:01
Mon 23rd Jun 1:01
13:01
Tue 24th Jun 1:01
Figure 2.10: Corrected background concentrations of NOx detected over 20 days in tunnel by
green MultiRAE positioned 100m from face
The average background NOx concentrations shown in Table 2.9 are calculated from the
MultiRAE data. The peak concentrations caused by the blasts are reduced by allowing for
average peak width times for NO concentrations above 1 ppm (1.5 hrs) and 5 ppm (1 hr) taken
from Tables 2.7 and 2.8 from the initial detection time after each blast.
Table 2.9: Corrected background concentrations of NOx detected over 20 days in tunnel by green
MultiRAE positioned 100m from face
Ave Peak Width
Time (hr)
1 (> 5 ppm)
1.5 (> 1 ppm)
Background NO
(ppm)
3.3
= 3.7
3.1
= 3.6
Background NO2
(ppm)
1.9
= 0.4
1.8
= 0.4
Dust Concentrations
Details of this part of the investigation can be found in Appendix 1.
16
Temperature and Humidity

The Tiny Tag monitors were selected for use in this investigation mainly because of their robust
construction and ability to operate in the hostile environment of the tunnel. The accuracy of
these instruments is uncertain, however, especially in the higher humidity evident in the tunnel,
and the results should be analysed as qualitative rather than quantitative data. More accurate
instrumentation is available at HSL but it is doubtful that it would have operated effectively in
the hostile tunnel environment. The following conclusions were ascertained from the data
recorded by the Tiny Tags:
any sudden change in temperature or relative humidity (RH) due to the explosions is
unlikely to be recorded due to the 2 minute sampling period of the Tiny Tags
there is no obvious correlation between the temperature or relative humidity and
distance from the face
the temperature and relative humidity profiles were found to be very consistent over the
duration of the test at all 3 positions along the tunnel
All of these effects prevented any useful observation of the effects of changes in temperature
and humidity on the NOx concentrations in the tunnel.
2.3.4
Visit 2: 06/10/08 15/10/08 (10 days)
2.3.4.1
Experimental
The approximate tunnel length throughout this part if the investigation ranged from 692 m to
717 m.
This part of the investigation was concerned only with the determination of NOx concentrations
along the tunnel occurring as a background due to normal operating conditions and as higher
concentrations due to the use of explosives at the face.
A protective cage was again located at each test position in the tunnel, each housing a Tiny Tag
datalogger, and a mains powered MultiRAE multigas monitor connected to an Antilog
datalogger. These positions were not altered throughout the duration of the investigation,
however, the blast face moved approximately 25 m over the course of the 10 day investigation.
The datalogging periods of the instruments were the same as in the previous section. Table 2.14
shows the instruments located at each position along the tunnel. The pump in each MultiRAE
was purposely de-activated and the alarms muted by blocking the audio outlet.
Table 2.14: Instrument location along the tunnel
Test Position
Distance from
Distance from
Instruments
Number
face (at start of
entrance
in Cage
investigation)
1
107 m
585 m
Purple MultiRAE
Antilog 3
red Tiny Tag 3
2
447 m
245 m
Pink MultiRAE
Antilog 2
green Tiny Tag 2
3
657 m
35 m
Green MultiRAE
Antilog 1
blue Tiny Tag 1
17
The instruments were left in place for 10 days after which time they were recovered and
returned to HSL Buxton for the analysis.
Times at which the explosions were carried out over the 10 day period were again provided by
Wessex Water and are listed in Table 2.15 along with the weight of explosive used.
Table 2.15: Explosion times and weight of explosive used
Date
Mon 06/10/08
Tue 07/10/08
Wed 08/10/08
Thu 09/10/08
Fri 10/10/08
Sat 11/10/08
Sun 12/10/08
Mon 13/10/08
Tue 14/10/08
Wed 15/10/08
2.3.4.2
Time
AM
PM
AM
PM
AM
PM
AM
PM
AM
PM
AM
PM
AM
PM
AM
PM
AM
PM
AM
PM
Wt (kg)
/
16:12
/
20:10
11:18
/
8:36
/
9:05
/
/
21:35
/
15:10
/
22:00
/
14:45
6:45
/
/
92.8
/
56
66.2
/
40
/
43.4
/
/
88.4
/
77
/
42
/
28.6
40.6
/
Results
On arrival at the tunnel after 10 days of monitoring all of the instruments seemed to be working
satisfactorily with the exception of Antilog 2 which was not receiving data from the Pink
MultiRAE.
Inspection of the data stored on each of the instruments showed that the data had been logged by
all 3 Tiny Tags, all 3 MultiRAEs and 2 of the Antilogs (1 and 3) successfully, but as suspected
no data had been logged by Antilog 2. Further investigation showed the problem to have been
an intermittent fault in the connecting lead between the pink MultiRAE and Antilog 2.
A time stamp was recorded on each of the operational Antilog dataloggers using an external
Oregon Scientific digital travel radio frequency (RF) controlled clock model RH823 (Oregon
Scientific, 2008) as soon as the instruments were removed from the tunnel and before they were
switched off.
Correction factors determined in the previous section were applied to the results obtained by the
MultiRAEs with the pumps de-activated.
18
19:18:00
Tue 7th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Wed 8th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Thu 9th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Fri 10th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Sat 11th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Sun 12th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Mon 13th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Tue 14th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Wed 15th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
Mon 6th Oct 13:18:00
19
Figure 2.12: Corrected NO2 concentrations detected over 10 days 107 m from face (purple
MultiRAE)
Wed 15th Oct
19:18:00
01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
.
160
Tue 14th Oct
Mon 13th Oct
Sun 12th Oct
Sat 11th Oct
Fri 10th Oct
Thu 9th Oct
Wed 8th Oct
Tue 7th Oct
NOx Concentrations Detected
Figures 2.11 to 2.16 show the corrected NO and NO2 concentrations logged in the internal
memory of the green, pink and purple MultiRAEs located 107 m, 447 m and 657 m respectively
from the blast face over the 10 day period.
140
Purple RAE NO (ppm)
120
100
80
60
40
20
Figure 2.11: Corrected NO concentrations detected over 10 days 107 m from face (purple
MultiRAE)
160
140
Purple RAE NO2(ppm)
120
100
80
60
40
20
20
Figure 2.14: Corrected NO2 concentrations detected over 10 days 447 m from face (pink
MultiRAE)
Wed 15th Oct
Tue 14th Oct
Mon 13th Oct
Sun 12th Oct
Sat 11th Oct
Fri 10th Oct
Thu 9th Oct
Wed 8th Oct
Tue 7th Oct
19:18:00
01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00

19:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Fri 10th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Sat 11th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Sun 12th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Mon 13th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Tue 14th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Wed 15th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
.
160
140
Pink RAE NO (ppm)
120
100
80
60
40
20
Figure 2.13: Corrected NO concentrations detected over 10 days 447 m from face (pink MultiRAE)
160
140
Pink RAE NO2(ppm)
120
100
80
60
40
20
21
Wed 15th Oct
160
Tue 14th Oct
Mon 13th Oct
Sun 12th Oct
Sat 11th Oct
Fri 10th Oct
Thu 9th Oct
Wed 8th Oct
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
120
19:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Fri 10th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Sat 11th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Sun 12th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Mon 13th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Tue 14th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Wed 15th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00

120
.
140
19:18:00
.
140
160
Green RAE NO (ppm)
100
80
60
40
20
Figure 2.15: Corrected NO concentrations detected over 10 days 657 m from face (green
MultiRAE)
Green RAE NO2(ppm)
100
80
60
40
20
Figure 2.16: Corrected NO2 concentrations detected over 10 days 657 m from face (green
MultiRAE)
The 1 second data from the 2 operational dataloggers are shown in Tables 2.16 (NO) and 2.19
(NO2) (Antilog 3 from purple MultiRAE 107 m from face) and Tables 2.18 (NO) and 2.21
(NO2) (Antilog 1 from green MultiRAE 657 m from face) to allow a more precise analysis of
the data observed. The temporally and quantitatively less precise data from the pink MultiRAE
memory (245 m from face) is shown in Tables 2.17 (NO) and 2.20 (NO2).
These data were analysed using the parameters defined in Table 2.6
Table 2.16: NO detection times and concentrations taken from 1 s data recorded 107 m from face (Antilog 3
from purple MultiRAE,)
Date
Time
Explosive wt
Detection
Peak width (>
Peak width (>
Peak Value
(kg)
delay
1ppm)
5ppm)
(ppm)
(mm:ss)
(h:mm:ss)
(h:mm:ss)
( 30 s)
( 30 s)
( 30 s)
( 30 s)
Mon 06/10/08
16:12
92.8
03:24
0:43:02
0:17:27
199.5
Tue 07/10/08
20:10
56.0
02:26
0:58:34
0:18:18
215.7
Wed 08/10/08
11:18
66.2
04:12
0:52:48
0:20:27
162.4
Thu 09/10/08
08:36
40.0
04:09
1:19:51
1:05:27
58.4
Fri 10/10/08
09:05
43.4
-00:46
1:02:20
0:22:23
81.0
Sat 11/10/08
21:35
88.4
05:33
0:47:27
0:24:24
70.6
Sun 12/10/08
15:10
77.0
03:54
1:22:06
0:29:01
44.2
Mon 13/10/08
22:00
42.0
01:55
1:10:05
0:16:07
141.4
Tue 14/10/08
14:45
28.6
-00:35
0:44:35
0:15:25
116.6
Wed 15/10/08
06:45
40.6
-25:38
1:15:38
0:19:33
129.3
Average Values
57.5
03:39
1:01:39
0:24:51
121.9
= 22.4
= 01:13
= 0:14:42
= 0:14:50
= 59.0
Table 2.17: NO detection times and concentrations taken from 4 min data recorded 245 m from face
(internal memory of pink MultiRAE)
Date
Time
Explosive wt
Detection
Peak width (>
Peak width (>
Peak Value
(kg)
delay
1ppm)
5ppm)
(ppm)
(mm:ss)
(h:mm:ss)
(h:mm:ss)
( 4min)
( 4min)
( 4min)
( 4min)
Mon 06/10/08
16:12
92.8
09:00
1:09:00
0:34:00
49.0
Tue 07/10/08
20:10
56.0
03:00
1:15:00
0:44:00
48.3
Wed 08/10/08
11:18
66.2
04:00
1:20:00
1:00:00
51.0
Thu 09/10/08
08:36
40.0
10:00
1:24:00
0:35:00
22.0
Fri 10/10/08
09:05
43.4
04:00
2:01:00
1:02:00
28.8
Sat 11/10/08
21:35
88.4
13:00
1:16:00
0:43:00
29.5
Sun 12/10/08
15:10
77.0
10:00
1:28:00
1:00:00
24.9
Mon 13/10/08
22:00
42.0
06:00
2:04:00
0:52:00
40.0
Tue 14/10/08
14:45
28.6
05:00
4:10:00
1:17:00
45.2
Wed 15/10/08
06:45
40.6
-20:00
1:25:00
0:36:00
41.6
Average Values
57.5
07:07
1:29:07
0:50:18
38.0
= 22.4
= 03:29
= 0:19:48
= 0:14:17
= 10.8
Table 2.18: NO detection times and concentrations taken from 1 s data recorded 657 m from face (Antilog 1
from green MultiRAE)
Date
Time
Explosive wt
Detection
Peak width (>
Peak width (>
Peak Value
(kg)
delay
1ppm)
5ppm)
(ppm)
(mm:ss)
(h:mm:ss)
(h:mm:ss)
( 30 s)
( 30 s)
( 30 s)
( 30 s)
Mon 06/10/08
16:12
92.8
19:41
0:39:29
0:25:06
27.5
Tue 07/10/08
20:10
56.0
15:10
0:54:01
0:28:36
30.7
Wed 08/10/08
11:18
66.2
17:10
0:56:00
0:28:51
28.8
Thu 09/10/08
08:36
40.0
19:49
0:50:11
0:23:04
17.3
Fri 10/10/08
09:05
43.4
15:45
0:50:42
0:26:10
18.6
Sat 11/10/08
21:35
88.4
20:00
0:55:08
0:32:45
20.8
Sun 12/10/08
15:10
77.0
21:42
0:58:18
0:28:44
13.6
Mon 13/10/08
22:00
42.0
15:00
1:30:00
0:34:45
28.5
Tue 14/10/08
14:45
28.6
13:00
2:02:00
0:28:42
26.2
Wed 15/10/08
06:45
40.6
-09:25
0:47:53
0:25:38
26.1
Average Values
57.5
17:29
1:02:22
0:28:14
23.8
= 22.4
= 02:56
= 24:46
= 0:03:31
= 5.8
22
Table 2.19: NO2 detection times and concentrations taken from 1 s data recorded 107 m from face (Antilog
3 from purple MultiRAE,)
Date
Time
Explosive wt
Detection
Peak width (>
Peak width (>
Peak Value
(kg)
delay
1ppm)
5ppm)
(ppm)
(mm:ss)
(h:mm:ss)
(h:mm:ss)
( 30 s)
( 30 s)
( 30 s)
( 30 s)
Mon 06/10/08
16:12
92.8
04:14
0:13:33
0:08:12
69.7
Tue 07/10/08
20:10
56.0
02:33
0:33:41
0:12:16
202.7
Wed 08/10/08
11:18
66.2
04:16
0:42:44
0:15:13
140.9
Thu 09/10/08
08:36
40.0
04:35
0:23:26
0:14:31
39.9
Fri 10/10/08
09:05
43.4
-00:40
0:28:56
0:16:45
69.3
Sat 11/10/08
21:35
88.4
05:58
0:26:28
0:18:46
54.2
Sun 12/10/08
15:10
77.0
04:51
0:38:11
0:22:32
39.7
Mon 13/10/08
22:00
42.0
02:13
0:16:44
0:08:50
102.9
Tue 14/10/08
14:45
28.6
-00:20
0:14:54
0:10:42
74.6
Wed 15/10/08
06:45
40.6
-25:31
0:21:56
0:12:38
88.4
Average Values
57.5
04:06
0:26:03
0:14:03
88.2
= 22.4
= 01:19
= 0:09:54
= 0:04:29
= 50.4
Table 2.20: NO2 detection times and concentrations taken from 4 min data recorded 245 m from face
(internal memory of pink MultiRAE)
Date
Time
Explosive wt
Detection
Peak width (>
Peak width (>
Peak Value
(kg)
delay
1ppm)
5ppm)
(ppm)
(mm:ss)
(h:mm:ss)
(h:mm:ss)
( 4 min)
( 4 min)
( 4 min)
( 4 min)
Mon 06/10/08
16:12
92.8
10:00
0:28:00
0:19:00
36.7
Tue 07/10/08
20:10
56.0
08:00
0:29:00
0:19:00
37.5
Wed 08/10/08
11:18
66.2
09:00
0:32:00
0:20:00
32.5
Thu 09/10/08
08:36
40.0
12:00
0:27:00
0:14:00
10.4
Fri 10/10/08
09:05
43.4
06:00
0:32:00
0:17:00
15.4
Sat 11/10/08
21:35
88.4
15:00
0:31:00
0:19:00
17.1
Sun 12/10/08
15:10
77.0
15:00
0:34:00
0:26:00
11.5
Mon 13/10/08
22:00
42.0
10:00
0:25:00
0:15:00
23.2
Tue 14/10/08
14:45
28.6
09:00
0:25:00
0:17:00
23.0
Wed 15/10/08
06:45
40.6
-16:00
0:25:00
0:16:00
24.4
Average Values
57.5
10:27
0:28:48
0:18:12
23.2
= 22.4
= 03:03
= 0:03:20
= 0:03:22
= 9.9
Table 2.21: NO2 detection times and concentrations taken from 1 s data recorded 657 m from face (Antilog 1
from green MultiRAE)
Date
Time
Explosive wt
Detection
Peak width (>
Peak width (>
Peak Value
(kg)
delay
1ppm)
5ppm)
(ppm)
(mm:ss)
(h:mm:ss)
(h:mm:ss)
( 30 s)
( 30 s)
( 30 s)
( 30 s)
Mon 06/10/08
16:12
92.8
20:02
0:32:08
0:17:47
22.3
Tue 07/10/08
20:10
56.0
18:12
0:34:28
0:18:58
24
Wed 08/10/08
11:18
66.2
20:21
0:35:52
0:19:22
21.8
Thu 09/10/08
08:36
40.0
20:17
0:29:00
0:12:50
10.2
Fri 10/10/08
09:05
43.4
16:21
0:32:39
0:15:22
11.5
Sat 11/10/08
21:35
88.4
23:28
0:32:58
0:17:03
12.2
Sun 12/10/08
15:10
77.0
23:42
0:34:49
0:12:39
7.4
Mon 13/10/08
22:00
42.0
18:50
0:27:36
0:13:55
15.6
Tue 14/10/08
14:45
28.6
16:20
0:28:20
0:15:08
14.9
Wed 15/10/08
06:45
40.6
-04:37
0:28:35
0:15:30
17
Average Values
57.5
19:44
0:31:38
0:15:51
15.7
= 22.4
= 02:40
= 0:03:02
= 0:02:23
= 5.6
23
The rise times were again found to be of a short duration after initial detection.
The peak width determined from the data recorded 245 m from the face (internal memory of
pink MultiRAE) from the explosion at 14:45 on Tuesday 14/10/08 is much longer than any of
the other data recorded by any of the MultiRAEs at any time in the duration of these tests and
can therefore be considered spurious and discounted from the average peak width calculated for
concentrations above 1 ppm from the data recorded 245 m (pink MultiRAE) from the face.
The averages of the detection delay times do not include the slightly negative values observed
on Friday 10th and Tuesday 14th October in the data logged 107 m from the face (Antilog 3 from
purple MultiRAE) or the much higher negative values observed on Wednesday 15th October in
the data logged at all positions.
The time stamp initiated on each of the instruments at the end of the investigation showed the
time on both Antilogs were within 30 s of each other and of that on the Oregon Scientific digital
travel radio frequency (RF) controlled clock model RH823. This suggests that the times stated
for the explosions on Friday 10th and Tuesday 14th October are suspect and for the explosion on
Wednesday 15th October is in error.
All of the peak NO concentrations in the 3 positions investigated created in the explosions were
an average of 1.5 times ( = 0.4) greater than the peak NO2 concentrations.
The intensity of the detected concentrations of NOx decreases as the distance from the blast face
increases, but due to the lack of temporal resolution in the internal memory of the pink
MultiRAE, any reduction factor cannot be determined as a function of distance with any
reasonable accuracy.
The approximate average durations for which the concentration of NOx at each position in the
tunnel is above 1 ppm and 5 ppm after an explosion are summarised in Table 2.22.
Table 2.22: Average durations for which the concentration of NOx at each position in the tunnel is
above 1 ppm and 5 ppm after an explosion.
Approx distance
from face (m)
107
245
657
Duration (min)
NO > 1ppm
62 ( = 14.5)
89 ( = 19.5)
62 ( = 24.5)
NO > 5ppm
25 ( = 14.5)
50 ( = 14.0)
28 ( = 3.5)
NO2 > 1ppm

26 ( = 10.0)
28.5 ( = 3.5)
31.5 ( = 3.0)
NO2 > 5ppm

14 ( = 4.5)
18 ( = 3.5)
16 ( = 2.5)
The average duration for which the concentration of NOx was above 1 ppm and 5 ppm was
approximately comparable within associated standard deviations, along the length of the tunnel,
suggesting that, unlike the dust in the previous tests, the NOx cloud has not increased in length
as it has moved along the tunnel from the face, which would be expected from the evident
reduction in concentration.
Figure 2.17 shows that the intensities of the NOx peaks 107 m from the face caused by the
explosions again show a very slight tendency to increase with the weight of the explosive used,
however, the width of the peaks again show no correlation at all.
24
Detected Concentration NO (ppm)
400
NO (ppm)
Linear (NO (ppm))
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
i Quantity (kg)
Explosve
75
80
85
90
95
100
Figure 2.17: Relationship between explosive quantity and concentration of NOx detected over 10
days 107m from face (purple MultiRAE)
The approximate average time delays between the explosion and the initial detection (> 1 ppm)
of the NO by the purple and green MultiRAEs and recorded on Antilogs 3 and 1 respectively
are summarised in Table 2.23. The approximate air velocities and flow rates (assuming plug
flow, which will not be the case) along the tunnel with an approximate cross sectional area of
10.5 m2 calculated from the data from each of the instruments are also shown.
The limited accuracy of the data stored in the memory of the pink MultiRAE results in
uncertainties greater than the actual values and therefore has no value when determining air
velocities and flow rates within the tunnel.
Table 2.23: Average time delays between the explosion and the initial detection of the NO and
calculated air velocities and flow rates
Approx distance
from face (m)
NO delay
(min)
Air velocity (m/s)
Air flow rate (m3/s)
107
3.5
=1
17.5
=3
0.6
= 0.2
0.6
= 0.1
5.7
= 2.2
6.8
= 1.2
657
These values are again much less than the values stated by the tunnel engineers of an extraction
air velocity in the tunnel of 0.9 m/s and an air flow rate of 20 m3/s in a ducting of 900mm
diameter.
As in the previous section, tolerances in the initial measurements, inconsistencies in the tunnel
dimensions along the length and the irregularly timed increase in tunnel length by 25 m over the
10 day duration of the investigation also add considerable uncertainty to the air velocity and
flow rate calculated from the experimental data. Again the data suggests that the NOx is being
carried down the tunnel by a different mechanism, or the initial concentration of NO reaching
the sensor due to the explosion is less than the background level (which again is unlikely due to
the short rise time after initial detection), or the flow rate/velocity of the air in the tunnel is less
25
.
24
22
20
26
19:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
Wed 15th
Figure 2.19: Corrected background NO and NO2 concentrations detected over 10 days 447m from
face (pink MultiRAE)
13:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Oct01:18:00
07:18:00
22
Tue 14th
24
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Sun 12th Oct01:18:00
Sat 11th Oct
Fri 10th Oct
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
19:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00

18
19:18:00
.
20
19:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Fri 10th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Sat 11th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Sun 12th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Mon 13th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Tue 14th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Wed 15th Oct01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
than stated. Again, further investigations into these discrepancies would be necessary before
conclusions could be made regarding the transport mechanism.
Figures 2.18 to 2.20 show the expanded scale at lower concentrations of NOx monitoring at each
position in tunnel over the 10 day period, allowing the corrected background concentration of
NOx to be observed.
Purple RAE NO (ppm)
Purple RAE NO2(ppm)
16
14
12
10
face (purple MultiRAE)
Pink RAE NO (ppm)

Pink RAE NO2(ppm)
18
16
14
12
10
24
Green RAE NO (ppm)
22
.
Green RAE NO2(ppm )
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
face (green MultiRAE)
The average background NOx concentrations shown in Table 2.24 are calculated from the 4 min
MultiRAE data. The peak concentrations caused by the blasts are excluded by allowing for
average peak width times for NOx concentrations above 1 ppm (1.5 hrs) and 5 ppm ( 1 hr)
taken from Tables 2.16 to 2.19 from the initial detection time after each blast.
Table 2.23: Background concentrations of NO and NO2 over 10 day period detected at each
position along tunnel.
Ave Peak
Width Time
(hr)
1
1.5
107 m from
face
NO (ppm)
2.0
= 2.1
2.0
= 2.1
107 m from
face
NO2 (ppm)
0.1
= 0.1
0.1
= 0.1
447 m from
face
NO (ppm)
8.2
= 4.3
8.3
= 4.3
447 m from
face
NO2 (ppm)
0.1
= 0.1
0.1
= 0.1
657 m from
face
NO (ppm)
6.0
= 3.8
6.0
= 3.7
657 m from
face
NO2 (ppm)
0.4
= 0..3
0.4
= 0..3
The average background concentration of NO approximately 107 m from the face is above 1
ppm but less than 5 ppm, but is above 5 ppm at the other locations monitored along the tunnel.
The average background concentration of NO2 is less than 0.5 ppm at all locations monitored
along the tunnel.
Temperature and Humidity
As in Section 2.3.3 the uncertainty in the accuracy of the Tiny Tag temperature and humidity
monitors means that the results should be analysed as qualitative rather than quantitative data.
The conclusions ascertained from the data recorded by the Tiny Tags were the same as in
Section 2.3.3:
27
13:18:00
07:18:00
19:18:00
Wed 15th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
Tue 14th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
Mon 13th Oct 01:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
07:18:00
19:18:00
Sun 12th Oct 01:18:00
13:18:00
07:18:00
19:18:00
Sat 11th Oct 01:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
Fri 10th Oct 01:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
07:18:00
19:18:00
13:18:00
07:18:00
19:18:00
07:18:00
13:18:00
19:18:00
any sudden change in temperature or relative humidity (RH) due to the explosions is
unlikely to be recorded due to the 2 minute sampling period of the Tiny Tags
there is no obvious correlation between the temperature or relative humidity and
distance from the face
the temperature and relative humidity profiles were found to be very consistent over the
duration of the test at all 3 positions along the tunnel
Again, all of these effects prevented any useful observation of the effects of changes in
temperature and humidity on the NOx concentrations in the tunnel.
2.3.5
Comparisons between results from the first and second

investigations
The test locations, which are comparable in both visits to the tunnel, are a position close to the
blast face (approximately 100 m from the blast face), a position close to the entrance
(approximately 35 m from the entrance) and a position approximately central to both.
Due to the problems experienced with the equipment in the first visit during the explosions,
effective comparisons of NOx concentrations are limited to the test positions located 100 m from
the blast face. The NOx concentrations and event times from test point positioned 100 m from
blast face in first and second visits are shown in Table 2.26.
Table 2.26: NOx concentrations and event times from test point positioned 100 m from blast face
in first and second visits
Condition
MultiRAE
Antilog
Dist from Face
Ave Explosive Wt
Ave Detection Delay
Ave Peak Concentration
Ave Peak Width
(>1 ppm)
Ave Peak Width
(>5 ppm)
Ave Background Concentration
(1 hr peak allowance)
Ave Background Concentration
(1.5 hrs peak allowance)
Visit 1
Green
No. 1
100 m
73.1 kg ( = 10.8 kg)
7 min 01 s ( = 46 s)
NO: 151.2 ppm ( = 114.5 ppm)
NO2: 110.3 ppm ( = 80.4 ppm)
NO: 93 min 45 s ( = 22 min 43 s)
NO2: 39 min 22 s ( = 12 min 44 s)
NO: 44 min 02 s ( = 6 min 04 s)
NO2: 17 min 51 s ( = 4 min 38 s)
NO: 3.3 ppm ( = 3.7 ppm)
NO2: 1.9 ppm ( = 0.4 ppm)
NO: 3.1 ppm ( = 3.6 ppm)
NO2: 1.8 ppm ( = 0.4 ppm)
Visit 2
Purple
No. 3
107 m
57.5 kg ( = 22.4 kg)
3 min 39 s ( = 73 s)
NO: 121.9 ppm ( = 59.0 ppm)
NO2: 88.2 ppm ( = 50.4 ppm)
NO: 61 min 39 s ( = 14 min 12 s)
NO2: 26 min 03 s ( = 9 min 54 s)
NO: 24 min 51 s ( = 14 min 50 s)
NO2: 14 min 03 s ( = 4 min 29 s)
NO: 2.0 ppm ( = 2.1 ppm)
NO2: 0.1 ppm ( = 0.1 ppm)
NO: 2.0 ppm ( = 2.1 ppm)
NO2: 0.1 ppm ( = 0.1 ppm)
The peak concentrations of NO created in the explosions were an average of 1.5 times greater
than peak concentrations of NO2 in both tests.
The average peak concentrations of both NO and NO2 created in the explosions in the first tests
were 1.2 times greater than the average peak concentrations of NO and NO2 created in the
explosions in the second tests.
The average weight of explosive used throughout the first visit (73 kg) is approximately 1.3
times greater than that used throughout the second visit (57.5 kg).
All of the concentrations of NOx and the event times are considerably less over the duration of
the second visit than the first including:
28
The average background concentration of NO throughout the second visit (NO = 2 ppm) is
approximately two thirds of that throughout the first visit (NO = 3 ppm)
The average background concentration of NO2 throughout the second visit (NO2 = 0.1
ppm) is approximately one twentieth of that throughout the first visit (NO2 = 1.9 ppm)
The average detection delay time throughout the second visit (3.5 min) is approximately
half of that throughout the first visit (7 min)
The average peak widths (> 1 ppm) of NO and NO2 throughout the second visit (NO = 61.5
min, NO2 = 26 min) are approximately two thirds of those throughout the first visit (NO =
94.5 min, NO2 = 39.5 min )
The average peak widths (> 5 ppm) of NO and NO2 throughout the second visit (NO = 25
min, NO2 = 14 min) are approximately half and three quarters respectively of those
throughout the first visit (NO = 44 min, NO2 = 18 min )
The average background concentrations of NO are comparable within the uncertainties in the
system and are both above 1 ppm but below 5 ppm over the durations of each of the
investigations. These NO concentrations are well below the average levels detected at the two
the further positions along the tunnel over the duration of the second visit of 8 ppm and 6 ppm.
The average background concentrations of NO2, however, are very different, being almost 2
ppm over the duration of the first visit and 0.1 ppm over the duration of the second visit. The
NO2 concentrations detected at the two the further positions along the tunnel over the duration
of the second visit confirm a lower average NO2 background concentration of less than 0.5 ppm
along the length of the tunnel.
Comparisons between the results from the 2 visits suggest that the amount of explosive used
may cause in an increase in concentrations of NOx detected and the event durations. The only
other detected change in conditions is the increase in relative humidity throughout the second
visit. Perhaps this may have some effect on these parameters.
2.3.6
Overall recommendations
Instruments with a resolution of 0.1 ppm are preferable for effective monitoring of the
background NO concentrations, particularly around 1 ppm, as found in the tunnels under
construction. They should have adequate immunity from interferences (eg NO2, temperature)
and long-term stability at this level.
29
3
3.1
HINDHEAD ROAD TUNNEL VISIT
INTRODUCTION
Dr. Donald Lamont (HSE), Dr. Peter Walsh (HSL) and Dr. Paul Dowker (HSL) were invited by
Mr. Paul Hoyland (Project Director) of Balfour Beatty Civil Engineering to visit a tunnel under
excavation at Hindhead to observe the operational methods and gas monitoring, particularly
NO, which were in place. This visit was undertaken on 19/11/08. Tony Watt (Health and Safety
Manager) and Roger Bridge (Tunnel Construction Manager) were also present.
3.2
THE ROAD TUNNEL
3.2.1
Background
The following tunnel information in this section is taken from the Highways Agency website
(Highways, 2008)
The A3 Hindhead project is one of the Government's programme of major road building
schemes, the principle contractor being Balfour Beatty. The new road will be 6.5 km (4 miles)
long and includes 1.8 km (1.1 miles) twin bored tunnels under the Devil's Punch Bowl Site of
Special Scientific Interest. Figure 3.1 shows maps, a photograph and a projected image of
tunnel route and position.
Figure 3.1: Maps, photograph and projected image of tunnel route and position
30
The maximum depth of tunnel below ground will be about 65m (measured to the top of the
tunnel). The tunnel will have two separate bores, including a 7.3 m wide 2 lane carriageway
with 1.2m wide verges on each side. The bores will be approximately parallel and and linked by
pedestrian cross-passages at approximately every 100 m throughout the tunnel as shown in the
artsists impression in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2: Artists impression of tunnel system
Work started on the 7th of January 2007, the main tunnelling works started in February 2008,
and the tunnel is planned to be open for traffic in mid 2011.
The scheme budget has increased from the initial estimation due to various factors including
changes to workplace exposure limits (WELs) for nitrogen oxides and respirable crystalline
silica for workers involved on tunnelling works. The changes to WELs were introduced by the
Health and Safety Executive and the new limits were significantly lower than those at the time
the contract was awarded 1. Nitrogen oxides are emitted by diesel machinery used in the tunnel
construction and respirable crystalline silica is found in the dust caused by excavating the
sandstone through which the tunnel passes. To comply with the new limits the contractor needs
to use different machinery and provide more ventilation. This means more expensive machinery
and slower rates of progress and increased costs.
The constitution of the ground is such that the tunnel is excavated by mechanical methods
without need for the use of explosives, as shown in Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3: Excavation of tunnel using mechanical methods

1
The new guidance limits were Chemical Hazard Awareness Notices (CHANs) with 8 hour limits for both NO and
NO2 of 1 ppm [7]. These were withdrawn in 2006. There are currently no workplace exposure limits (WELs) for NO
and NO2.
31
3.3
GAS MONITORING
3.3.1
General
Levels of NO and carbon monoxide (CO) are monitored and logged at regular intervals by
Trolex Sentro 8 monitors (Trolex, 2008) which are calibrated at 6 monthly intervals using
dedicated gas cylinders. The monitors are located in various positions along the tunnel
approximately 200 m apart. The approximate positions around the time of the visit (taken from
a schematic provided by Balfour Beatty on the day of the visit) are shown in the schematic in
Figure 3.4. The excavations were progressing from north to south and had reached a position
south of the sensor position 7 where at least the top heading of the tunnel had been excavated
and lined with concrete.
N8
N1
Northbound Traffic
N6
N5
S6
S5
N4
N3
N2
S3
S2
North Portal
South Portal
N7
S7
Southbound Traffic
S4
200 m
S1
S8
1777 m
Figure 3.4: Locations of the NO and CO sensors (S1 to S8 in southbound tunnel and N1 to N8 in
northbound tunnel) in the tunnel around the time of the visit
Readings are taken every minute and transmitted to a Scada display panel in the control room
where they are averaged over 24 hour periods. Alarms operate on instantaneous concentrations
rather than time averaged concentrations and will sound whenever the NO or CO concentration
rises above the designated safety limit of 2 ppm and 15 ppm respectively in the location of the
instrument.
Information received from Trolex confirmed that the Trolex Sentro 8 instruments are capable of
a resolution limit of 0.5 ppm for both NO and CO sensors but in this case they are only required
to log at a resolution of 1 ppm. This means that actual analogue concentrations up to 0.4 ppm
will be detected as 0 ppm by the ADC in the instrument and recorded as such, while
concentrations between 0.5 ppm and 1.4 ppm will be detected as 1 ppm and recorded as such.
The accuracy of the detected concentrations is therefore 0.5 ppm.
3.3.2
NO Levels
The detected levels of NO averaged over 24 hour periods at the various sensor locations in each
tunnel between 31/10/08 and 18/11/08 are shown in Figures 3.5 and 3.6 and Tables 3.1 and 3.2.
An alarm level of 2 ppm NO has been set in the tunnel, this is an instantaneous alarm and not a
time weighted average.
32
NO Limit (ppm)
N1 N0 (ppm)
N2 N0 (ppm)
N3 N0 (ppm)
N4 N0 (ppm)
N5 N0 (ppm)
N6 N0 (ppm)
N7 N0 (ppm)
18/11/2008
17/11/2008
16/11/2008
15/11/2008
14/11/2008
13/11/2008
12/11/2008
11/11/2008
10/11/2008
09/11/2008
08/11/2008
07/11/2008
06/11/2008
05/11/2008
04/11/2008
03/11/2008
02/11/2008
01/11/2008
N8 N0 (ppm)
31/10/2008
NO (ppm)
3
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
3
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
18/11/2008
17/11/2008
16/11/2008
15/11/2008
14/11/2008
13/11/2008
12/11/2008
11/11/2008
10/11/2008
09/11/2008
08/11/2008
07/11/2008
06/11/2008
05/11/2008
04/11/2008
03/11/2008
02/11/2008
01/11/2008
NO Limit (ppm)
S1 N0 (ppm)
S2 N0 (ppm)
S3 N0 (ppm)
S4 N0 (ppm)
S5 N0 (ppm)
S6 N0 (ppm)
S7 N0 (ppm)
S8 N0 (ppm)
31/10/2008
NO (ppm)
Figure 3.5: Detected levels of NO averaged over 24 hour periods at the various sensor locations in
the northbound tunnel between 31/10/08 and 18/11/08
Figure 3.6: Detected levels of NO averaged over 24 hour periods at the various sensor locations in
the southbound tunnel between 31/10/08 and 18/11/08
In the northbound tunnel the levels of NO rise above the designated safety limit of 2 ppm
(shown in bold in Tables 3.1 and 3.2) on 2 occasions, on 1/11/08 at position N5 and on 6/11/08
at position N3. In the southbound tunnel the levels of NO rise above the designated safety limit
of 2 ppm on occasions, at positions S3, S4, and S5.
33
Table 3.1: Detected levels of NO averaged over 24 hour periods at the various sensor locations in the northbound tunnel between 31/10/08 and 18/11/08
Sensor
Position
N1
N2
N3
N4
N5
N6
N7
N8
31
Oct
0.00
0.98
0.51
1.12
1.55
0.69
0.63
1
Nov
0.00
0.83
1.16
1.95
2.40
1.56
1.00
2
Nov
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
3
Nov
0.00
0.98
0.51
1.12
1.55
0.69
0.63
4
Nov
0.00
0.00
0.12
1.20
1.63
0.80
1.00
5
Nov
0.00
0.00
0.87
0.72
1.64
2.00
1.00
Date & Concentration of NO (ppm) in northbound tunnel

6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Nov
Nov
Nov
Nov
Nov
Nov
Nov
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.94
0.01
0.20
0.14
0.08
2.05
0.76
0.75
0.75
0.79
0.62
0.68
0.71
0.00
0.40
0.61
0.33
0.44
0.29
0.31
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
1.07
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.55
0.63
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00 0.00
13
Nov
0.00
0.00
0.20
0.65
0.47
1.13
0.77
0.00
14
Nov
0.00
0.49
0.70
0.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
0.00
15
Nov
0.00
16
Nov
0.00
0.03
0.38
0.32
1.03
0.72
0.00
0.11
0.58
0.44
0.04
0.16
17
Nov
0.00
0.44
0.69
0.00
0.00
1.00
0.00
18
Nov
0.00
0.00
1.29
0.63
0.00
1.00
0.00
Table 3.2: Detected levels of NO averaged over 24 hour periods at the various sensor locations in the southbound tunnel between 31/10/08 and 18/11/08
Sensor
Position
S1
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8
31
Oct
0.00
1.07
2.11
1.68
0.69
1.00
1.00
1
Nov
0.00
0.11
2.05
2.67
1.75
1.00
0.00
2
Nov
0.00
1.07
2.11
1.68
0.69
1.00
0.00
3
Nov
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
4
Nov
0.00
1.90
2.59
2.54
0.80
1.00
0.00
5
Nov
0.00
0.62
1.04
0.77
1.32
1.00
0.00
Date & Concentration of NO (ppm) in southbound tunnel

6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Nov
Nov
Nov
Nov
Nov
Nov
Nov
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.51
0.00
0.00
0.46
1.85
1.93
1.04
2.10
2.13
2.26
0.93
1.52
1.33
1.82
1.24
2.02
2.28
0.68
1.30
1.40
1.44
1.65
0.28
1.03
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
34
13
Nov
0.00
0.11
1.74
1.22
0.88
1.00
0.00
0.00
14
Nov
0.15
0.40
0.56
0.53
0.27
1.00
0.00
0.00
15
Nov
0.01
0.03
0.77
1.11
0.78
1.00
0.00
0.00
16
Nov
17
Nov
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
18
Nov
0.00
1.12
1.90
1.78
2.17
0.82
0.83
CO Levels
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
CO Limit (ppm)
N1 C0 (ppm)
N2 C0 (ppm)
N3 C0 (ppm)
N4 C0 (ppm)
N5 C0 (ppm)
N6 C0 (ppm)
N7 C0 (ppm)
18/11/2008
17/11/2008
16/11/2008
15/11/2008
14/11/2008
13/11/2008
12/11/2008
11/11/2008
10/11/2008
09/11/2008
08/11/2008
07/11/2008
06/11/2008
05/11/2008
04/11/2008
03/11/2008
02/11/2008
01/11/2008
N8 C0 (ppm)
31/10/2008
CO (ppm)
The detected levels of CO averaged over 24 hour periods at the various sensor locations in each
tunnel between 31/10/08 and 18/11/08 are shown in Figures 3.7 and 3.8 and Tables 3.3 and 3.4.
An alarm level of 15 ppm CO has been set in the tunnel 2.
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
CO Limit (ppm)
S1 C0 (ppm)
S2 C0 (ppm)
S3 C0 (ppm)
S4 C0 (ppm)
S5 C0 (ppm)
S6 C0 (ppm)
S7 C0 (ppm)
18/11/2008
17/11/2008
16/11/2008
15/11/2008
14/11/2008
13/11/2008
12/11/2008
11/11/2008
10/11/2008
09/11/2008
08/11/2008
07/11/2008
06/11/2008
05/11/2008
04/11/2008
03/11/2008
02/11/2008
01/11/2008
S8 C0 (ppm)
31/10/2008
CO (ppm)
Figure 3.7: Detected levels of CO averaged over 24 hour periods at the various sensor locations in
the northbound tunnel between 31/10/08 and 18/11/08
Figure 3.8: Detected levels of CO averaged over 24 hour periods at the various sensor locations in
the southbound tunnel between 31/10/08 and 18/11/08
The Workplace Exposure Limits (WELs) for CO are 30 ppm (8 hr) and 200 ppm (15 min)
35
Table 3.3: Detected levels of CO averaged over 24 hour periods at the various sensor locations in the northbound tunnel between 31/10/08 and 18/11/08
Sensor
Position
N1
N2
N3
N4
N5
N6
N7
N8
31
Oct
0.00
0.00
0.92
0.05
0.00
0.00
0.00
1
Nov
0.00
0.00
1.25
0.62
0.00
0.07
0.00
2
Nov
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
3
Nov
0.00
0.00
0.92
0.05
0.00
0.00
0.00
4
Nov
0.00
0.00
1.79
1.37
0.00
0.69
0.00
5
Nov
0.00
0.00
2.85
1.45
0.00
3.00
0.00
Date & Concentration of CO (ppm) in northbound tunnel

6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Nov
Nov
Nov
Nov
Nov
Nov
Nov
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.15
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
3.00
2.80
2.50
3.00
3.00
2.00
2.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
13
Nov
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.98
0.00
0.00
14
Nov
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
15
Nov
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.06
0.00
0.00
16
Nov
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.98
0.00
17
Nov
0.00
0.44
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
18
Nov
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Table 3.4: Detected levels of CO averaged over 24 hour periods at the various sensor locations in the southbound tunnel between 31/10/08 and 18/11/08
Sensor
Position
S1
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8
31
Oct
0.00
0.35
0.71
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
1
Nov
0.00
0.00
0.22
0.55
0.00
0.00
0.00
2
Nov
0.00
0.35
0.71
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
3
Nov
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
4
Nov
0.00
0.80
1.18
0.46
0.00
0.00
0.00
5
Nov
0.00
0.00
0.22
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Date & Concentration of CO (ppm) in southbound tunnel

6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Nov
Nov
Nov
Nov
Nov
Nov
Nov
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.23
0.50
0.33
0.81
0.79
0.53
0.32
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.19
0.93
0.22
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.38
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
36
13
Nov
0.00
0.00
0.68
0.44
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
14
Nov
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
15
Nov
0.00
0.00
0.66
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
16
Nov
17
Nov
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.11
0.16
18
Nov
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
3.3.3
Developments in NO monitoring
Discussions took place with Trolex (Ken Dawson and Mark Rowland) who supply the Sentro
monitoring system installed at Hindhead Tunnel. The Sentro system uses electrochemical NO
sensors capable of a resolution limit of 0.5 ppm (see Section 3.3.1). There are, however, new
electrochemical sensors available which can readily monitor at sub-ppm levels of NO. Initial
results from tests carried out at Trolex were promising, although further work is required on
stability, cross-sensitivity etc. before they could be incorporated into an instrument.
3.3.4
Recommendation
Developments in NO sensor technology now make more precise 0.1 ppm resolution a
possibility; this should be translated by instrument manufacturers into the next generation of
portable and fixed NO monitors for tunnels.
37
RATE OF REACTION OF NOX IN DIESEL EXHAUST

FUME
4.1
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION
4.1.1
Introduction
This phase of the investigation was designed to observe the changes in NOx concentrations in
diesel exhaust fume under laboratory conditions.
4.1.2
Instrumentation
Two MultiRAE multigas monitors, determined as the most suitable of all of the types of NOx
monitors tested in a previous study (Dowker et al, 2007), were selected for use in this part of the
investigation. These monitors were setup identically with NO, NO2 and O2 sensors installed and
were calibrated to the relevant gases prior to the start of the investigation and the calibration
checked on completion of the investigation. They were operated with external inline filters
fitted to protect them as far as practicably possible from dust and damp ingress.
Calibrated Tinytag combined temperature and humidity monitors were used to record the
temperature and humidity inside the airtight glass vessel (Dowker et al, 2007). The instrument
serial numbers and colour codings allocated for easier identification are listed in Table 4.1.
Instrument
MultiRAE
MultiRAE
Serial No.
500871
502967
Colour Coding
black
red
Tiny Tag 3
177528
red
A remote monitoring system allowed observation of the detected concentrations of NOx and O2
from a position outside the cabin during the tests (see section 4.1.4).
4.1.3
Diesel Fume Source
A diesel powered generator, model DG 3600E made by United Power Equipment Co. Ltd.
(United Power, 2008) shown in Figure 4.1 was purchased from Powerland (Powerland, 2008)
for use in these investigations. The diesel fuel used in the generator was Esso extra low sulphur
diesel, UN 1202.
38
Figure 4.1: Diesel powered generator (model DG 3600E, United Power Equipment Co. Ltd)
The generator was used at its normal running speed of 3600 rpm under no load conditions in all
of the tests.
4.1.4
Environmental Test Cabin Facility
The tests were performed in the environmental test cabin facility located in the environmental
test suite at HSL, Buxton. This cabin has the facility to extract ambient exhaust fume from the
cabin at a predetermined flow rate and therefore maintain a safe working environment
throughout the duration of these tests.
Initial checks on the effectiveness of the extraction system in the environmental test cabin, for a
worst case scenario of all of the diesel exhaust fume entering the cabin direct from the
generator, showed the NOx concentration to be below detectable limits (0.1 ppm) at all positions
between 0.5 and 2 m above ground level and to be a worst case concentration of 6 ppm NO and
3 ppm NO2 at ground level, 1 m in front of the exhaust outlet.
Additional safety measures included placing NO and NO2 detectors in the cabin at all times,
placing signs at the entrance to the cabin prohibiting any personnel not involved in the tests
from entering while a test was being performed, ensuring that personal NOx monitors were worn
by personnel entering the cabin to adjust the experimental settings during the tests, and remotely
monitoring the concentrations detected by the MultiRAEs to reduce the time spent inside the
cabin during tests.
4.1.5
Experimental
The equipment, set up shown as a schematic in Figure 4.2 and a photograph in Figure 4.3,
allowed the diesel fume to be mixed with air to give similar NO content in the same airtight
glass vessel as in the experiments undertaken in previous investigations with mixtures of pure
NO and O2 (Dowker et al, 2007). Locating a MultiRAE in the glass cylinder allowed
comparisons between the NOx changes in both setups with time. The water bath was included
in the system to keep the pipes to a temperature at which the plastic taps and joints would not be
impaired.
39
Tap 5
Tap 3
Tap 4
Air-tight
Glass Vessel
Exhaust
Fume & Air
MultiRAE
Air Pump
Exhaust
Fume & Air
Air
Tap 2
Extraction
Exhaust Fume
Exhaust Fume
Exhaust Fume
Diesel
Generator
Tap 1
Water Bath
Figure 4.2: Schematic diagram of set up for mixing diesel fume and air
Figure 4.3: Photograph of set up for mixing diesel fume and air
4.1.5.1
NOx and O2 Concentrations in Pure Diesel Fume from Generator
It was necessary to determine the content of NOx and O2 in the undiluted fume exhausted from
the generator to allow mixing of the diesel fume with air in order to achieve the required
concentrations of NO. This was achieved by feeding the exhaust fume from the generator
through the air tight glass vessel, in which the black MultiRAE was situated, via taps 2, 4 and 5
and closing taps 1 and 3 shown in Figure 4.2. For safety reasons the concentration of NOx
detected by the MultiRAE was also monitored remotely on a PC outside the booth until
reasonably constant, the results from which are shown in Figure 4.4. (The dip in the profile at
25 minutes was where the pipe came free from the cylinder and the fume was not entering the
cylinder).
40
240
22
200
NO(ppm)
180
NO2(ppm)
OXY(%)
O216%
160
18
20
NO200ppm
16
Detected Concentration O2 (%)
Detected Concentration NOx (ppm)
220
14
140
12
NO2115ppm
120
10
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
10
15
20
25
35
30
Time (min)
40
45
50
55
60
Figure 4.4: Concentration of NO, NO2 and O2 detected in diesel exhaust fume from generator
The approximate steady-state concentrations of NOx and O2 detected in the diesel exhaust
fume are summarised in table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Concentrations of NOx and O2 detected in the diesel exhaust fume
Gas
Detected Concentration
NO
200ppm
NO2
115 ppm
NOx
315 ppm
O2
16%
4.1.5.2
Conversion Rate Measurements
Procedure
The diesel fume and air was mixed by adjustment of the respective flow rates through taps 1, 2
and 3 in Figure 4.2 to give NO concentrations of 5 ppm, 10 ppm and 50 ppm of NO in air
comprising O2 concentrations as close as possible to 21%. The mixing quantities required to
achieve these concentrations are shown in Figure 4.5.
41
Diesel Fume & Air Mix to

Achieve 5 ppm NO

Achieve 10 ppm NO

Achieve 50 ppm NO
Diesel Fume
200ppm NO
115ppm NO2
16% O2
Air
20.9% O2
Diesel Fume
200ppm NO
115ppm NO2
16% O2
Air
20.9% O2
Diesel Fume
200ppm NO
115ppm NO2
16% O2
Air
20.9% O2
Reduce to
2.5%
Reduce to
97.5%
Reduce to
5%
Reduce to
95%
Reduce to
25%
Reduce to
75%
Diesel Fume
5ppm NO
3ppm NO2
0.4% O2
Air
20.4% O2
Diesel Fume
10ppm NO
6ppm NO2
0.8% O2
Air
19.9% O2
Diesel Fume
50ppm NO
29ppm NO2
4 % O2
Air
15.7% O2
Diesel Fume & Air

5ppm NO
3ppm NO2
20.8% O2
Diesel Fume & Air

10ppm NO
6ppm NO2
20.7% O2
Diesel Fume & Air

50ppm NO
29ppm NO2
19.7% O2
Figure 4.5: Diesel Fume & Air Mix to Achieve 5 ppm 10 ppm and 50 ppm NO in 21% O2
The red MultiRAE was placed inside the airtight glass vessel along with the red Tiny Tag
temperature & humidity monitor. A small fan was included to ensure good mixing of the fume
and the air entering the cylinder.
Each concentration of the diesel fume/air mix in turn was made to flow through the airtight
glass vessel and out of the booth via the extraction mechanism. When the required NO
concentrations were achieved and were seen to be constant the airtight glass vessel was sealed
by closing taps 4 and 5 in Figure 4.2 and the set up left for 24 hours. This procedure was
performed at least twice at each NO concentration to show the repeatability of the procedure.
The monitoring equipment and the glass vessel used here has been previously shown (Dowker
et al, 2007) to have inherent effects on the changes in NOx concentrations due to the combined
effects of adsorption onto the inner surface of the airtight glass vessel and the conversion of the
NOx by the sensors. Experimental investigations into these effects are reported in Appendix 2,
and correction factors for the resulting changes in NOx concentrations have been determined
and included in the results from the diesel fume/air mixture tests shown in Figures 4.6 to 4.8.
4.1.6
Results
Figures 4.6 to 4.8 show the change in NOx concentrations in the diesel fume & air mixes of the
NO and O2 concentrations previously stated over 24 hours, before and after application of
relevant correction factors.
42
A d j ust ed NO( p pm) 5 ppm NO T1

Adjust ed NO2(ppm) 5 ppm NO T1
Detect ed NO( ppm) 5 ppm NO T1
Det ect ed NO2(ppm) 5 ppm NO T1
6.5
.
Adjusted
Adjusted
Det ect ed
Det ect ed
NO(ppm) 5 ppm NO T2
NO2(ppm) 5 ppm NO T2
NO(ppm) 5 ppm NO T2
NO2(ppm) 5 ppm NO T2
5.5
5
Adjusted NO2
4.5
4
3.5
Adjusted NO
3
2.5
2
Detected NO
1.5
Detected NO2
1
0.5
0
0
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Time (hrs )
Figure 4.6: Change in NOx concentrations in diesel fume (5 ppm NO) & air (20.8% O2) mix before
and after application of correction factors (Duplicate measurements T1 and T2)
Adjusted NO(ppm) 10 ppm NO T1

Adjusted NO2(ppm) 10 ppm NO T1
Detected NO(ppm) 10 ppm NO T1
Detected NO2(ppm) 10 ppm NO T1
12
11

10
9
Adjusted NO2
8
7
6
Adjusted NO
5
4
3
Detected NO
2
Detected NO2
1
0
0
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Time (hrs)
Figure 4.7: Change in NOx concentrations in diesel fume (10 ppm NO) & air (20.7% O2) mix
before and after application of correction factors (Duplicate measurements T1 and T2)
43

55
50

45
Adjusted NO2
40
35
30
25
20
Adjusted NO
15
10
Detected NO
Detected NO2
0
0
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Time (hrs)
Figure 4.8: Change in NOx concentrations in diesel fume (50 ppm NO) & air (19.7% O2) mix
before and after application of correction factors (Duplicate measurements T1 and T2)
As in previous sections the uncertainty in the accuracy of the Tiny Tag temperature and
humidity monitors means that the results should be analysed as qualitative rather than
quantitative data.
The Temperature and RH concentrations in the glass vessel were reasonably constant
throughout the investigations preventing any comparison of the effects of these conditions on
the operational characteristics of the MultiRAEs
4.1.6.1
Conclusions
It can be seen that NO, when emitted in diesel fume into the atmosphere, persists at
concentrations above 1 ppm for several hours, the time increasing as the initial NO
concentration increased from 5 to 50 ppm. The initial rate of decrease in the NO concentration
is dependent on the initial NO concentration, as was found for the pure gas experiments
(Dowker et al, 2006).
The NO concentration does not reduce monotonically with time and levels off after several
hours. This may be due to competing reactions which generate NO (see Section 4.2).
4.1.7
Analysis of rate of conversion of NO
4.1.7.1
Rate equations
In ambient air, the principal reactions of NO which reduce its concentration are with oxygen and
ozone, with the concomitant formation of nitrogen dioxide and, subsequently, nitrous and nitric
acid by reaction of reactants and products with water vapour (Bostrm, 1993). Thermal
oxidation of NO with oxygen is much slower than with ozone which is much more reactive. In a
tunnel, where ozone levels are typically very low compared to NO levels, in contrast to the
outdoor environment, see for example, Leighton (1961), then the thermal oxidation reaction
dominates. The basic reaction is:
44
2NO + O2 2NO2
(4.1)
This proceeds as a third-order reaction where the rate of NO reaction (equal to the rate of NO2
production) is given by:
Rate = 2k[NO]2[O2]
(4.2)
where k is the rate constant (approximately 7.103 litre2.mole-2.s-1) and [NO] and [O2] are the NO
and oxygen concentrations respectively (Tsukahara et al, 1999). The reaction is therefore
proportional to the square of the NO concentration if the oxygen concentration is assumed to be
constant. When ppm units are used for NO, NO2 and oxygen concentration (strictly not the
concentration but the volume ratio, and in normal air the oxygen concentration is 2.1x105
ppm), then in equation (4.2) above, the rate constant is converted to:
k1 = k (P/RT)2.10-12
(4.3)
where P is the total atmospheric pressure in bar, R is the ideal gas constant (0.0821
litre.bar.mole-1.K-1) and T is the temperature (K). Consequently, at 298 K (25 C)
Rate (ppm.s-1) = 4.92x10-6.[NO]2
(4.4)
The NO reaction rate (or NO2 production rate) as a function of time can be obtained by
integrating equation (4.2), which gives:
[NO]t = 1/{2k[O2]0t + 1/[NO]0}
(4.5)
where [NO]t is the concentration of NO (ppm) at time t (s) and the initial concentration (ppm) is
[NO]0.
This can be rearranged to express the time t:
t = {(f/(1-f)}/(4.92x10-6[NO]0)
(4.6)
at which a fraction f of NO, whose initial concentration (ppm) is [NO]0, has become NO2, where
the definition of f is:
f = [NO2]/ [NO]0
(4.7)
and the concentration of NO remaining after a time t is given by

[NO]t = (1-f) [NO]0
(4.8)
The time required for the conversion of a certain fraction of NO to NO2 (eg the half-life, where f
= 0.5) is inversely proportional to the initial NO concentration and the rate constant.
Figure 4.10 shows the oxidation rate of NO for various initial concentrations using equation 4.5.
45
100
NO concentration (ppm)
100 ppm NO
10
10 ppm NO
1 ppm NO
0.3 ppm NO
0.1
0
10
20
30
40
50
Time (hr)
60
70
80
90
100
Figure 4.10: Rate of reaction of NO with oxygen (20.9%) for various initial NO concentrations
4.1.7.2
Comparison of theory and experiment
Figures 4.11 to 4.13 compare the changes in each of the adjusted NO concentrations in the
diesel fume and air mixes (ie the data from this study), the NO in pure gases N2 and 20.9% O2
mixtures in the cylinder (ie the data from the previous study Dowker et al, 2007) and the
relevant modelled values (from eqn. 4.5 above) over the 24 hour period.
The slight rise shown in the adjusted NO concentrations towards the end of the tests are
probably due to a minor mismatch in the reduction rates between the NO concentrations in the
various mixes and the NO in N2 determined in the tests reported in Appendix 2, causing the
resulting correction factor to be slightly inaccurate as the rate of reduction in NO concentration
reduces.
The adjusted results show the NO2 concentration to increase as the NO concentration decreases
as predicted by theory (Tsukahara et al, 1999). The results show good repeatability in each set
of tests allowing for the slight differences in initial NO concentrations.
Previous investigations into the change in similar concentrations of NO in N2 mixed with 20.9%
O2 in an air-tight cylinder (Dowker et al, 2006) also allow comparisons with these results. As
the curves of the detected NO concentrations of the untreated data in both the diesel fume
experiments and the pure gas experiments are similar, the same relevant correction factors are
applied to the detected NO concentrations in both cases.
The NO2 curves of the untreated data of the diesel fume experiments and the pure gas
experiments are quite different, however. In the diesel fume experiments, the initial NO2
concentration is non-zero and is more than half the initial NO concentration. The NO2
concentration then reduces very quickly. In the pure gas experiments the initial NO2
concentration is zero and rises for 2 to 3 hours before reducing at a much slower rate (Dowker et
al, 2006). This prevents the previously determined correction factors being applied to the pure
gas untreated data. As there is no other way that the inherent effects of the equipment on NO2
46
concentrations in these experiments can be determined, an effective comparison between this

and the treated data from the diesel fume experiments cannot be made.
5.5
Adjusted NO(ppm) 5 ppm NO (Fume) T1
Adjusted NO(ppm) 5 ppm NO (Gas)
Concentrations (ppm)
4.5
Modelled NO (ppm) 5 ppm NO
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Time (hrs)
Figure 4.11: Comparison of change in NO concentrations in 5 ppm NO in diesel fume & air (20.8%
O2) mix, 5 ppm NO in N2 & 20.9% O2 in cylinder mix and modelled value over 24 hours
15
Adjusted NO(ppm) 10 ppm (Fume) NO T1
14
13
Adjusted NO(ppm) 10 ppm NO (Gas) T2
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Time (hrs)
Figure 4.12: Comparison of change in NO concentrations in 10 ppm NO in diesel fume & air
(20.7% O2) mix, 10 ppm NO in N2 & 20.9% O2 in cylinder mix and modelled value over 24 hours
47
55
50

Adjusted NO(ppm) 50 ppm NO (Gas)
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Time (hrs)
Figure 4.13: Comparison of change in NO concentrations in 50 ppm NO in diesel fume & air
(19.7% O2) mix, 50 ppm NO in N2 & 20.9% O2 in cylinder mix and modelled value over 24 hours
The change in NO concentration in the diesel fume experiments and in the pure gas experiments
follow the same trend for each initial NO concentration and reach reasonably comparable
minimum concentrations over the 24 hour period allowing for the slight differences in initial
maximum values. The rate of change in the modelled data is similar to the diesel experiments
but is faster than the pure gas experiments, reaching noticeably lower values over the 24 hour
period, but still follows the same general trend allowing for the slight differences in initial
maximum values. Allowing for the limitations of the experimental set ups, external influences,
and the uncertainties involved in the measurements, the results obtained in all three methods
utilised here are comparable. They all show the trend for (a) the initial NO conversion rate to
increase with initial NO concentration; and (b) the rate to reduce after several hours where the
concentration does not change significantly with time and is at appreciable fraction of the initial
concentration.
Suitable manipulation of equation 4.5 into a linear format of the form:
1/[NO]t = {2k[O2]0}t + 1/[NO]0}
(4.9)
allows the determination of the rate constant, k, from the gradients of the line for each condition
investigated. Plotting a graph of the inverse of the detected NO concentration against time for
each condition should create a straight line graph the gradient of which allows the determination
of the rate constant and the intercept on the vertical axis gives the inverse of the initial NO
concentration.
48
Figures 4.14 to 4.16 show the inverse in each of the adjusted NO concentrations in the diesel
fume & air mixes, the NO in N2 & 20.9% O2 mixes in cylinder and the relevant modelled values
over the 24 hour period.
0.7
Inverse of Adjusted NO(ppm) 5 ppm NO (Fume)
Inverse of Adjusted NO(ppm) 5 ppm NO (Gas)
0.6
Inverse of Modelled NO (ppm) 5 ppm NO
1/Conc = 0.018t+0.20
0.5
1/Conc = 0.015t+0.21
0.4
1/Conc = 0.010t+0.20
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hrs)
Figure 4.14: Comparison of inverse values of change in NO concentrations in 5 ppm NO in diesel

fume & air (20.8% O2) mix, 5 ppm NO in N2 & 20.9% O2 in cylinder mix and modelled value over
24 hours
0.7
Inverse Adjusted NO(ppm) 10 ppm NO (Fume)
0.6
0.5
1/Conc = 0.018t+0.10
1/Conc = 0.019t+0.10
0.4
1/Conc = 0.004t+0.08
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hrs)

24 hours
49
0.7
Inverse Adjusted NO(ppm) 50 ppm NO (Fume)
0.6
1/Conc = 0.018t+0.02
0.5
1/Conc = 0.017t+0.02
0.4
1/Conc = 0.006t+0.02
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hrs)

24 hours
With the exception of the modelled values the graphs only remain as straight lines for around 3
hours after the start of the tests, and then reach a plateau. The gradients and the associated rate
constants are only compared therefore over the first 3 hours of each test and are summarised in
Table 4.2
Table 4.2: Gradients and associated rate constants determined from Figures 4.14 to 4.16
Condition
Diesel fume
Pure NO
Modelled
NOI = 5 ppm
Rate constant
Gradient
k
(2kOI)
(ppm-2 s-1)
(ppm-1 hr-1)
0.015
1.0 10-11
0.010
0.7 10-11
0.018
1.2 10-11
NOI = 10 ppm
Gradient
Rate constant
(2kOI) (ppm-1
k (ppm-2 s-1)
hr-1)
0.019
1.3 10-11
0.004
0.3 10-11
0.018
1.2 10-11
NOI = 50 ppm
Rate constant
Gradient
k (ppm-2 s-1)
(2kOI) (ppm-1
hr-1)
0.017
1.1 10-11
0.006
0.4 10-11
0.018
1.2 10-11
The rate constants determined from the tests using diesel fume are similar to the ideal
modelled rate constant of 1.2 ppm-2s-1 over the first 3 hours of the tests, but those determined
from the tests using pure NO in O2 are not similar over that initial time scale or for any part of
the test duration for 10 and 50 ppm NO. There is a suggestion, however, that for the lowest NO
concentration of 5 ppm, the pure gas rate and the modelled rate are similar over the first hour.
4.1.8
Discussion and Conclusions
All three methods utilised in this investigation (NO in diesel fume mixed with air, pure NO in
N2 mixed with 20.9% O2 and modelling) to determine the changes in NOx over a 24 hour
duration from initial concentrations of 5 ppm, 10 ppm and 50 ppm NO, show comparable results
allowing for the limitations of the experimental set ups, external influences, and the
uncertainties involved in the measurements. The initial rate constants determined using the
diesel exhaust fume for reactions at each concentration are similar to those determined from the
modelled results over the first 3 hours of the tests, but those determined from the tests using
pure NO in O2 are only similar for the lowest NO concentration of 5 ppm.
50
Previous studies on NO conversion from diesel exhaust (Mogan et al, 1979; Smailys and
Strazdauskiene, 2005) also found relatively good agreement between experimental and
calculated rates of conversion of NO. In Mogan et al (1979), initial NO concentrations were
between 25 and 125 ppm generated from a diesel engine test bed sealed in a 50 m3 test cabin.
Initial rates were compared with theory over very short timescales: after 4 min and up to 24
min. The initial rates of NO conversion for both diesel exhaust and pure gases (100 ppm NO)
were similar. Again, the NO concentration was found to level off after an initial fast decrease.
Smailys and Strazdauskiene (2005) confirmed that the reaction of NO with oxygen is slow
compared to the atmosphere where the ozone/NO ratio is much higher. The NO and NO2
analyses were performed using samples and wet chemistry taken from raw diesel exhaust, ie the
combined NO and NO2 (ie NOx) concentrations are of the order of 1000 ppm, much higher than
used in our study. The rate of conversion as expressed by the ratio NO2/NOx was found to
follow the theoretical curve based on the third order reaction (2nd order in NO and 1st order in
oxygen) over a period of at least 3 hours.
Guidance by the Highways Agency (Highways Agency, 1999) on ventilation for tunnels for
road users has been produced which assumes that the initial emission is solely NO and that it
subsequently converts to NO2 with a half-life of 1 week. Using equation 4.6 above, this would
be equivalent to an initial NO concentration of approximately 0.4 ppm. This concentration is
roughly comparable to those recorded in the Hindhead Tunnel as shown in Figs 3.5 and 3.6 in
Section 3.3.2.
4.2
EFFECTS OF OTHER FACTORS ON NO CONVERSION
The rate of conversion of NO is dependent on various factors in addition to the concentrations

of NO and oxygen as expressed in equation 4.2 (Lamont et al, 2008). These include:
temperature, which affects the rate constant k.
presence of other gaseous species, eg water vapour, oxidants other than oxygen, reaction
products other than NO2.
presence of aerosols and other surfaces.
sunlight, a source of UV, which dissociates (ie photolyses) NO2 to form NO.
The rate constant k appears to be slightly negatively dependent on temperature (Tsukahara et al,
1999; Lindqvist et al, 1982). Around ambient temperature, the rate decreases by less than 1%/C
rise. Also, most studies (Tsukahara et al, 1999) agree that the rate constant is independent of
variations in the total pressure, the absolute NO concentration or the NO:O2 ratio (up to a
thousandfold variation).
For water vapour, the majority of laboratory studies (Tsukahara et al, 1999) found that the rate
constant is not affected by humidity (up to 90 %RH). Since water vapour reacts with NO2 but
not with NO, it is expected that the presence of water in NO/O2 reaction systems will shift the
equilibrium (of reaction equation 4.1) towards products such as oxyacids of nitrogen (eg nitrous
and nitric acid) but will not change the rate at which NO is oxidised.
The influence of other factors is relatively unknown. A study (Lindqvist et al, 1982) of NO
conversion in the atmosphere around Gothenburg indicated that the presence of aerosols, at
concentrations likely to be encountered in practice, does not substantially influence the rate of
oxidation of NO. This is possibly in agreement with our study and others (Mogan et al, 1979;
Smailys and Strazdauskiene, 2005) where the NO conversion rate in diesel exhaust, which
contains an appreciable quantity of particulate matter, was similar to the modelled rate
51
developed for pure gases (ie aerosol-free). Street surface materials (salt, snow, road dust) had a
more significant influence, typically increasing the rate by 50% at -2 C (Lindqvist et al, 1982).
Lindqvist et al (1982) also found that sunlight appeared not to affect the rate. However,
laboratory studies using pure gases (Bufalini and Stephens, 1965) irradiated by UV, showed that
the simple second order rate expression does not adequately describe the system. The inclusion
of a rate equation for the photolysis of NO2 (ie its conversion into NO by reaction with UV
radiation) explained the slowing down of the NO thermal oxidation rate in the later stages of the
reaction when sufficient NO2 has been formed, due to the regeneration of NO from NO2.
4.3
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. NO in tunnels should be measured directly rather than being inferred from measured NO2
concentrations as it converts into NO2 only slowly, in the absence of ozone, and appears to
reach a steady-state concentration after several hours.
2. Adequate estimations of the conversion rate of NO to NO2 in air contaminated with diesel
exhaust, in the absence of ozone, can be obtained through the modelled rate equation based
on pure gases for up to approximately 8 hours for NO concentrations up to 10 ppm but for
4 hours at 50 ppm NO. After this time the NO concentration remains relatively constant.
3. The calculations of NO conversion rates in air-diluted diesel fume (and in pure gases)
require the use of correction factors due in part to the use of electrochemical NO sensors
which consumed a small quantity of gas. The use of a non-destructive analyser such as
Fourier Transform InfraRed (FTIR) for NO would reduce some of the uncertainty in
conversion rate estimation, although correction for adsorption on the reaction chamber
walls would still be necessary.
52
Sun 22nd Jun
Sat 21st Jun
13:00:51
01:00:51
13:00:51
01:00:51
Sat 7th Jun
13:00:51
Sun 8th Jun 01:00:51
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Mon 9th Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Tue 10th Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Wed 11th Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Thu 12th Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Fri 13th Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Sat 14th Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Sun 15th Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Mon 16th Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Tue 17th Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Wed 18th Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Thu 19th Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Fri 20th Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Sat 21st Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Sun 22nd Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Mon 23rd Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Tue 24th Jun 01:00:51
Thur 5th Jun
Fri 6th Jun
Detected Dust Concentration (mg/m^3)
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Fri 20th Jun
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Thu 19th Jun
Wed 18th Jun
Tue 17th Jun
Mon 16th Jun
Sun 15th Jun
Sat 14th Jun
Fri 13th Jun
Thu 12th Jun
Wed 11th Jun
Tue 10th Jun
Mon 9th Jun
Sun 8th Jun
13:00:23
01:00:23
13:00:23
01:00:23
13:00:23
01:00:23
13:00:23
01:00:23
13:00:23
01:00:23
13:00:23
01:00:23
13:00:23
01:00:23
13:00:23
01:00:23
13:00:23
01:00:23
13:00:23
01:00:23
13:00:23
01:00:23
13:00:23
01:00:23
13:00:23
01:00:23
13:00:23
01:00:23
13:00:23
01:00:23
13:00:23
01:00:23
13:00:23
01:00:23
13:00:23
5.1
Sat 7th Jun
Thur 5th Jun

Fri 6th Jun
5
APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1: DUST CONCENTRATIONS
Figures 5.1 to 5.3 show the respirable dust concentrations logged in the internal memory of the
blue, orange and red PDRs located 100 m, 170 m and 295 m respectively from the blast face
over the 20 day duration of the investigation.
Blue PDR (mg/m)
Figure 5.1: Peak concentrations of dust caused by explosions detected 100 m from face over 20 day
period (by blue PDR)
Orange PDR (mg/m^3)
Figure 5.2: Peak concentrations of dust caused by explosions detected 170 m from face over 20 day
period (by orange PDR)
53
Red PDR (mg/m)
Tue 24th Jun
Mon 23rd Jun
Sun 22nd Jun
Sat 21st Jun
Fri 20th Jun
Thu 19th Jun
Wed 18th Jun
Tue 17th Jun
Mon 16th Jun
Sun 15th Jun
Sat 14th Jun
Fri 13th Jun
Thu 12th Jun
Wed 11th Jun
Tue 10th Jun
Mon 9th Jun
Sun 8th Jun
Sat 7th Jun
Thur 5th Jun

Fri 6th Jun
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 5.3: Peak concentrations of dust caused by explosions detected

295 m from face over 20 day period (by red PDR)
The 1 second data from the dataloggers shown in Tables 5.2 and 5.3 allows a more accurate
analysis of the data from the blue and orange PDRs, while due to the problems with the
connection between the red PDR and its associated Antilog the data shown in Table 5.4 is taken
from the 2 min data from the memory of the red PDR.
These data were analysed using the parameters defined in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Definition of parameters by which the data obtained in the tunnel were analysed
Parameter
Definition
Detection delay
Time between blast occurrence and time at which the associated
respirable dust concentrations rose above 1 mg/m3 at predetermined
distances along the tunnel
Peak width > 1 mg/m3*
Time for which respirable dust concentration is above 1 mg/m3 after
each blast at predetermined distances along the tunnel
Peak Value
The maximum concentration of respirable dust after each blast at
predetermined distances along the tunnel
Background Concentration
The concentration of respirable dust due to effects other than the
immediate effects of the blasts at predetermined distances along the
tunnel
54
Table 5.2: Detection times, peak widths and concentrations of respirable dust taken from 1 s data
recorded 100 m from face (in Antilog 4 from blue PDR)
Date
Time
Thu 05/06/08
Fri 06/06/08
Sun 08/06/08
Mon 09/06/08
14:29
06:42
13:29
12:20
22:06
11:04
22:37
11:50
23:06
10:55
22:19
10:56
13:00
18:14
14:01
07:15
22:54
15:11
09:10
08:22
03:34
Tue 10/06/08
Wed 11/06/08
Thur 12/06/08
Fri 13/06/08
Sun 15/06/08
Mon 16/06/08
Tue 17/06/08
Wed 18/06/08
Thurs19/06/08
Fri 20/06/08
Mon 23/06/08
Tue 24/06/08
Average Values
Explosive
wt (kg)
102
79
70.6
72.2
66.2
65.8
65.0
62.8
63.8
63.4
63.6
63.4
66.0
83.2
76.6
72.4
76.8
86.4
84.0
88.6
73.6
= 10.8
Peak Value
(mg/m3)
112.9
148.5
86.7
47.1
84.9
34.3
35.1
47.3
64.4
31.5
29.8
67.4
22.6
8.9
50.6
72.6
85.3
47.2
31.6
104.4
no data
60.7
= 34.9
Detection delay
(m:ss)
6:56
8:15
6:34
9:00
7:00
7:35
6:38
6:57
7:11
7:46
7:38
7:59
8:48
9:31
8:37
7:07
6:57
8:21
9:59
7:49
no data
7:50
= 0:58
Peak width
(mm:ss)
13:41
26:56
25:55
26:53
26:36
24:20
17:37
20:03
20:24
26:40
35:31
17:23
24:16
35:42
19:04
15:38
16:55
17:32
19:53
26:30
no data
22:52
= 06:06
Table 5.3: Detection times, peak widths and concentrations of respirable dust taken from 1 s data
recorded 170 m from face (in Antilog 5 from orange PDR)
Date
Time
Thu 05/06/08
Fri 06/06/08
Sun 08/06/08
Mon 09/06/08
14:29
06:42
13:29
12:20
22:06
11:04
22:37
11:50
23:06
10:55
22:19
10:56
13:00
18:14
14:01
07:15
22:54
15:11
09:10
08:22
03:34
Tue 10/06/08
Wed 11/06/08
Thur 12/06/08
Fri 13/06/08
Sun 15/06/08
Mon 16/06/08
Tue 17/06/08
Wed 18/06/08
Thurs19/06/08
Fri 20/06/08
Mon 23/06/08
Tue 24/06/08
Average Values
Explosive
wt (kg)
102
79
70.6
72.2
66.2
65.8
65.0
62.8
63.8
63.4
63.6
63.4
66.0
83.2
76.6
72.4
76.8
86.4
84.0
72.8
= 10.5
Peak Values
(mg/m3)
110.0
99.3
94.4
66.4
81.1
40.6
41.4
42.3
65.6
33.2
35.3
51.0
21.5
16.5
50.9
66.0
76.6
66.8
52.8
no data
no data
58.5
= 25.8
55
Detection delay
(m:ss)
8:18
9:58
7:40
9:27
8:11
8:48
8:02
8:36
8:51
9:09
9:12
9:59
10:26
10:46
9:07
8:38
8:27
9:08
9:49
no data
no data
9:05
= 0:50
Peak width
(mm:ss)
16:22
32:39
36:52
29:00
28:00
27:05
19:32
20:59
22:22
29:05
36:25
20:18
25:34
51:02
23:28
18:10
18:48
21:06
24:46
no data
no data
26:24
= 08:24
Table 5.4: Detection times, peak widths and concentrations of respirable dust taken from 2 min data
recorded 295 m from face (in internal memory of red PDR)
Date
Time
Thu 05/06/08
Fri 06/06/08
Sun 08/06/08
Mon 09/06/08
14:29
06:42
13:29
12:20
22:06
11:04
22:37
11:50
23:06
10:55
22:19
10:56
13:00
18:14
14:01
07:15
22:54
15:11
09:10
08:22
03:34
Tue 10/06/08
Wed 11/06/08
Thur 12/06/08
Fri 13/06/08
Sun 15/06/08
Mon 16/06/08
Tue 17/06/08
Wed 18/06/08
Thurs19/06/08
Fri 20/06/08
Mon 23/06/08
Tue 24/06/08
Average Values
Explosive
wt (kg)
102
79
70.6
72.2
66.2
65.8
65.0
62.8
63.8
63.4
63.6
63.4
66.0
83.2
76.6
72.4
76.8
86.4
84.0
88.6
73.6
= 10.8
Peak Value
(mg/m3)
56.6
69.9
42.0
32.8
40.3
20.9
19.1
21.5
29.3
17.0
16.2
23.5
11.5
8.3
27.0
30.7
36.9
36.5
27.6
45.2
no data
30.6
= 15.2
Detection delay
(mm:ss)
11:06
14:06
11:06
14:06
12:06
13:06
12:06
12:06
13:06
13:06
14:06
14:06
15:06
16:06
13:06
13:06
12:06
13:06
14:36
14:06
no data
13:17
= 01:17
Peak width
(mm:ss)
22:00
44:00
56:00
32:00
30:00
28:00
22:00
30:00
28:00
30:00
35:00
21:30
25:00
37:00
25:00
21:00
23:00
24:00
26:30
30:00
no data
29:30
= 8:32
The peak concentrations of respirable dust reaching the blue PDR (positioned 100 m from the
face) and the orange PDR (positioned 170 m from the face) show no distance dependence, the
average values over the entire number of explosions of 60.7 mg/m3 and 58.5 mg/m3 respectively
being comparable within the tolerances of the experimental set up. The lack of temporal
resolution prevents useful comparison with the intensity of the concentration data stored in the
internal memory of the red PDR.
After an explosion the average duration for which the concentration of respirable dust 100 m
from the face was above 1 mg/m3 was 23 min ( = 6 min), while the average duration for which
the concentration of respirable dust 170 m from the face was above 1 mg/m3 was 27.5 min ( =
8.5 min). This suggests that the dust packet has increased in length between the 2 sensor
positions of 100 m and 170 m from the face, which would be expected to cause a reduction in
concentration along that length, which the small reduction evident from the data does not
support. However, unlike the NOx which must originate from the blast face, dust may be picked
up by the ventilating air from all along the tunnel, which could explain the comparable
concentrations detected at both positions.
The average time for which the concentration of respirable dust 100 m from the face was above
1 mg/m3 (23 min) is around a quarter of that for which the concentration of NO was above 1
ppm (94 min), around a half of that for which the concentration of NO was above 5 ppm (44
min) and the NO2 was above 1 ppm (40 min), and one and a quarter times longer than that for
which the concentration of NO2 was above 5 ppm (18 min). The concentrations of dust,
therefore, show neither temporal nor quantitive relationships.
The average time delay between the explosion and the initial detection (> 1 mg/m3) of the
respirable dust by the PDR positioned 100 m away was approximately 8 min ( = 1 min), and
56
by the PDR positioned 170 m away was approximately 9 min ( = 1 min). For the respirable
dust to travel 100 m in 8 min and 170 m in 9 min estimating a plug flow it will travel with a
velocity of 0.21 m/s ( = 0.03 m/s) and 0.3 m/s ( = 0.03 m/s) respectively which constitutes
approximate flow rates of 2.2 m3/s ( = 0.03 m/s) and 3.3 m3/s ( = 0.03 m/s) respectively in
the tunnel with a cross sectional area of 10.5 m2. The flow rate should be constant along the
tunnel and the velocity should be constant for a tunnel of consistent volume. The lack of a time
stamp at the end of the investigation prior to switching the instrument off, the tolerances in the
initial measurements, inconsistencies in the tunnel dimensions along the length and the
irregularly timed increase in tunnel length by 30 m over the 20 day duration of the investigation
may account for the discrepancies in the velocities and flow rates at each of the 2 sensor
positions. These delay times and associated air velocities and flow rates compare well with the
delay times (7 min) and associated air velocities (0.24 m/s) and flow rates (2.5 m3/s) observed
from the NOx data taken from the green MultiRAE allowing for the uncertainties in the set up
and are again much less than the values stated by the tunnel engineers of an extraction air
velocity in the tunnel of 0.9 m/s and an air flow rate of 20 m3/s.
It can also be seen from the dust concentrations detected in this part of the investigations that
neither the intensities nor widths of the peaks caused by the explosions are dependent on the
weight of the explosive used.
3
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Blue PDR (mg/m)
Thur 5th Jun

Fri 6th Jun
13:00:51
01:00:51
13:00:51
Sat 7th Jun
01:00:51
13:00:51
Sun 8th Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Mon 9th Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Tue 10th Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Wed 11th Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Thu 12th Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Fri 13th Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Sat 14th Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Sun 15th Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Mon 16th Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Tue 17th Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Wed 18th Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Thu 19th Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Fri 20th Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Sat 21st Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Sun 22nd Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Mon 23rd Jun 01:00:51
13:00:51
Tue 24th Jun 01:00:51
The background concentrations of respirable dust at each position in the tunnel over the 20 day
period are shown in Figures 5.4 to 5.6.
Figure 5.4: Background concentration of dust detected 100 m from face over 20 day period (by
blue PDR)
57
58
Tue 24th Jun
Mon 23rd Jun
Sun 22nd Jun
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
13:00:06
01:00:06
3
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Sat 21st Jun
Fri 20th Jun
Thu 19th Jun
Wed 18th Jun
Tue 17th Jun
Mon 16th Jun
Sun 15th Jun
Sat 14th Jun
Fri 13th Jun
Thu 12th Jun
Wed 11th Jun
Tue 10th Jun
Mon 9th Jun
Sun 8th Jun
Sat 7th Jun
Thur 5th Jun

Fri 6th Jun
13:00:23
01:00:23
13:00:23
Sat 7th Jun
01:00:23
13:00:23
01:00:23
Sun 8th Jun
13:00:23
Mon 9th Jun
01:00:23
13:00:23
Tue 10th Jun 01:00:23
13:00:23
Wed 11th Jun 01:00:23
13:00:23
Thu 12th Jun 01:00:23
13:00:23
Fri 13th Jun
01:00:23
13:00:23
Sat 14th Jun 01:00:23
13:00:23
Sun 15th Jun 01:00:23
13:00:23
Mon 16th Jun 01:00:23
13:00:23
Tue 17th Jun 01:00:23
13:00:23
Wed 18th Jun 01:00:23
13:00:23
Thu 19th Jun 01:00:23
13:00:23
Fri 20th Jun
01:00:23
13:00:23
01:00:23
Sat 21st Jun
13:00:23
Sun 22nd Jun 01:00:23
13:00:23
Thur 5th Jun
Fri 6th Jun

3
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Orange PDR (mg/m^3)
orange PDR)
Red PDR (mg/m)
red PDR)
The average background dust concentrations are shown in Table 5.5. These are calculated from
the PDR data and appear to be reasonably constant at all three positions in the tunnel. The peak
concentrations caused by the blasts are excluded by allowing for average peak width times for
dust concentrations above 1 mg/m3 (30 mins) taken from Tables 5.2 to 5.4 from the initial
detection time after each blast.
.
Table 5.5 Background concentrations of dust over 20 day detected at each position in tunnel by PDRs
Dist from Face (m)
PDR
Concentration
(mg/m3)
100
Blue
0.2
= 0.3
170
Orange
0.3
= 0.5
295
Red
0.3
= 0.5
59
5.2
APPENDIX 2: DETERMINATION OF CORRECTION FACTORS
Determination of correction factors to allow for inherent effects on the changes in NOx
concentrations due to the combined effects of adsorption onto the inner surface of the airtight
glass vessel and the small fraction of conversion by the sensors, ie the reactant gas consumed by
the electrode to generate the measurement current.
These investigations were performed in a fume cupboard in the HSL, Buxton.
A MultiRAE was placed inside the airtight glass vessel and a small fan was included to ensure
good mixing of the NO and N2. 5 ppm, 10 ppm and 50 ppm concentrations of NO in N2, and
NO2 in air were in turn made to flow through the airtight glass vessel until the ambient air was
flushed out and the required NO or NO2 concentrations were achieved and were seen to be
constant. The airtight glass vessel was then sealed by closing the inlet and outlet ports and the
changes in NOx concentrations with time monitored over 24 hours.
Figures 5.7 and 5.8 show the changes on NO and NO2 respectively in the airtight glass vessel
over a 24 hour period after the inlet and outlet ports had been closed.
55
51.6
Detected Concentrations NO (ppm)
50
50.4
45
40.2
40
38.2
35
5 ppm NO Test 1 (ppm)

30
25
20
10.6
15
6.7
6.4
10.5
10
5.1
5
2.6
2.5
4.7
0
0
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hrs)
Figure 5.7: Changes in 5 ppm, 10 ppm and 50 ppm concentrations of NO in N2 over 24 hours in
the airtight cylinder
The changes in the NO concentration from each starting concentration shown in Figure 5.7 can
be approximated to a linear function, allowing the correction factor in each case to be
determined by calculated the average rate of change. The resulting correction factors are
therefore calculated as:
For initial concentration of 5 ppm NO, correction factor is 0.1 ppm/hr
60
These correction factors must be multiplied by the times of the data samples and added to the
concentration detected at that sample time.
55
5 ppm NO2 Test 1 (ppm)

Detected Concentrations NO2 (ppm)
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (hrs)
Figure 5.8: Changes in 5 ppm, 10 ppm and 50 ppm concentrations of NO2 in air over 24 hours in
the airtight cylinder
The changes in the NO2 concentration from each starting concentration shown in Figure 5.8
cannot be approximated to any simple function. It was therefore necessary to determine the
fractional change in detected concentration from the initial concentration at each data point in
the data set for each of the initial concentrations of NO2 in air. This same fractional change
must then be applied to the corresponding initial concentrations of the NO2 in diesel fume
mixes, at each data point and added to the detected concentration of NO2 at that point.
61
REFERENCES
Bostrom C-E (1993). Nitrogen oxides in ambient air properties, sources and concentrations.
Scand. J. Environ. Health, 19, suppl. 2, 9-13.
BTS (2008). www.britishtunnelling.org.uk (accessed 2008).
Bufalini J.J. and Stephens E.R. (1965). The thermal oxidation of nitric oxide in the presence of
ultraviolet light. Int. J. Air Wat. Poll. 9, 123-128.
Dowker K.P., Fletcher B. and Ledin S., (2007). Real Time Monitoring and Environmental Fate
of Oxides of Nitrogen in the Construction Industry, HSL Report No.RR546.
Highways (2008). www.highways.gov.uk/roads/projects/3832.aspx. (accessed 2008).
Highways Agency (1999). Design Manual for roads and bridges. Vol. 2. Section 2. Part 9,
BD78/79 Design of road tunnels. Chapter 5 Ventilation. (1999) http://www.archive2.officialdocuments.co.uk/document/deps/ha/dmrb/vol2/sect2/bd7899b.pdf.
Lamont D., Walsh P., Dowker P. and Hoyland P., (2008). UK response to changes in exposure
limits for nitrogen monoxide. Proc. World Tunnel Congress-2008, 22-24 Sep, Agra, India.
Leighton P.A., (1961). Photochemistry of Air Pollution, Academic Press, New York.
Lindqvist O., Ljungstrm E. and Svensson R., (1982). Low temperature thermal oxidation of
nitric oxide in polluted air. Atmospheric Environment 16, 1957-1972.
Mogan J.P., Stewart D.B. and Dainty E D., (1979). Oxidation of the nitric oxide fraction of
diluted diesel exhaust. Canadian J. Chem. Engineering. 57, 378-380.
Oregon Scientific (2008). www.oregonscientific.com (accessed 2008).
Powerland (2008). www.powerland.co.uk (accessed 2008).
Smailys V. and Strazdauskiene R., (2005). NO conversion in wet samples of raw diesel exhaust
gas. Environmental Research Engineering and Management (Lithuania). No. 4 (34), 97-100.
Thermo (2008). www.thermo.com (accessed 2008).
Trolex (2008). www.trolex.com (accessed 2008).
Tsukahara H., Ishida T. and Mayumi M., (1999). Gas-Phase Oxidation of Nitric Oxide:
Chemical Kinetics and Rate Constant. NITRIC OXIDE: Biology and Chemistry 3,191-198.
United Power (2008). www.unitedpower.en.alibaba.com (accessed 2008).
Wessex Water (2008). www.wessexwater.co.uk/about/threecol.aspx?id=148 (accessed 2008).
Published by the Health and Safety Executive
12/09
Health and Safety

Executive

Exposure to oxides of nitrogen (NOx which denotes
the mixture of nitrogen monoxide, NO, and nitrogen
dioxide, NO2) commonly arises in the tunnelling
industry from diesel engine exhaust emissions and
from the use of explosives. The British Tunnelling
Society (BTS) guidance levels for NO are 5 ppm for
an 8 hour time weighted average (TWA) and 15 ppm
for a 15 minute short term exposure limit (STEL).
Real-time monitors are used by the construction
industry as they provide a means of checking that
controls are effective. Previous laboratory work
at HSL evaluated various commercial detectors
potentially suitable as portable monitors and studied
the conversion rate of NO to NO2 in air using
pure gases (ie NO and air). This current project
investigated:
1 the field use of NO and NO2 monitors in a
small sewer tunnel under construction to assist the
determination and application of effective controls
in order to maintain a safe working environment.
Furthermore, a large road tunnel under construction
was visited to study the fixed NO monitoring system
installed there.
2
the conversion rate of NO to NO2 using airdiluted diesel exhaust.
This report and the work it describes were funded
by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE). Its
contents, including any opinions and/or conclusions
expressed, are those of the authors alone and do
not necessarily reflect HSE policy.
RR757
www.hse.gov.uk

Rr757 Gasses in Tunnels TT

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Health and Safety

Real-time measurement of nitrogen

Health and Safety

Real-time measurement of nitrogen

the conversion rate of NO to NO2 using air-diluted diesel exhaust.

Crown copyright 2009

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Licensing Division, Her Majestys Stationery Office,

St Clements House, 2-16 Colegate, Norwich NR3 1BQ

2 BRISTOL TUNNEL MONITORING............................................................. 2

3 HINDHEAD ROAD TUNNEL VISIT .......................................................... 30

4 RATE OF REACTION OF NOX IN DIESEL EXHAUST FUME ................. 38

BRISTOL TUNNEL MONITORING

THE SEWER TUNNEL

MONITORING OF OXIDES OF NITROGEN IN DIESEL FUME AND

Brown RAE NO(ppm)

Detected Concentrations NOx

Detected Concentrations NOx

Blue RAE NO(ppm)

BACKGROUND MONITORING OF OXIDES OF NITROGEN IN THE

Figure 2.4: Cage containing a Tiny Tag, a MultiRAE and an Antilog

Visit 1: 05/06/08 24/06/08 (20 days)

Table 2.3: Instrument location along the tunnel

Figure 2.5: The tunnel and the instrument cages

Table 2.4: Explosion times and weight of explosive used

Thur 5th Jun 13:01

Detected Concentration (ppm) .

Thur 5th Jun 13:01

Detected Concentration (ppm) .

Detected Concentrations (ppm)

Linear (NO (ppm))

Detected Concentration (ppm)

Temperature and Humidity

Visit 2: 06/10/08 15/10/08 (10 days)

Mon 6th Oct 13:18:00

Detected Concentration (ppm)

Tue 14th Oct

Mon 13th Oct

Sun 12th Oct

Sat 11th Oct

Fri 10th Oct

Thu 9th Oct

Wed 8th Oct

Tue 7th Oct

Mon 6th Oct 13:18:00

Detected Concentration (ppm)

NOx Concentrations Detected

Wed 15th Oct

Tue 14th Oct

Mon 13th Oct

Sun 12th Oct

Sat 11th Oct

Fri 10th Oct

Thu 9th Oct

Wed 8th Oct

Tue 7th Oct

Mon 6th Oct 13:18:00

Detected Concentration (ppm)

Mon 6th Oct 13:18:00